Irrigation in Southern and Eastern Asia in figures
FAO
WATER
REPORTS
xiv
Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by Karen
Programme Coordinator and Senior \Vater
Resources Management Officer, and Cecilia Spottorno, AQUASTAT consultam, both from the Land and
Water Division ofFAO.
Several resource people contributed to the preparation of the coumry profiles: Lutfor Rahman Khan
(Bangladesh), P.BS Sarma (Bhutan and India), Yusman Syaukat (Indonesia), Shahid Ahmad (Pakistan),
Roger Concepcion (Philippines), Sacha Sethapmra (Thailand), Phong Nguyen (Viet Nam).
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of
Facon, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific, and Jacob Burke, Land and Water Division, in reviewing the report. The assistance of Jean Margat in
reviewing the information related to the water resources was highly appreciated. Francesca Greco and Jippe
Hoogeveen comributed to the coumry profiles of India, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam in
their earlier stages. Special thanks go to Pasquale Steduto, Deputy Director, and to Parviz Koohafkan, Director,
of the Land and Water Division, fOr theif cominuous support during the preparation of the report.
English proofreading was done by Rosemary Allison. The coumry, river basin and regional maps were
prepared with the assistance of Emelie Healy.
Publishing arrangements and graphic design: Stefanie Neno, Paolo Mander, with assistance from Gabriele
ZanoHi and James Morgan.
281
CLIMATE AND
Indonesia is a tTopical archipelago composed of 1 504 islands. It extends over aboLlt
1.9 million k1112 and the coastline exceeds 54 000 km, which is more than the circumference
of the globe making it the coumry with the second
coastline after Canada. The major
islands are SumatLl, Java, Nusa Tenggara (including Bali), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, and
Papua (previously Irian Jaya). ｾｬｯｳｴ＠
of the major islands have a mOllmain range running their
entire length. The mOllnrains are of volcanic origin and some are still active. The elevations on
the islands range from 0 to 5 030 I1l above sea level. Since 2005 the country has been divided
administratively into 33 provinces. In 200(), the provinces were subdivided into 349 regencies
and 91 cities (kota), 5 656 subdistricts
and 71 563 villages (desa!
Jakarta is the capital city of the COllntry, located 011 the island ofJava.
The total cultivated area in 2009 was 42.6 million ha, which is around 22 percent of the total
area of the country. Arable land was an estimated 23.6 million ha and the area under permanent
crops 19.0 million ha (Table 1). Eum holdings in Indonesia are
small: 34 percent are
less than 0.25 ha and a further 25 percent are between 0.25 and 0.50 ha.
Climate
Indonesia is located in a wet tropical region with an average annual rainfall of about 2 700 mm,
varying from 1 300 mm in East Nusa Tenggara to 4 300 mm in parts of Papua (Table 2)
(Bappenas, 2004).
There are two seaS011S: the dry and the wet. The dry season is influenced by the Australia
conrinemai air masses and lasts from March to August. The wet season is influenced by the Asia
Continental and Pacific air masses passing over the oceans and lasts from September to March.
The heaviest rainfall is usually from November to February.
Temperatures range from 21°C
is beC\veen 60 and 80 percent.
to
33 DC, but at higher altitudes the climate is
Humidity
Population
In 2009, the total population was almost 237 million, of which 56 percent was rural (Table
1). There are four people in an average household. Population growth rate decreased sharply,
from 2.1 percent per year during the period 1979-1989 to 1.2 percent per year from 1999 to
2009. Over time, Indonesia's population has been concentrated on Java Island, which contains
59 percent of the total population, while its land area is only 7 percent of the total land area
of the country. Therefore, population density in Java was 1 019 people/km2 in 2009, while
2
population density at the national level was 125 inhabitants per km .
In 2006, 80 percenr had access to improved drinking water sources (89 and 71
urban and rural population respectively) and sanitation coverage reached 52
for
and
,....
ｾ＠
INDONESIA
NAM
Legend
Ｌｾ＠
•••
International
Administrative
Capital, Regional Capilal, Town
o
Lake
South China
Sea
River
Dam
>0<
Celebes
/"
'v
Sea
Pacific
Ocean
-I.
Zone of Irrigation Deveiopment
"
0
_
Irrigation Scheme
0
125 250
500
ｋｯｴｏＬｾｪ｡＿ｦｚｊｩＺＮＢ＠
'fl?.. Ｌ｡､Ｎｮ｜ｬＢｦＯｾｊＺＧ
'
/ " , /'';.;):0'
,GAPOaE/ /
\'PonH.naiV"
1 r ｾｌｬ＠
ＢＧｩＮ｟ＬＺｾ＠
16 , /
_··....·'c:, /"ilI11b
｡ｮｧｬｩＡ＾ｾＮｲ＠
,_ --.
Ｍｾｮｧｵ＠'
750 km
'"'. , ' ' ' "
ＭｾＺ［ＧＮ］ＢＩ＠
ｾ＠
ｐ｡ｬＮＢＬ｢ｮｧｾ＠
c"',."",
,'/
",\.. 32/"",,
{"
\ . 6
ＸＧ［ｾ､ｊｋ＠
4
»,'
17
Lampu ｾ＠
ＬＮｾ＠
ｰＩｾｮｧｫＮｲ Ｂｾ｟Ｇ＠
',.
•.,:1")\12....,,.;
..•.
'\ l
'.1 ,nT",n ..
•..
ＭＮｾ
0,3
0.1
0.0
0.4
13.1
92.8
7.4
113.3
12
82
6
100
ＧｾＭＢ
of total
FIGURE 1
Water withdrawal by sector
Total 113.29 km 3 in 2000
, - - - - - Industry
13 km 3 (12 percent) and 7 km 3 (6 percent)
respecrively (Figure 1). In 1990, rotal water
withdrawal was about 74 kIn''' of which
93 percent for agriculture, 6 percent for
municipalities and 1 percent for industrial use.
7%
Municipalities
In 2000 surface water and groundwater
withdrawal was 84.4 percent and 15.5
percent respectively of total water withdrawal
(Figure 2). In 1990 desalinated water was an
estimated 19 million m 3 .
12%
81%
FIGURE 2
Water withdrawal by source
Total 113.29 km 3 in 2000
,..----- Desalinated water
0.02%
15.54%
Surface water
84.44%
Groundwater is used by
percent of
households for their clean water sources,
while the rest use river water (3.4 percent),
piped surface water (21.2 percent), and other
water sources (1.4 percent).
Industrial water demand has gradually
increased over time. Since piped and
open surface water supplies are relatively
limited, where the industries are located,
most use groundwater for their water source,
particularly in the large cities ofJava.
Both national and ｩｳｬ｡ｮ､Ｍ｢ｹｾ＠
water
balances are positive, meaning that water
availability is higher than consumption level.
However, in Java and Nusa Tenggara a water
deficit occurs during the dry season (July to
October, varying by the province). Even some
significantly large river areas in Java, including
Bengawan Solo, Branras, Ciliwung, Cimanuk,
Citanduy, and Ciujung, are estimated to face
water deficit problems during the dry season.
r
;
Indonesia
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT
Evolution of irrigation development
The development of community irrigation systems started more than two thousand years ago.
Modern irrigation systems were introduced in the middle of the nineteenth century. Small
irrigation systems developed by the communities in Java covered a.total of 1.1 million ha in
1880. This asset was very significant at that time since the total population of Java was only
19.5 million. The developmem of irrigation systems grew at a rare of 1.21 percent per year
in the period 1880-1915, covering 1.62 million ha in 1915. The Dutch colonial government
developed the first large irrigation system, 34000 ha, in Sidorajo delta in East Java by lIsing the
Bramas river water Hows.
A full-technological irrigation and drainage system was first developed during the 18805 in
Demak, Central Java, on 33 800 ha. This system was developed to address the famine caused
by dtought and floods in the area. 'The Bllrgcrlijke Openbare \l?{;rken, which later became the
Department of Publi ha and < ha
ha
Large-scale schemes
Total number of households in irrigation
< ha
ha
Irrigated crops in full control irrigation schemes
Total irrigated grain production (wheat and barley)
metric tons
• as % of total grain production
Harvested crops
%
Total harvested irrigated cropped area
• Annual crops: total
- Rice
- Rice-one
- Rice-two
- Rice-three
- Maize
- Soyabeans
2005
13 388358
ha
2005
2005
13 388 358
10 733 600
ha
ha
2005
4541 200
2005
2005
3869200
2323200
1 269100
ha
ha
2005
2005
ha
ha
279900
ha
- Vegetables
2005
244388
ha
- Tobacco
198200
ha
- Potatoes
2005
2005
65420
ha
- Sweet Potatoes
2005
ha
- Groundnuts
2005
178300
324 000
- Sugarcane
2005
95450
ha
2005
199
%
1990
3350 000
ha
• Permanent crops: total
Irrigated cropping intensity (on full control irrigation equipped area)
ha
ha
Drainage - Environment
Total drained area
- part of the area equipped for irrigation drained
ha
ha
- other drained area (non-irrigated)
• drained area as % of cultivated area
Flood-protected areas
Area salinized by irrigation
Population affected by water-related diseases
%
1999
400 000
2005
5111472
ha
ha
inhabitants
ｾ
Irrigation in SoutlJiTn find Eastem Asia
290
TABLE 7
Distribution of water managed areas by types, 2005 (ha)
Irrigation
6722299
Technical
4781 860
Semi technical
1 257 197
AQU4STAT Survey - 2011
Role of irrigation in
agricultural production,
economy and society
One of the main objectives of irrigation
Decision of the Coordinator Ministry on Economy
>- Decision of the Ministry of Settlements and Regional Infrastructures (Dept of Public
Works)
y Decision of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
>- Decision of the Ministry of Environment
>- Provincial Regulations on formation of the agencies for water resources development
(8 provinces)
Y Provincial Regulations on water pollution control (4 provinces)
>- Governor Decisions on development of the Coordination Teams for Provincial Water
Resources Management (8 provinces)
>- District and Municipality Regulation concerning water resources for domestic,
agricultural and industrial use.
ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
The strategic geographical location, accompanied by high rainfall, mountainous geography,
as well as large forest resources, have led Indonesia to be rich in water resources. However,
environmental changes are influencing the water cycle, which causes uneven distribution
of water supply. The imbalanced water supply is a serious problem, since it might lead to a
number of natural disasters. Flooding occurs during the rainy season, while drought is frequent
in the dry season.
Massive deforestation and environmental degradation have been caused by these extreme
conditions. Massive deforestation in the upper parts of the watershed has caused the rainfall
to runoff more freely, and to concentrate more rapidly into the waterways, thus causing flash
floods. Owing to the high level of municipal and indumiai waste, many rivers are significantly or
293
294
IrrigatioJ/ in Southern and Eastern Asia in figures - AQUASFAF Survey
2011
seriously polluted. It has nor been possible (0 quantify the costs of pollution to the economy, but
major COStS have been identified in sickness and the resulting loss of work; pollurion is so severe
in major cities, such as Jakarta and Surabaya, that industries have been forced to dose during dry
years because of raw \vater shortages. Costs have also been accounted by calculating the losses in
fisheries and aquaculture, and by the damage suffered by mangroves and fragile coastal areas.
\Yater pollution poses an immediate threat (0 human welfare and industrial growth. This problem
is exacerbated by water shortage in the dry season, which prevents waste from being flushed
away from the inhabited centers. The most excessive pollutant in Indonesian rivers is faecal
coliform from human waste. This element exceeds the recommended standards in key citics by a
thousand-fold or more. \'Vater-bornc diseases such as cholera, dysentery, gastroenteritis, typhoid,
paratyphoid, hepatitis A, and parasitic intestinal infection, are transmitted by the ingestion of
water contaminated with human feces. The transmission of these diseases is frequently related
(0 lack of available safe water. Improvement of water and sanitation can be expected to reduce
diarrheal mortality and morbidity.
The number of people with AIDS and HIV infection is reported to have increased over time. In
2004, the number of people witb AIDS was 2 682, of tbese 700 people have died. This showed
that the AIDS rate was about 1.33 cases per 100 000 people. In 2005, there were 5 560 people
infected with HJV/AIDS.
PROSPECTS fOR AGRICULTURAL
MANAGEM
Issues of water resources management will be increasingly important in the vears ahead,
especially in Java, which covers only 7 percent of the total area of the country, but has 59
percent of tbe population, 70 percent of irrigated agriculture, and 75 percent of the industry.
Issues of water quantity include emerging conflicts between competing uses (agricultural,
industrial and municipal), and between surface water and groundwater in rapidly growing
urban areas. While Java is endowed with rainfall, it is highly seasonal. Dry season flows in the
main rivers are only 20 percent of the annual flows. River basins on Java are relatively steep
and short, and most of the wet season water runs unused inro the sea. Reservoirs hold less than
5 percent of total river flows.
During the wet season, river flows bring high rates of sedimentation resulting from excessive
erosion in the upstream part of the basin. This causes very fast sedimentation rates in reservoirs
and lakes, making the lifetime of reservoirs shorter than planned, as well as reducing storage
capacities. Most of the reservoircapacity of major river basins in Java (Bengawan Solo, Brantas,
Citarum, Serayn-Bogowonro) was planned to meet the water demand for various uses up to
2010. While additional sites have been identified for future dams, implementation will be
constrained by high population densities and the social and economic costs of resettlement.
Though industrial and municipal water use is still relatively low, it will increase over time.
Meeting this demand will require a transfer of water in dry season from agriculture to municipal
and industrial use. Minimizing the social and economic cOSts for farmers and potential
disruption to agricultural output will require that water resources will be managed according
to the integrated river basin principle. The challenge of meeting the water demand during the
dry season is becoming even more complex if the pollution from growing urban and industrial
waste is considered.
Based on the above conditions, an integrated action is needed to reverse the present trends of
over-consumption, pollution, and increasing threat of drought and floods. To support water
resources development and management, the government has proposed an Integrated Waler
Resources Management Policy framework to suppOrt and guide deveiopmem and conservation
Indonesia
effort. The policy is addressing water quamit)' and quality for both surface water and
groundwater in the comext of river basins, including the upper parts of the basins and estuarine
areas. A specific ｣ｾＩｭｰｯｮ･ｲ＠
of the policy is dealing with environmentally and socially sensitive
swampland development issues.
The future of irrigation should be considered as an integral framework to increase human welfare,
to provide social justice, and to maimain ecosystem sustainability. Along with overcoming water
and land resources problems, some national action should be taken, including: improving
agricultural infrastructure, increasing the quality of intensification, improving the institutions,
conducting reforestation and re-greening programmes.
MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Bakorsurtanal. 2001. Nemctz Sumberdaya Air Sptlsil1i fv:1sional (N1tional !:-'patial \{/(zter
Balance).
Bappenas. 2004. Sumberd{qa Alam dan Lingkungtln Hidup Indonesia: Altura Krisis elm Pelutll1g
(Natuml I'csources and environments
Indonesia: between crisis and
Bappenas,
Jakarta.
Department of Public Works. 2006. Buku Induk Kestatistikan Pekeljtlili1 Umum lahun 2006.
Sekretarian Jenderal Pusdata, Departemen Pekerjaan U1l1Ull1, Jakarta.
FAO. 1999. Irrigation in Asia in figures. FAG i¥ft1ter Report 18. FAO, Rome.
FAO. 2003. Review of world water resources by country. FAG W't1ter Report 23. FAO, Rome.
Irianto, Gatot. 2007. Pe1'Ubahan lkfim Terhadap Ketersediaan Air (Bahim Presentasi). Direktorat
Jenderal Pengelolaan Lahan Dan Air, Departemen Pertanian RI, Jakarta.
Ministry of Public Works. 2006. Rekapitulasi Daerah
Tahun 2005. (Available at: http://
W\vw. pu.go.idl publiklind!produk/info_statistik! _index. asp, accessed August 19, 2009).
Pasandaran, Effendi. 2006. Politik Ekonomi Sumberdaya Air (Political economy of water
resources)' Ch,1pter I in: Effindi Pasandaran, Bambang Sayaka, and Tri Pranadji
2006,
Pengelolaan Lahan dan Air di Indonesia (Land and water mantlge1l1ent in Indonesia). Badan
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perranian, Departmen Pertanian, Jakarta.
Statistics Indonesia. 2005. Agricultural survey: land area by utilization in Indonesi,1 2005.
Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.
Statistics Indonesia. 2006. Environmental statistics of Indonesia 2005. Statistics Indonesia,
Jakarta.
Statistics Indonesia. 2007. Statistical year book ofIndonesia 2007 Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.
Suprapto, Ato. 2001. Land and water resources development in Indonesi{l in FAG (2002).
Investment in Land and \Vater, Proceedings of the Regional Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand,
3-5 October 2001.
Syaukat, Yusman. 2000. Economics ofintegrated surface and ground water use management in the
jakarta region, Indonesia. PhD Dissertation, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Witoelar, Erna. Undated. "Water in the twenty-first century Looming the aisis: integrated water
management in Indonesia. Ministry of Settlements and Regional Infrastructure, Jakarta.
\Vorld Bank. 1994. Indonesia: environment and development - A v/or/d Bank country study.
World Bank, Washington, DC.
295
WATER
REPORTS
xiv
Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by Karen
Programme Coordinator and Senior \Vater
Resources Management Officer, and Cecilia Spottorno, AQUASTAT consultam, both from the Land and
Water Division ofFAO.
Several resource people contributed to the preparation of the coumry profiles: Lutfor Rahman Khan
(Bangladesh), P.BS Sarma (Bhutan and India), Yusman Syaukat (Indonesia), Shahid Ahmad (Pakistan),
Roger Concepcion (Philippines), Sacha Sethapmra (Thailand), Phong Nguyen (Viet Nam).
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of
Facon, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific, and Jacob Burke, Land and Water Division, in reviewing the report. The assistance of Jean Margat in
reviewing the information related to the water resources was highly appreciated. Francesca Greco and Jippe
Hoogeveen comributed to the coumry profiles of India, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam in
their earlier stages. Special thanks go to Pasquale Steduto, Deputy Director, and to Parviz Koohafkan, Director,
of the Land and Water Division, fOr theif cominuous support during the preparation of the report.
English proofreading was done by Rosemary Allison. The coumry, river basin and regional maps were
prepared with the assistance of Emelie Healy.
Publishing arrangements and graphic design: Stefanie Neno, Paolo Mander, with assistance from Gabriele
ZanoHi and James Morgan.
281
CLIMATE AND
Indonesia is a tTopical archipelago composed of 1 504 islands. It extends over aboLlt
1.9 million k1112 and the coastline exceeds 54 000 km, which is more than the circumference
of the globe making it the coumry with the second
coastline after Canada. The major
islands are SumatLl, Java, Nusa Tenggara (including Bali), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, and
Papua (previously Irian Jaya). ｾｬｯｳｴ＠
of the major islands have a mOllmain range running their
entire length. The mOllnrains are of volcanic origin and some are still active. The elevations on
the islands range from 0 to 5 030 I1l above sea level. Since 2005 the country has been divided
administratively into 33 provinces. In 200(), the provinces were subdivided into 349 regencies
and 91 cities (kota), 5 656 subdistricts
and 71 563 villages (desa!
Jakarta is the capital city of the COllntry, located 011 the island ofJava.
The total cultivated area in 2009 was 42.6 million ha, which is around 22 percent of the total
area of the country. Arable land was an estimated 23.6 million ha and the area under permanent
crops 19.0 million ha (Table 1). Eum holdings in Indonesia are
small: 34 percent are
less than 0.25 ha and a further 25 percent are between 0.25 and 0.50 ha.
Climate
Indonesia is located in a wet tropical region with an average annual rainfall of about 2 700 mm,
varying from 1 300 mm in East Nusa Tenggara to 4 300 mm in parts of Papua (Table 2)
(Bappenas, 2004).
There are two seaS011S: the dry and the wet. The dry season is influenced by the Australia
conrinemai air masses and lasts from March to August. The wet season is influenced by the Asia
Continental and Pacific air masses passing over the oceans and lasts from September to March.
The heaviest rainfall is usually from November to February.
Temperatures range from 21°C
is beC\veen 60 and 80 percent.
to
33 DC, but at higher altitudes the climate is
Humidity
Population
In 2009, the total population was almost 237 million, of which 56 percent was rural (Table
1). There are four people in an average household. Population growth rate decreased sharply,
from 2.1 percent per year during the period 1979-1989 to 1.2 percent per year from 1999 to
2009. Over time, Indonesia's population has been concentrated on Java Island, which contains
59 percent of the total population, while its land area is only 7 percent of the total land area
of the country. Therefore, population density in Java was 1 019 people/km2 in 2009, while
2
population density at the national level was 125 inhabitants per km .
In 2006, 80 percenr had access to improved drinking water sources (89 and 71
urban and rural population respectively) and sanitation coverage reached 52
for
and
,....
ｾ＠
INDONESIA
NAM
Legend
Ｌｾ＠
•••
International
Administrative
Capital, Regional Capilal, Town
o
Lake
South China
Sea
River
Dam
>0<
Celebes
/"
'v
Sea
Pacific
Ocean
-I.
Zone of Irrigation Deveiopment
"
0
_
Irrigation Scheme
0
125 250
500
ｋｯｴｏＬｾｪ｡＿ｦｚｊｩＺＮＢ＠
'fl?.. Ｌ｡､Ｎｮ｜ｬＢｦＯｾｊＺＧ
'
/ " , /'';.;):0'
,GAPOaE/ /
\'PonH.naiV"
1 r ｾｌｬ＠
ＢＧｩＮ｟ＬＺｾ＠
16 , /
_··....·'c:, /"ilI11b
｡ｮｧｬｩＡ＾ｾＮｲ＠
,_ --.
Ｍｾｮｧｵ＠'
750 km
'"'. , ' ' ' "
ＭｾＺ［ＧＮ］ＢＩ＠
ｾ＠
ｐ｡ｬＮＢＬ｢ｮｧｾ＠
c"',."",
,'/
",\.. 32/"",,
{"
\ . 6
ＸＧ［ｾ､ｊｋ＠
4
»,'
17
Lampu ｾ＠
ＬＮｾ＠
ｰＩｾｮｧｫＮｲ Ｂｾ｟Ｇ＠
',.
•.,:1")\12....,,.;
..•.
'\ l
'.1 ,nT",n ..
•..
ＭＮｾ
0,3
0.1
0.0
0.4
13.1
92.8
7.4
113.3
12
82
6
100
ＧｾＭＢ
of total
FIGURE 1
Water withdrawal by sector
Total 113.29 km 3 in 2000
, - - - - - Industry
13 km 3 (12 percent) and 7 km 3 (6 percent)
respecrively (Figure 1). In 1990, rotal water
withdrawal was about 74 kIn''' of which
93 percent for agriculture, 6 percent for
municipalities and 1 percent for industrial use.
7%
Municipalities
In 2000 surface water and groundwater
withdrawal was 84.4 percent and 15.5
percent respectively of total water withdrawal
(Figure 2). In 1990 desalinated water was an
estimated 19 million m 3 .
12%
81%
FIGURE 2
Water withdrawal by source
Total 113.29 km 3 in 2000
,..----- Desalinated water
0.02%
15.54%
Surface water
84.44%
Groundwater is used by
percent of
households for their clean water sources,
while the rest use river water (3.4 percent),
piped surface water (21.2 percent), and other
water sources (1.4 percent).
Industrial water demand has gradually
increased over time. Since piped and
open surface water supplies are relatively
limited, where the industries are located,
most use groundwater for their water source,
particularly in the large cities ofJava.
Both national and ｩｳｬ｡ｮ､Ｍ｢ｹｾ＠
water
balances are positive, meaning that water
availability is higher than consumption level.
However, in Java and Nusa Tenggara a water
deficit occurs during the dry season (July to
October, varying by the province). Even some
significantly large river areas in Java, including
Bengawan Solo, Branras, Ciliwung, Cimanuk,
Citanduy, and Ciujung, are estimated to face
water deficit problems during the dry season.
r
;
Indonesia
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT
Evolution of irrigation development
The development of community irrigation systems started more than two thousand years ago.
Modern irrigation systems were introduced in the middle of the nineteenth century. Small
irrigation systems developed by the communities in Java covered a.total of 1.1 million ha in
1880. This asset was very significant at that time since the total population of Java was only
19.5 million. The developmem of irrigation systems grew at a rare of 1.21 percent per year
in the period 1880-1915, covering 1.62 million ha in 1915. The Dutch colonial government
developed the first large irrigation system, 34000 ha, in Sidorajo delta in East Java by lIsing the
Bramas river water Hows.
A full-technological irrigation and drainage system was first developed during the 18805 in
Demak, Central Java, on 33 800 ha. This system was developed to address the famine caused
by dtought and floods in the area. 'The Bllrgcrlijke Openbare \l?{;rken, which later became the
Department of Publi ha and < ha
ha
Large-scale schemes
Total number of households in irrigation
< ha
ha
Irrigated crops in full control irrigation schemes
Total irrigated grain production (wheat and barley)
metric tons
• as % of total grain production
Harvested crops
%
Total harvested irrigated cropped area
• Annual crops: total
- Rice
- Rice-one
- Rice-two
- Rice-three
- Maize
- Soyabeans
2005
13 388358
ha
2005
2005
13 388 358
10 733 600
ha
ha
2005
4541 200
2005
2005
3869200
2323200
1 269100
ha
ha
2005
2005
ha
ha
279900
ha
- Vegetables
2005
244388
ha
- Tobacco
198200
ha
- Potatoes
2005
2005
65420
ha
- Sweet Potatoes
2005
ha
- Groundnuts
2005
178300
324 000
- Sugarcane
2005
95450
ha
2005
199
%
1990
3350 000
ha
• Permanent crops: total
Irrigated cropping intensity (on full control irrigation equipped area)
ha
ha
Drainage - Environment
Total drained area
- part of the area equipped for irrigation drained
ha
ha
- other drained area (non-irrigated)
• drained area as % of cultivated area
Flood-protected areas
Area salinized by irrigation
Population affected by water-related diseases
%
1999
400 000
2005
5111472
ha
ha
inhabitants
ｾ
Irrigation in SoutlJiTn find Eastem Asia
290
TABLE 7
Distribution of water managed areas by types, 2005 (ha)
Irrigation
6722299
Technical
4781 860
Semi technical
1 257 197
AQU4STAT Survey - 2011
Role of irrigation in
agricultural production,
economy and society
One of the main objectives of irrigation
Decision of the Coordinator Ministry on Economy
>- Decision of the Ministry of Settlements and Regional Infrastructures (Dept of Public
Works)
y Decision of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
>- Decision of the Ministry of Environment
>- Provincial Regulations on formation of the agencies for water resources development
(8 provinces)
Y Provincial Regulations on water pollution control (4 provinces)
>- Governor Decisions on development of the Coordination Teams for Provincial Water
Resources Management (8 provinces)
>- District and Municipality Regulation concerning water resources for domestic,
agricultural and industrial use.
ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH
The strategic geographical location, accompanied by high rainfall, mountainous geography,
as well as large forest resources, have led Indonesia to be rich in water resources. However,
environmental changes are influencing the water cycle, which causes uneven distribution
of water supply. The imbalanced water supply is a serious problem, since it might lead to a
number of natural disasters. Flooding occurs during the rainy season, while drought is frequent
in the dry season.
Massive deforestation and environmental degradation have been caused by these extreme
conditions. Massive deforestation in the upper parts of the watershed has caused the rainfall
to runoff more freely, and to concentrate more rapidly into the waterways, thus causing flash
floods. Owing to the high level of municipal and indumiai waste, many rivers are significantly or
293
294
IrrigatioJ/ in Southern and Eastern Asia in figures - AQUASFAF Survey
2011
seriously polluted. It has nor been possible (0 quantify the costs of pollution to the economy, but
major COStS have been identified in sickness and the resulting loss of work; pollurion is so severe
in major cities, such as Jakarta and Surabaya, that industries have been forced to dose during dry
years because of raw \vater shortages. Costs have also been accounted by calculating the losses in
fisheries and aquaculture, and by the damage suffered by mangroves and fragile coastal areas.
\Yater pollution poses an immediate threat (0 human welfare and industrial growth. This problem
is exacerbated by water shortage in the dry season, which prevents waste from being flushed
away from the inhabited centers. The most excessive pollutant in Indonesian rivers is faecal
coliform from human waste. This element exceeds the recommended standards in key citics by a
thousand-fold or more. \'Vater-bornc diseases such as cholera, dysentery, gastroenteritis, typhoid,
paratyphoid, hepatitis A, and parasitic intestinal infection, are transmitted by the ingestion of
water contaminated with human feces. The transmission of these diseases is frequently related
(0 lack of available safe water. Improvement of water and sanitation can be expected to reduce
diarrheal mortality and morbidity.
The number of people with AIDS and HIV infection is reported to have increased over time. In
2004, the number of people witb AIDS was 2 682, of tbese 700 people have died. This showed
that the AIDS rate was about 1.33 cases per 100 000 people. In 2005, there were 5 560 people
infected with HJV/AIDS.
PROSPECTS fOR AGRICULTURAL
MANAGEM
Issues of water resources management will be increasingly important in the vears ahead,
especially in Java, which covers only 7 percent of the total area of the country, but has 59
percent of tbe population, 70 percent of irrigated agriculture, and 75 percent of the industry.
Issues of water quantity include emerging conflicts between competing uses (agricultural,
industrial and municipal), and between surface water and groundwater in rapidly growing
urban areas. While Java is endowed with rainfall, it is highly seasonal. Dry season flows in the
main rivers are only 20 percent of the annual flows. River basins on Java are relatively steep
and short, and most of the wet season water runs unused inro the sea. Reservoirs hold less than
5 percent of total river flows.
During the wet season, river flows bring high rates of sedimentation resulting from excessive
erosion in the upstream part of the basin. This causes very fast sedimentation rates in reservoirs
and lakes, making the lifetime of reservoirs shorter than planned, as well as reducing storage
capacities. Most of the reservoircapacity of major river basins in Java (Bengawan Solo, Brantas,
Citarum, Serayn-Bogowonro) was planned to meet the water demand for various uses up to
2010. While additional sites have been identified for future dams, implementation will be
constrained by high population densities and the social and economic costs of resettlement.
Though industrial and municipal water use is still relatively low, it will increase over time.
Meeting this demand will require a transfer of water in dry season from agriculture to municipal
and industrial use. Minimizing the social and economic cOSts for farmers and potential
disruption to agricultural output will require that water resources will be managed according
to the integrated river basin principle. The challenge of meeting the water demand during the
dry season is becoming even more complex if the pollution from growing urban and industrial
waste is considered.
Based on the above conditions, an integrated action is needed to reverse the present trends of
over-consumption, pollution, and increasing threat of drought and floods. To support water
resources development and management, the government has proposed an Integrated Waler
Resources Management Policy framework to suppOrt and guide deveiopmem and conservation
Indonesia
effort. The policy is addressing water quamit)' and quality for both surface water and
groundwater in the comext of river basins, including the upper parts of the basins and estuarine
areas. A specific ｣ｾＩｭｰｯｮ･ｲ＠
of the policy is dealing with environmentally and socially sensitive
swampland development issues.
The future of irrigation should be considered as an integral framework to increase human welfare,
to provide social justice, and to maimain ecosystem sustainability. Along with overcoming water
and land resources problems, some national action should be taken, including: improving
agricultural infrastructure, increasing the quality of intensification, improving the institutions,
conducting reforestation and re-greening programmes.
MAIN SOURCES OF INFORMATION
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Balance).
Bappenas. 2004. Sumberd{qa Alam dan Lingkungtln Hidup Indonesia: Altura Krisis elm Pelutll1g
(Natuml I'csources and environments
Indonesia: between crisis and
Bappenas,
Jakarta.
Department of Public Works. 2006. Buku Induk Kestatistikan Pekeljtlili1 Umum lahun 2006.
Sekretarian Jenderal Pusdata, Departemen Pekerjaan U1l1Ull1, Jakarta.
FAO. 1999. Irrigation in Asia in figures. FAG i¥ft1ter Report 18. FAO, Rome.
FAO. 2003. Review of world water resources by country. FAG W't1ter Report 23. FAO, Rome.
Irianto, Gatot. 2007. Pe1'Ubahan lkfim Terhadap Ketersediaan Air (Bahim Presentasi). Direktorat
Jenderal Pengelolaan Lahan Dan Air, Departemen Pertanian RI, Jakarta.
Ministry of Public Works. 2006. Rekapitulasi Daerah
Tahun 2005. (Available at: http://
W\vw. pu.go.idl publiklind!produk/info_statistik! _index. asp, accessed August 19, 2009).
Pasandaran, Effendi. 2006. Politik Ekonomi Sumberdaya Air (Political economy of water
resources)' Ch,1pter I in: Effindi Pasandaran, Bambang Sayaka, and Tri Pranadji
2006,
Pengelolaan Lahan dan Air di Indonesia (Land and water mantlge1l1ent in Indonesia). Badan
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perranian, Departmen Pertanian, Jakarta.
Statistics Indonesia. 2005. Agricultural survey: land area by utilization in Indonesi,1 2005.
Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.
Statistics Indonesia. 2006. Environmental statistics of Indonesia 2005. Statistics Indonesia,
Jakarta.
Statistics Indonesia. 2007. Statistical year book ofIndonesia 2007 Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.
Suprapto, Ato. 2001. Land and water resources development in Indonesi{l in FAG (2002).
Investment in Land and \Vater, Proceedings of the Regional Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand,
3-5 October 2001.
Syaukat, Yusman. 2000. Economics ofintegrated surface and ground water use management in the
jakarta region, Indonesia. PhD Dissertation, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Witoelar, Erna. Undated. "Water in the twenty-first century Looming the aisis: integrated water
management in Indonesia. Ministry of Settlements and Regional Infrastructure, Jakarta.
\Vorld Bank. 1994. Indonesia: environment and development - A v/or/d Bank country study.
World Bank, Washington, DC.
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