A Thesis on ENGLISH READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS BASED ON CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF PANGUDI LUHUR I JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL YOGYAKARTA
ENGLISH READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
BASED ON CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACH
FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF PANGUDI LUHUR I
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL YOGYAKARTA
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
By: Galih Kusumo
Student Number: 02 1214 095
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2007
A Thesis on ENGLISH READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS BASED ON CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACH FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF PANGUDI LUHUR I JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL YOGYAKARTA
By Galih Kusumo
Student Number: 021214095 Approved by:
Major sponsor
C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. August 18, 2007 Co-sponsor
A Thesis On
ENGLISH READING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
BASED ON CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING APPROACH
FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE STUDENTS OF PANGUDI LUHUR I
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL YOGYAKARTA
By
Galih Kusumo
Student Number: 021214095
Defended before the Board of Examiners on August 27, 2007 and Declared Acceptable Board of ExaminersChairperson Ag. Hardi Prasetyo, S.Pd., M.A. ......................
Secretary Drs. P.G. Purba, M.Pd. ......................
Members C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. …………….. Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd. …………….. F.X. OudaTeda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. ......................Yogyakarta, August 27, 2007 Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma Univeristy Dean,
It’s just your doubts that bind you, just drop those thought behind By All American Reject I dedicate this thesis for my family, my girlfriends and my friends
STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis which I wrote does not contain the works or part of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotations and bibliography, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, August 18, 2007 The writer,
Galih Kusumo
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to thank my almighty Lord Jesus Christ for being always at my side during my life and never leaving me even for a second. He gives me light when I am in the dark; He gives direction when I am lost; and He encourages me when I stop hoping. His love helps me to finish this thesis and to obtain my “Sarjana Pedidikan Degree”.
My deep gratitude goes to C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd., my major sponsor, for her patience, support, encouragement, guidance and contribution of ideas in helping me finish my thesis. At the same time, my gratitude goes to
Christina Kristiyani S.Pd. M.Pd. my co-sponsor, for her guidance, criticisms,
and suggestions even when she is busy.My deep thankfulness goes to Sr. Maureen who has spent her precious time reading and correcting my thesis. I owe her much for her patience, kindness, and advice when I faced some problems during the time I finished my thesis.
I would like to thank Drs. J. B. Gunawan, M.A., my academic sponsor, for his guidance during the semester I passed in the PBI study program. I also would like to thank all PBI lecturers, especially Dian Fransiska Maharani, S.Pd. and Dr. Antonius Herujiyanto for their willingness to be my respondents. Furthermore, I thank them all for teaching and giving me useful knowledge so that I can be a better person. Besides, I thank the secretariat staff, mbak Tari and mbak Dani for helping and giving information that I need for my study.
Junior High School for their cooperation and giving me suggestions and
evaluation for my design. I would also like to thank the seventh grade students of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School for spending their time filling in the questionnaire for my needs survey.
My deepest and sincerest gratefulness goes to my lovely parents, my mom
Dra. Tri Subekti, my father Drs. Puji Purnomo. M.Si. They have not been tired
to encourage me in every condition. They are spirit and light to finish my study soon. I sincerely express my special thank to my brother, Wahyu Pramudita, and my girlfriend, Wieda who always supports me and helps me when I have a problem. The happiness, sadness, and problem we had faced brought us to be more understanding and mature.
My gratitude is extended to all my friends in the PBI students especially
Wawan, Udjo, Dedi, Christian, Gede (jix), Dany, Ook, Mawar, Cecil, Cicil,
Ila, Ari, Echi, Shasha, Miko, Vivin, Ita, Haryana, Rendi, Gaby, Tomo,
Timur, and other friends that I cannot mention one by one. I will never forget
their contribution in improving the quality of my life. I hope our friendship will be everlasting.
Galih Kusumo
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page TITLE PAGE .................................................................................................. i APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................................ ii BOARD OF EXAMINERS ............................................................................ iii DEDICATION PAGE .................................................................................... iv STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY .................................................. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................ viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................ xiii LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................... xiv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xv
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................ xvii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ................................................................1 A. Background of the Study ..........................................................................
1 B. Problem Identification ..............................................................................
4 C. Problem Limitation ...................................................................................
4 D. Problem Formulation ................................................................................
5 E. Objectives of the Study .............................................................................
5 F. Benefits of the Study .................................................................................
5
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................
8 A. Theoretical Description .............................................................................
8 1. Reading ...............................................................................................
8 a. The Nature of Reading ..................................................................
8 b. Teaching Reading skill .................................................................
9 1) Pre-Reading Activities ............................................................
9 2) Whilst Reading Activities .......................................................
10 3) Post Reading Activities ...........................................................
11 c. Reading Techniques ......................................................................
11 1) Skimming ................................................................................
12 2) Scanning ..................................................................................
12 3) Reading with Comprehension .................................................
12 2. Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) ..........................................
13 a. The definition of Contextual Teaching and Learning ...................
13 b. The Importance of Contextual Teaching and Learning ................
13 c. Basic Principle of Contextual Teaching and Learning .................
14 d. The Application of Contextual Teaching and Learning in Class ..
16 3. Curriculum ..........................................................................................
18 a. The 2006 Curriculum for Junior High School ..............................
18 b. The Nature of English Language Based on 2006 Curriculum ......
18 c. The Goals and Functions ..............................................................
19 d. Scope of English Lesson Based on 2006 Curriculum ...................
19
4. Material Development ........................................................................
20 5. Instructional Design Models ...............................................................
22 a. Kemp’s Model ..............................................................................
22 b. Yalden’s model .............................................................................
25 B. Theoretical Framework .............................................................................
27 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ............................................................
32 A. Method of the Study ...................................................................................
32 1. Research and Information Collecting .................................................
33 2. Planning ..............................................................................................
33 3. Development of Preliminary Form of Product ...................................
34 4. Product evaluation ..............................................................................
34 5. Main Product Revision .......................................................................
34 B. Respondents ..............................................................................................
35 1. Research and Information Collecting .................................................
35 2. Product evaluation ..............................................................................
35 C. Instruments ................................................................................................
36 1. Research and Information Collecting Instrument ...............................
36 2. Product evaluation Instruments ...........................................................
38 D. Data Gathering Techniques .......................................................................
39 1. Research and Information Collecting .................................................
39
E. Data Analysis Techniques .........................................................................
40 1. Research and Information Collecting .................................................
40 2. Product evaluation ..............................................................................
42 F. Procedures .................................................................................................
43 CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................
45 A. Conducting Needs Survey .........................................................................
45 1. The Results of the Questionnaires for the English Teachers ..............
45 2. The Results of the Questionnaires for Students ..................................
47 B. Determining Competency Standard, Basic competence, and Topics ..
50 C. Determining Indicators .............................................................................
52 D. Listing Subject Contents ...........................................................................
52 E. Designing the Materials ............................................................................
53 F. Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Resources ............................
54 G. Evaluating .................................................................................................
54 1. The Description of the Respondents ...................................................
55 2. Data Presentation ................................................................................
55 3. Respondents’ Comments and Suggestions on the Materials Design ..
57 H. Revising ....................................................................................................
58 1. Response to the Respondents’ Evaluation ..........................................
58 2. The Presentation of the Designed Materials .......................................
58 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ..........................
61
B. Suggestions ...............................................................................................
63 REFERENCES ..............................................................................................
64 APPENDICES ...............................................................................................
66 Appendix A: Letter of Permission ..................................................................
67 Appendix B: Questionnaire of Research and Information Collecting for Students .....................................................................................
69 Appendix C: Interview of Research and Information Collecting for teachers
72 Appendix D: Questionnaire for Feedback Gathering .....................................
74 Appendix E: Syllabus .....................................................................................
80 Appendix F: Presentation of the Materials .....................................................
86
LIST OF FIGURES
Page Figure 2.1 Materials Development Model ......................................................
21 Figure 2.2 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model .............................................
24 Figure 2.3 Yalden’s Instructional Design Model ............................................
26 Figure 2.4 The Writer’s Instructional Design Model ......................................
30
LIST OF TABLES
Page Table 3.1. The Description of Product Evaluation Respondents ....................
36 Table 3.2. The Format of the Presentation of Product Evaluation Results .....
42 Table 4.1. The Results of the Questionnaire for Students ..............................
47 Table 4.2. The Basic Competencies ................................................................
51 Table 4.3. The Indicators ................................................................................
52 Table 4.4. The Results of the Evaluation Questionnaires ...............................
56 Table 4.5. The Topics, the Sections and Subsections of the Designed Materials . ......................................................................................
59
ABSTRACT
Kusumo, Galih. 2007. English Reading Instructional Materials Based on
Contextual Teaching and Learning Approach for the seventh Grade Students of
Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School Yogyakarta . Yogyakarta: English Language
Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
English as an international language has become one of the subjects learnt in Junior High School. There are four main skills developed in English. They are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. In order to master the four skills students need to study and enrich their knowledge. Studying and enriching knowledge can happen if someone reads many books. Thus, students need to be able to read well. The writer chooses Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) to develop the reading skills. CTL is one of the most appropriate methods applied to teach reading since it facilitates the students to be active and learn English in natural context/real situation.
This study was conducted to design a set of reading instructional materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) for the seventh grade of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School Yogyakarta. The objectives of this study were to answer two questions which were stated in the problem formulation. The questions were (1) How is a set of reading instructional materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning for the seventh grade of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School Yogyakarta designed? (2) What does the set of reading instructional materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning for the seventh grade of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School Yogyakarta look like?
In this study, the writer adapted R&D cycle (Research and Development method) to answer the research question above. The writer employed five out of ten steps of R&D cycle. They were (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Product evaluation, and (5) Main Product Revision.
To answer the first question, the writer combined the models of instructional design from Kemp and Yalden. Those models are modified into eight steps, namely, (1) conducting needs survey, (2) determining competency standard, basic competence, and topics, (3) Determining indicators, (4) Listing subject content, (5), Designing the materials (6) selecting the teaching and learning activities, (7) evaluating, and (8) revising.
The questionnaires were distributed to the respondents to obtain opinions, suggestions, and comments toward the materials. The respondents consist of three English teachers of Junior High School Yogyakarta and two English lecturers of Sanata Dharma University. After the evaluation on the materials designed had been conducted, the writer analyzed the data. The results of the analysis indicated that the mean ranged from 3.5 to 4 on five point scale. This result shows that the designed materials are acceptable and appropriate for the seventh grade of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School.
To answer the second question, the writer designed the final version of the designed materials after making some revisions based on the comments, evaluation, and suggestions from the respondents in the materials evaluation. The materials consist of eight parts. Each part consists of three sections. They are pre- reading, whilst reading, and post reading.
Finally, it is hoped that the designed materials will be useful for teachers as an alternative materials in teaching reading and the students of Junior High School in improving their skills in reading.
ABSTRAK
Kusumo, Galih. 2007. English Reading Instructional Materials Based on
Contextual Teaching and Learning Approach for the Seventh Grade Students of
Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School Yogyakarta . Yogyakarta: Program
Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa international telah menjadi salah satu mata pelajaran yang diajarkan di Sekolah Menengah Pertama (SMP). Terdapat empat kemampuan utama dalam Bahasa Inggris, yaitu listening, speaking, reading, writing. Untuk menguasai keempat kemampuan tersebut siswa perlu belajar dan mengembangkan pengetahuan mereka. Untuk belajar dan mengembangkan pengetahuan siswa perlu banyak membaca buku. Oleh karena itu, siswa harus memiliki kemampuan membaca yang baik. Penulis menggunakan pendekatan untuk mengembangkan kemampuan
Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL)
reading siswa. CTL merupakan metode yang paling tepat untuk diterapkan dalam mengajar reading karena metode ini memfasilitasi siswa untuk menjadi aktif dan mempelajari bahasa Inggris dalam konteks/situasi yang nyata.
Studi ini dilaksanakan untuk merancang seperangkat materi reading dengan menggunakan metode Contexual Teaching and Learning untuk siswa kelas satu SMP Pangudi Luhur I Yogyakarta. Tujuan dari studi ini adalah untuk menjawab dua (2) pertanyaan yang ada dalam “problem formulation”. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah (1) Bagaimana seperangkat materi pembelajaran membaca dengan menggunakan metode Contextual Teaching and
Learning dirancang? (2) Bagaimanakah bentuk dari seperangkat materi reading
dengan menggunakan metode Contextual Teaching and Learning tersebut? Dalam studi ini penulis mengadaptasi metode lingkaran R&D (Research
and Development) untuk menjawab pertantanyaan penelitian di atas. Penulis
menerapkan lima dari sepuluh langkah dalam metode R&D. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) Mengumpulkan penelitian dan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal dari produk, (4) Evaluasi produk, dan (5) Perbaikan utama produk.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis menggabungkan model pengajaran dari Kemp dan Yalden. Model-model tersebut kemudian dimodifikasi menjadi delapan (8) langkah yaitu, 1) Mengadakan survey untuk menganalisis kebutuhan siswa, (2) Menentukan dan menetapkan standar kompetensi, kompetensi dasar dan topik-topik, (3) Menetapkan indikator, (4) Merinci isi materi, (5) Merancang materi, (6) Memilih kegiatan pembelajaran dan sumbernya, (7) Mengevaluasi materi, dan (8) Memperbaiki materi.
Kuisioner disebarkan pada responden untuk mendapatkan pendapat, saran, dan komentar mengenai materi yang dirancang. Para responden terdiri dari tiga guru bahasa Inggris SMP dan dua dosen bahasa Inggris dari Universitas Sanata Dharma. Setelah evaluasi pada materi dilaksanakan, penulis menganalisa data. Hasil dari analisa menunjukkan bahwa nilai rata-ratanya berkisar antara 3,5 diterima dan digunakan untuk mengajarkan reading pada siswa kelas satu SMP Pangudi Luhur I Yogyakarta.
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan yang kedua, penulis menyajikan versi akhir dari materi yang dirancang setelah melalui beberapa revisi berdasarkan dari pendapat, komentar, dan saran dari responden dalam langkah mengevaluasi materi. Material yang didisain terdiri delapan (8) unit. Setiap unit terdiri dari tiga bagian, yaitu pre-reading, whilst reading, and post reading.
Akhirnya, Penulis berharap bahwa desain ini akan berguna untuk guru sebagai materi alternatif dalam mengajar reading dan bagi siswa SMP untuk meningkatkan kemampuan mereka dalam kemampuan reading.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter covers six important parts of the thesis: background of the
study, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms.
A. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Nowadays, English is a very important device in communication. English language is usually found in many places such as in guidebooks, newspapers, and novels. This happens because English has become an international language. It means that most countries use English as the first or second language in communication. Consequently, this reason makes people try to be competent in English. Some countries have considered that English becomes an important language. Indonesia is one of them. Most schools in Indonesia have included English as one of the compulsory subjects to develop students’ knowledge.
Proficiency of English can be achieved by mastering four language skills; namely speaking, reading, listening, and writing. In order to master the four skills students need to study and enrich their knowledge. Studying and enriching knowledge can happen if someone reads many books. Therefore, students need to ideas. Looking at this fact, reading can be considered as a skill that is important to be mastered.
Reading will be easier for the reader if the language which is used in the text uses the language of the reader. If people read in the texts which use their language, it will be easier for them because they know the structure and meaning of the language. On the other hand, people who read a book in a foreign language will consider reading as a difficult activity because the language has different structure and meaning from their own or native language. As the result, peoples’ interest in reading will decrease.
It is not easy to teach English to the students especially for those in the Junior High School. Teachers should be more creative and attractive in adapting texts and making them simple and interesting for the students. The teachers sometimes take the texts directly from magazines or newspapers directly. Actually, it is not bad but sometimes some of the vocabulary in those texts is not appropriate for the students or too difficult for the students especially in the beginner level. It makes reading considered as a boring subject because they could not understand the texts and become disinterested to practices reading. Whereas, reading is one of the important skills to be mastered for the students in the junior high school.
It is not easy to be a junior high school teacher because the characteristics high school are needed to support their learning (1953: 31). Therefore, a teacher should be able to make the situation in the class interesting by providing new and interesting materials.
Concerning the importance of reading at the Junior high school, a good program for reading is needed. A good program must be supported by innovative strategies. Unfortunately, teachers sometimes forget that teaching children is totally different from teaching adults (Partee, 2006). Some schools still use traditional methods in their classes. Traditional methods mean that the learning is focused on the teacher. It makes lecturing become the main strategy in class. This method makes the study oriented on “memorization” It only makes the students "memorize" the knowledge for a short time. Study will be meaningful if children “experience” what they have learnt.
Nowadays, there is a method that has become an issue in education. The method is called Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL). Unfortunately, there is no good understanding from the teacher about this method. Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) is a learning concept which helps the teachers to relate the materials which are taught in the class (theory) to the situation in the students’ real world. Using this approach the students’ learning will be meaningful for them.
The process of study is conducted naturally in the form of students’ work and experience, not by transferring knowledge from teacher to the students. Some of must be memorized. It makes the teacher become the main source in class. It will make speech uses more often and the students become passive. By using CTL in class, the teacher can overcome that problem. CTL will encourage the students to be more active in class.
Based on the reasons above, the writer designed a set of instructional materials which focuses on reading skill, using Contextual Teaching and Learning approach to support the teaching learning process.
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
A teacher is a person who is responsible for teaching learning process and plays an important role in the class. Therefore, the teacher has a responsibility for creating elements such as materials, and strategies to deliver the materials to the students that are needed to make the teaching learning process succeed. For the teacher, teaching sometimes can be difficult for him/her. “Creating and applying certain techniques must be done by teachers with certain considerations to achieve the purpose” (Richard & Rodgers 1996:15).
The materials made by the teacher must enable students to use language in their daily life. The teacher should prepare all the materials well, so they can be used to help the students increase their skill especially in reading.
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION
The study focuses on how to design a set of English reading materials to and Learning that can make a language teaching and learning activities to be communicative and interesting.
D. PROBLEM FORMULATION
Considering the previous explanation about the background and scope of the study, the problems of the study are formulated as follows:
1. How is a set of English instructional reading materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning for the seventh grade students of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School designed?
2. What does the designed set of English reading materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning for the first grade students of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School look like?
E. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of this study are:
1. To find out how a set of English reading materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning for the seventh grade students of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High school is designed.
2. To find out what the designed set of English reading instructional materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning for the seventh grade students of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School looks like.
F. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY
1. The Junior High School Teachers.
The teachers are expected to be confident and have no difficulties in teaching English using Contextual Teaching and Learning anymore after learning from the design of this study.
2. Students Students usually become easily bored and have difficulty since they only have to memorize the lesson without applying it in real life. It can raise students’ boredom and difficulty. Hopefully, this designed material can increase their motivation to learn English.
3. Other Researchers Hopefully, the result of this study can provide helpful information and give stimulus for further study. Hence, better and more various reading materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) approach will be found.
G. DEFINITION OF TERMS
There are some definitions that the writer had to clarify in order to make the study understandable, the terms are as follows:
1. Design Design is defined as, “plan to guide education activity in the target situation” (Houle, 1978: 203). In this study, designing means an activity of making some strategies, materials, and teaching-learning activities in the target language.
2. Reading According to Gibson and Levin, reading is extracting information from text (1979: 5). In this study, reading is the ability to understand the
3. Contextual Teaching and Learning Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) helps us relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivate students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their lives, family members, citizens, and workers and engage in the hard work that learning requires (Johnson. 2002: 23). In this study, CTL is a strategy which can help students make connection between language which they have learned and its application.
4. Junior High School Students In Indonesia, Junior High School is called as SMP (Sekolah Menengah
Pertama ). It is a part of educational line. It is included as a nine-year-basic education, which consists of three grades, each lasts for one year.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter the writer discusses some theories that are relevant in
designing reading materials using Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) for the seventh grade of Pangudi Luhur I Junior High School Yogyakarta. This chapter is divided into two major parts. In the first part, the writer discusses the theoretical description and in the second part, the writer explains the theoretical framework.
A. THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION
1. Reading
a. The Nature of Reading
Goodman (1976) and Smith (1978) as cited by Vacca (1981: 2) proposed that reading is an “active process of deriving meaning”. It means that when reading the texts readers try to understand the author’s message by interacting with the text. A reader is a user of language whose task it is to make sense out of what she or he reads. Another view about reading comes from Karlin (1980: 7). He says that reading is the reconstruction of the ideas of others. It shows us about comprehensive processes in someone’s mind while he/she is reading. He/she receives thoughts and ideas that are conveyed through written expression. Similarly, Mitchell (1982: 1) proposes that reading is the ability to make sense of written or printed symbols. The reader uses the symbols to guide him/her to find the writer’s message. From the definition above, the writer concludes that reading is an active thinking process of the written and printed symbol to build the meaningful interpretation from the writer’s message.
b. Teaching Reading Skill
According to Hughes (1989) there are two sub-skills of reading comprehension. They are macro skill and micro skill. The term “macro skill” refers to understanding the general ideas in the text (e.g., information, gist, argument) while “micro skill” refers to recognizing and interpreting the linguistic features of the text (e.g., referents, word meanings, discourse indicators). In this study, the writer uses micro skill to design the materials.
According to Pearson and Fielding’s generative learning quoted by Urquhart and Weir (1988:183) there are three phases that are used in teaching reading. They are pre-reading activities, whilst reading activities, and post reading activities. Each phase will be further explained as follows:
1) Pre-reading activities
This phase is important. It is to activate student’s knowledge about the text and motivate student so they will have interest in reading. The basic principles for pre-reading activities are:
a) Teaching vocabulary New vocabulary is attending to facilitate comprehension. Sometimes students abandon reading assignments because they are too difficult in vocabulary.
Students need to know the new vocabulary related to the topic so they can
74), vocabulary should be taught in context to effectively guess the meaning of less frequently used vocabulary.
b) Providing essential background information Adequate preparation for reading a piece of text includes helping students either recall or acquire information necessary for comprehending the text.
c) Establishing purpose for reading Purposes in reading will help the students focus their attention on what to look for as they read and help them to connect their knowledge with new information. The students sometimes are not ready to establish their own reason for reading. Therefore, the teacher must try to encourage them so they will have good reading habits.
d) Motivating students to be able to do the reading The teacher must try to raise and develop interest of student to reading texts.
This is important for the students. Students who have lack of motivation in reading will not be able to achieve all that is needed in reading.
2) Whilst Reading Activities
The activities, in whilst reading, are the activities to lead the students to understand the content of the reading passage. The activities are as follows: a) Skimming
It helps the students to gain general ideas of the material by reading the texts quickly and selectively.
b) Scanning It helps the students to gain specific information they wish to obtain from the c) Reading for explicitly stated main ideas It helps the student to find the main idea which is stated explicitly.
d) Reading for implicitly stated main ideas It helps the students to find the main idea which is stated implicitly.
e) Reading for details This activity asked the students to find detailed information from the text.
f) Reading between lines This activity is done by reading each line of the text. It will help the students to have better understanding on how to draw an inference.
g) Deducing meaning from context This activity requires the students to discover the meaning of a great number of unfamiliar words from the texts.
3) Post Reading Activities
Questions of evaluation and personal responses are also seen as the important things in post reading activities, relating the text to the outside world.
This activity can be done in an oral or a written way.
c. Reading techniques
Reading technique plays an important role in understanding reading material (Kustaryo 1988: 3). Reading techniques help the students to be able to read efficiently. After finding out the purpose or what the students expect to gain from their reading, students should select the technique that is appropriate. There are some techniques that can be used by students to achieve their purpose. The
1) Skimming
Skimming is a reading technique that involves students looking through the text rapidly for the general meaning of an article (Thomas, 2002: 28). It is used by the reader to find the idea of what the author is saying in the text without many details. It can be done by knowing the key word which can be the topic, the descriptive adjective, the abstract noun or the functions word. If the reader wants to be able to do skimming, he/she has to understand the organized text, become aware of the main point in a paragraph, and be able to assume the main ideas of a text.
2) Scanning
Scanning is a reading strategy whose purpose is to find specific information from a text. In this technique the readers search for particular specific information that is needed in order to be able to locate the information. The reader has to know information that he/she wants to search, the place to find the information and the way the reader can identify the information at the time he/she sees the information to be able to do scanning.
3) Reading with comprehension
In reading with comprehension, the reader is supposed to be able to understand everything which has been read. Students need not only skills of comprehension but also the reader’s experiences and knowledge in this technique. To be able to do this technique, the reader should understand the vocabulary, see the relationship among words and concepts, organize ideas,
2. Contextual Teaching and Learning
a. The Definition of Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL)
Contextual Teaching and learning (CTL) is a concept that helps teachers relate the material which is taught to real world situations and motivates students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their daily life. They do this by using seven main components of study, namely constructivism, questioning, inquiry, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic assessment (www.dikdasmen.org). By using this concept it is hoped that the result of the study will be meaningful for students. The teaching learning process happens naturally in the form of students work and activities not just by transferring from teacher to students. Therefore, teachers have to provide a context which is meaningful for content (Purnomo, et al, 2007: 49).
In contextual class, the teacher becomes the facilitator and helps the students achieve their learning goals. Thus, the teacher should think that the teaching strategy is more important than giving information.
b. The Importance of Contextual Teaching and Learning
Most of our education is still dominated by a view that knowledge is a set of fact which must be memorized. As a result, the teaching learning process focuses on the teacher as the main source of knowledge. Therefore, lecturing becomes the main strategy to teach. Therefore, a new strategy which can make the students more active is needed. The strategy not only makes the students memorize a set of facts but also encourages students to construct knowledge in
Based on the fact above, CTL which emphasizes on constructivism in the teaching learning process can be promoted as an alternative strategy to make the students active and encourage the students to construct the knowledge.
c. Basic Principles of Contextual Teaching and Learning
According to Purnomo et al. (2007: 50) there are some principles that must be applied to make teaching learning process using CTL a success. They are Problem based learning, authentic instruction, inquiry based learning, project based learning. The principles will be explained as follows:
1) Problem Based learning
This principle engages learners in problem solving investigations. The students must be able to use information which is available and think critically to solve problems in the real world.
2) Authentic Instruction
Authentic instruction is a contextual approach which is meaningful, for example learning how to sing by singing a song, learning how to sell by selling something, etc.
3) Inquiry Based Learning
Inquiry based learning creates study as an activity to ask ourselves and find the answer by ourselves. The students are encouraged to find the answer by asking themselves.
4) Project Based Learning
According to Project-based Learning (2001) Project based learning focuses problem solving investigations and other meaningful tasks allowing students to work autonomously to construct their own learning and culminates in realistic project. This principle engages students to involve their mental, physics, nerve, sense and social skill.
5) Work Based Learning
This principle integrated workplace or workplace-like activities and classroom content (Smith, 2001). Work gives an opportunity to students not only to know someone’s experience but also experience something different.
6) Service Learning
Emotion of the students is important to be recognized in the teaching learning process. Emotion determines the process and the result of study.
Positive feeling of student which emerges in the teaching learning process will accelerate the study.
7) Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning organizes instruction using small learning groups in which students work together to achieve learning goals (Holubes, 2001).
Learning together will be better than learning individually. Each student can encourage the other students to learn better. If a student does not understand the lesson, other students can help him.
d. The Application of Contextual Teaching and Learning in Class There are some pillars needed in Contextual Teaching and Learning class.
1) Constructivism
Constructivism is the philosophy of CTL approach. Constructivism considers that knowledge is not a set of facts, concepts which are ready to be obtained and remembered. Someone has to construct the knowledge and give meaning through real activity (Sungkowo, 2003). In constructivism, knowledge cannot be transferred directly from one person to another person such as teacher to students. Each person should try to interpret the knowledge by himself.
Knowledge is not something that can be required instantly. Therefore, teachers have to give an opportunity for the students to study alone and be ready to become the source of information.
2) Inquiry
Knowledge and skills which are obtained by the students are not the result of remembering a set of facts but the students must discover by themselves.
Learning is not only brain activities but also the relationship with other parts of bodies. If the teacher only emphasizes brain activities, “sit down, not move and be silent” approach will happen in class. There are some steps that are used in inquiry. There are observation, hypothesis, data gathering, and conclusion.
3) Questioning Asking is considered an important part in inquiry based learning.