Deviation of Historical Period Grammatical Deviation

Table 3. Examples of NP Displacement. No. Examples of NP Displacement Author 1. Can’t myself let off this fiction. “You don’t exist. Robert Creeley, ‘Echo of ’ 2. Baby , you’re dead.” Robert Creeley, ‘Echo of Both of the examples are also taken from the collected poems of Robert Creeley 2006. Obviously, Nps are placed in wrong position and as what Thoms, G. said that this Np distribution can affect the meaning of the sentence semantically. In example no.1, the structure of the sentnce should be S+Aux+V+O, but that sentence switch the object as Np myself with the verb let . This part of poem is quite interesting because Robert does not write that way because of the rhyme. In example no. 2, since Thoms, G. 2010: 39 categorised it into Np displacement, so the sentence should be you’re dead baby which means that the speaker is saying to someone that heshe is already dead; it might be a physically or mentally dead. However, the expression can also mean that the persona is addressing to somebody close to him. 3 AP Displacement According to Thoms, G. 2010: 49, adjectival phrases APs have more restricted distributions than NPs and PPs, and there are fewer operations for moving APs than for NPs and PPs. Table 4. Examples of AP Displacement. No. Examples of AP Displacement Author 1. In the apartment fallen The tree began to take root. John Ashbery, ‘To The Same Degree’ 2. It is the surface black which attacks the shape, Bending it to its present uses. John Ashbery, ‘The Thousand Islands’ Through example no.1, it is acceptable to interpret fallen as a modifier of the tree where the tree has just fallen, even though the reality of a tree taking root after it has fallen is somewhat strange. The deviation in those examples is seen through Aps displacement, fallen and black which somehow can make ambigous interpretation, especially in the word fallen. The sentence should be In the apartment, the fallen tree began to take root and It is the black surface which attacks the shape, bending it to its present uses. 4 Adverb Displacement Thoms, G. 2010: 57 states that it often happens that adverbs are restricted to appear in specific positions related to other elements in a sentence. This adverb displacement also happens in many poems. Table 5. Examples of Adverb Displacement. No. Examples of Adverb Displacement Author 1. Some secret truths, from Learned Pride conceal’d, To Maids alone and Children are reveal’d: ‘The Rape of the Lock’ by Alexander Pope, in Pope 1966: 88-109 2. With tender Billet-doux he lights the pyre, And breathes three am’rous sighs to raise the fire. Then prostrate falls, and begs with ardent eyes Soon to obtain, and long possess the prize. ‘The Rape of the Lock’ by Alexander Pope, in Pope 1966: 88-109 In 1, the adverb alone appears in the wrong place because it is put nearby Maids. However, it should be put after the word reveal’d as alone should explain how maids and children revealed. Therefore, it seems that the adverb has been displaced from its natural position to the right of Children. In structural terms, the sentences should be Some secret truths, from Learned Pride conceal’d, To Maids and Children are reveal’d alone: In 2, the adverb soon appears in a position coming first from to infinitive, but the adverb is interpreted as if it is modifying the verb obtain, and in such cases, it should appear between to and obtain. The sentence is quite confusing because both obtain and possess share the object prize, but it seems clear that soon only modifies obtain. 5 Subject Displacement According to Thoms, G. 2010: 60, this kind of displacement has been analysed and assumed that it happens in poetry constantly. However, there are also examples where the subject itself has been displaced from its standard sentence-initial position to some other position. Table 6. Examples of Subject Displacement. No. Examples of Subject Displacement Author 1. Already see you a degraded Toast, And all your Honour in a Whisper lost ‘The Rape of the Lock’ by Alexander Pope, in Pope 1966: 88-109 2. And out over the park where crawled roadsters The apricot and purple clouds were And our blood flowed down the grating [. . . ] John Ashbery, ‘Two Sonnets’ 1997: 71 originally appeared in The Tennis Court Oath. In 1, the subject you appears to the right of the verb see; it indicates that the subject has been displaced rightward. The sentence should be You already see a degraded Toast, and all your honour in a Whisper lost ln 2. The example no.2 has a similar case with no.1 in which the subject displacement is also in the rightward, so roadsters should be moved after the word where as the normal structure of that sentence is Adv of place+Aux+S+V+OC. Moreover, according to Leech 2010 and Miyata 2007: 12, multiple negation, inversion, and enumeration are also kinds of syntactic deviation. 6 Multiple Negation According to Leech in Sadoon, 2010: 6, the most obvious examples of grammatical deviations are where a poet or a writer uses the double negative, the double comparative and the double superlative. In Old and Middle English, the idea of negation was often expressed several times a single sentence, as in the following example : I will never do nothing no more Brook, 1977:146. Sadoon, M. 2010: 6 also conclude that writers or poets deviate from grammatical rules by combining two ways of expressing comparison: the addition of suffixes and the use of the separate words more and most. 7 Inversion Anne Breadstreet 2010: 5 states that inversion is often used to make a poem’s rhyme to maintain fixed meter. For example, In silent night when rest I took For sorrow near I did not look I wakened was with thund’ring noise And piteous shrieks of dreadful voice That poem is written by Anne Breadstrees July,1966, and it shows clearly that it contains inversion in the last part of each line to make it rhymed. In standard structure, the sentence should be “ In silent night when I took rest, sorrow near I did not look for.” I was wakened with thund’ring noise and piteous shrieks of dreadful voice ”. b Author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations. According to Langston Hughes Poems: Study Guide 1994, he made a study guide to make the readers easily understand what his poems tell about. He categorized it into several topics as like general them the poems. They are: 1 to show jazz music that express as sorrow and loneliness, 2 to portray American dream, 3 to show African- American’s struggle, 4 to depict racism in America, 5 to face difficulty wisely, 6 to show self-actualization, and 7 to show the other problems faced by African-American. Those topics became the second objective of this study to see the author’s purposes wrote The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes using syntactic deviations.

4. Standard English and Non-Standard English

There are many definitions of standard English. According to Guth and Schuster 1970: 198, standard English is the language that is used in formal places and situations i.e. school, university, office, law, business, and government. Moreover, Hornby 1987: 285 says that standard English is language only used by king, queen and educated people. Along with Trudgill 1983: 18, standard English is usully taught in school and to non-native speakers who learn the language. Then, he also confirms that standard English has arranged the standard rules for grammar and vocabulary and it has been accepted. Those definitions lead to a conclusion that standard English is one of varieties of English which has accepted vocabulary and grammar and it is normally used in schools and in formal circumstances such as government and institutions. Finch 2000: 211 states that as a variety of English, standard English is claimed not as a dialect since it has a national status and non-regional characters. It means that standard English in every country has the same characters i.e. pronounciation, spelling, vocabulary, and syntax. Standard English is always contrasted to non-standard English. The difference between the two are easily noticed. Some examples below are the features of non-standard english Guth and Schuster in Supriyadi, 1970: 25 : a. Verb forms : he don’t, you was, I seen b. Pronoun forms : hisslef, theirself c. Connectives : without he pays the rent, an account of she was sick d. Double negatives : we don’t have no time, never hurt nobody e. Vocabulary : nowhereas, nohow In summary, Standard English is a kind of English which is normally used in formal settings. The differences between standard English and non-standard English are easily noticed because the former has arranged the standard rule for grammar, vocabulary, and spelling which are usually put in dictionaries. Since there is standard English, there is also non-standard English. Guth and Schuster 1970: 198 say that most of Americans speak non-standard English at home and in the office. The vocabulary and grammar between standard Englsih and non- standard english are the same but different in the forms and constructions that are used in daily speech.

5. African-American Vernacular English

African-American vernacular English is also called as Black English, ebonics, etc. According to Jirka 2006: 1, Black English appears among slaves in the southern colonies in the 17th and 18th centuries, and moved to northern cities during migrations beginning in the early 20 th century. Then, some experts say that Black English is also related to pidgin and creole. Holmes 2001: 81 states that a pidgin is a language which has no native speakers and it develops as a mean of communication between two people or more who do not have common language. A pidgin that has acquaired native speaker is called as creole Holmes, 2001: 86. In other words, a creole is a pidgin that has been learned by children as their first language and used in a wide range of field. Strevers 1978: 38 explains that negro slaves in the USA used dialect as a secret language. Holmes 2001: 93 confirms that the dialect developed its origin from plantation Creole. Furthermore, Bollinger and Sears 1981: 98 say that Black English has its historical basis on the African pidgin in the slave trade. There are also some experts who say that Black English is a decreolized dialect since Black English has its roots in the different language Trans-Atlantic but need to communicate with each other as well as their defeater. Thus, some pidgins became a fully developed creole language Jirka, 2006: 8. He states that Black English started as a Creole. Therefore, it still has the quality of a Creole. Even though it had been modified to resemble the standard American English, it would always appear differently. That conclusion implies that there are differences between English spoken by whites and by blacks in the USA. However, the differnces are not always seen wisely as Trudgill 1983: 153 states that English spoken by African-American was often considered to be lowered and it was the deviation of standard English.

6. Langston Hughes and The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes

a. Langston Hughes Hughes’ family background is an important thing to be disccussed because it affects what he writes in his collected poem since family is the first place he lives with and everything he experinces and feels, and he pours it into his poems. As we can see, Langston’s skin is black and it identifies him as a black American. However, actually his great-grandfather from his father is a white slave and his maternal grandmother named Marry Patterson is a mixed race which is African- American, French, England, and native American. Thus, it is why he gets two- raced blood white and black. Langston Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri. His mother is Mercer Langston and his father is James Nathaniel Hughes. They lived in a small town in Midwestern, but then his parents decided to divorce. He was raised by his maternal grandmother, Marry Patterson Langston in Lawrence, Kansas. He spent most of his childhood in Lawrence. After his grandmother died, he lived with family friends for two years. Then, he lived with his mother who married again in Ohio. He grew up and studied in Lincoln University, a historically black university in Pennsylvania. Then, he started to write collected poems there. In short, he died in May 22, 1967 from complications after abdominal surgery, related to prostate cancer, at the age of 65. His ashes are put in the Schomburg Center for research in Black Culture in Harlem, and the entrance to an ausitorium is his name. b. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes James Mercer Langston Hughes was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and comunist. He composes 868 poems and divided them into five decades. He was one of the earliest innovators of the new literary art called jazz poetry. He is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance. “The Negro was in vogue” is a famous period he writes that was paraphrased as “When Harlem was in vogue”. All his poems are arranged in order and edited by Arnold Rampersad and David Roessel. All of the poems 860 were published by the writer during his lifetime based on the date and place of publication for each poem. He is best known for his poems about African life, and he was also a political poet who was paid for radical views. This poem was written at the time of Harlem Renaissance where it was the name given to the cultural, social, and artistic explosion that took place in Harlem,