Improving Local Feed Resource to Increase Nutrient Availability to Support Sustainable Agriculture
Consumer Preferences in Meat
Louw Hoffman & Donna Cawthorn
Department of Animal Sciences, Stellenbosch University, P Bag X1 Stellenbosch,
7602 South Africa.
e-mail: lch@sun.ac.za
Abstract
This paper addresses some of the requirements of modern consumers for fresh
and processed meats. A focus is placed on the sensory quality attributes of meat
tenderness, juiciness, flavour and odour and how these relate to the needs of the
consumer. At the same time, cognizance is taken of the currentrequirements for healthy
and nutritious food products, especially as pertaining to the lipid composition and
the salt in the diet.Consumer desires for convenient and ready-to-eat meat products
are discussed, as are some important issues surrounding process and/or production
characteristics and their relation to animal welfare.
Keywords: meat, preference
Introducton
Anmal producers around the world are currently faced wth the common
challenge of tryng to feed the seven bllon people on earth wth an ever-dmnshng
supply of natural resources. Not only are there global decreases n the amount of
sutable land avalable for farmng, butthere are also a number of other unversal
hardshps beng faced, such as extreme weather patterns, degradaton of land due
to unsound farmng practces and ncreases n zoonotc dseases. The only manner
by whch the producton of meat proten can be ncreased s for anmal producers
to become more scentfc n ther producton methodologes. Ths wll almost
certanly necesstate an ncrease n the ntensfcaton of anmal producton systems.
Nonetheless, modern consumers are frequently expressng aversons to consumng
meat that s derved from an ntensve ‘factory-lke’ producton system.
The ntensfcaton of anmal producton nvarably leads to theprovson
of balanced feeds to the anmals. Ths brngs the needs of the anmals nto drect
opposton wth those of humans, where both would be competng for proten
and energy resources such as those typcally suppled by cereals and other crops.
Addtonally, a strong contender for these energy resources s the bo-fuel ndustry.
Ths has caused many of the feedlot ndustres to use metabolc enhancers (Dkeman,
2007; Hansen, Frylnck& Strydom, 2012) so as to mprove the food converson
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effcency of the system. On the other hand, the use of antbotcs n feed are a common
practce n the poultry ndustres, and to a lesser extent n the pork ndustres(Sofos,
2008). The use of stmulants and antbotcs, however, once agan leads to mxed
perceptons among consumers, prmarly snce dfferent countres may permt or
ban the use thereof.
Another major challenge faced by food producers s to ensure that hghly
pershable products reach the market n a‘safe’ manner, wth a mnmal decrease
n qualty. A large proporton of the meat producton n the world s from regons
that are stuated far from the market, such as s the case n the South Amercas.
Such stuatonsdepend crtcally on the mantenance of the cold chan throughout
transportaton so as to mnmse post-harvest waste. The transportaton of meat across
the globe also has mplcatons n terms of the costs and the carbon footprnt. The
latter, n partcular, has led to consumer movements n some frst-world countres
that promote the purchasng of“locally produced”foods sncethese are perceved to
be more sustanable or envronmentally-frendly.
Another major soco-economc challenge currently beng faced relates to the
fact that a large proporton of the world’s people do not possess suffcent fnancal
means to purchase hgh-qualty proten sources, such as those produced from anmals.
In stark contrast, another porton of the world populaton may have a great surplus
of fnancal resources and these ndvduals can often be hghly crtcal n ther food
choces. In the latter case, extrnsc cues such as the carbon footprnt and anmal
welfare ssues assocated wth the producton process become ncreasngly mportant
purchasng drvers (Grunert, 2006) and the more affluent consumers are frequently
wllng to pay a prce premum for ther choces (Bennett, Anderson &Blaney, 2002).
Although many producers have a strong socal responsblty towards feedng the
world’s populaton, they are also faced wth the realty of havng to be economcally
vable. In other words, farmers wll not produce food unless t s economcally
feasble for them to do so. Accordng to the Unted Natons Food and Agrcultural
Organzaton (FAO), agrcultural output wll need to ncrease by 70% by 2050 n
order to feed the world’s populaton. Such a forecast wll requre the producton of
another bllon tonnes of food gran and 200 mllon tonnes of lvestock meat. The
key to ncreasng food producton from anmals wll rely on the mprovement of
productvty through selectvely usng genetc technologes to breed for ncreased
anmal producton crtera (Gao, Zhang, Hu & L, 2007; Allan & Smth, 2008). These
breedng objectves should smultaneously also address welfare-frendly objectves,
such as enhanced dsease resstance (Thomas, Scollan& Moran, 2011). Other means
of fulfllng the predcted requrementsmay nclude the breedng of anmals that are
approprate or well-suted to ther envronments (Slankove, 2000;Gregory, 2010;
Crane, Elmore, Olsen &Tolleson, 2010; Bell, Charmley, Hunter & Archer, 2011).
Although all ndcatons are that the prce of meat as a proten source wll
contnue to ncrease n the future, the demand for ths commodty s also set to ncrease.
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Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
The ncrease n demand s strongly lnked to the huge ncrease n buyng power from
Chna and Inda. The wealther consumer, who can afford red meat, s frequently
also a well-educated and travelled person who places value on the qualty aspects of
the meat (Martell, 2009). However, ths perceved qualty s mult-dmensonal and
ncludes sensory qualty, healthness, convenence and process characterstcs lke
anmal welfare and producton (frequently ‘organc’) systems (Grunert, 2006). The
pressure on red meat sales due to the worldwde economc recesson has caused a
reapprasal of the factors whch nfluence ts appeal to consumers, whch ultmately
all comes back down to the qualty of the meat. Accordng to Wood, Enser, Fsher,
Nute, Rchardson &Sheard (1999), some of the factors determnng meat qualty
nclude the absence of mcrobal hazards, the preventon of anmal explotaton, the
sensory appeal of the meat and the perceved healthness, especally n relaton to
the amount and type of fat.
Sensory Qualty
Irrespectve of the purchasng ablty of the consumer, each ndvdual nevtably
wants to have the best eatng experence for ther money. In the lower ncome groups,
meat s eaten for ts nutrtonal value, whle n the hgher ncome groups t s often
consumed for the eatng experence tself. In fact, the consumpton of meat s seen
as a sgn of prosperty and wealth. Thus, as the wealth of a communty ncreases,
sodoes ther meat consumpton (Aaslyng, 2009). However, the type and amount of
meat consumed s nfluenced byother factors, such as gender, age and martal status.
Men eat more meat n general and a greater proporton of red meat than women
(revewed by Aaslyng, 2009). Addtonally, older people typcally eat more meat
n general and a greater proporton of red meat than chldren. Famles also tend
to eat more meat than sngle people. Interestngly, Aaslyng (2009) notes that lesseducated, adult men exhbt one of the hghest levels of meat consumpton, whle
young, well-educated women show one of the lowest levels of consumpton.
It s self-evdent that the tradtonal manner n whch meat s prepared wll
nfluence the qualty descrptors. A consumer eatng a fresh steak wll have dfferent
qualty cues compared to one eatng a tradtonally dry/smoked or stewed meat
product. Although a large amount of research has focused on the qualty attrbutes
of fresh meat (typcally consumed as steaks), the desre for greater convenence n
meal preparaton has also resulted n an ncrease n the consumpton of ready-to-eat
meat products. The qualty attrbutes of these would also dffer and be more focused
on perceved healthness (fat levels, cholesterol, salt concentratons) and ease of
preparaton and consumpton, wth tme-savng beng of essence.
Ultmately, meat s consumed for pleasure. For fresh meats such as steaks, chops
and roasts, three sensory attrbutes are of major mportance for the hedonc value of
the meat: tenderness, jucness and flavour (both n the presence of fred flavour and
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the absence of off-flavours) (Aaslyng, 2009). These three attrbutes have receved a
huge research focus n the past and wll contnue to receve attenton n the future.
The value of each characterstc also dffers wthn each stuaton. For nstance,
when meat s very tender, then the value placed on jucness and flavour becomes
more mportant. However, tenderness s the most mportant of the three. It s now
well establshed that no sngle factor nfluences these characterstcs, but that t s
rather a cumulatve effect of a large number of factors that are extrnsc and ntrnsc
to the anmal tself. The modern scentfc anmal producer wll use a number of
technologes (such as DNA markers for meat qualty trats) and producton systems
(ntensve feedlot that restrct movement thereby mnmsng the effect of exercse
on muscle colour and toughness) to ensure that a fresh product s produced that
meets the expected hedonc value deemed approprate by the consumer. However,
t s also known that a number of negatve actvtes along the supply chan could
negate these technologes.Of specal nterest to the modern dscernng consumer s
the welfare status of the anmals n transt to the abattor (see secton 6).
The aforementoned qualty characterstcs are all applcable to cooked meat.
Pror to cookng, the meat has to be purchased and the prmary qualty characterstc
at ths tme s the vsual appearance (colour of the meat). The colour of the meat s
determned by numerous extrnsc and ntrnsc factors such as the age of the anmal,
the envronment n whch the anmal was rased (.e. whether t was exposed to a
hgh level of physcal actvty), the muscle type, the concentraton of myoglobn
pgments and then the chemcal state of the myoglobn (Mancn, 2009; Mancn
&Hunt, 2005). Other factors such as ante mortem stress also lead to abnormal colour
developments, such as dark, frm and dry (DFD) or pale soft and exudatve (PSE)
meat. The former s typcally assocated wth the meatfrom rumnants, whlst the
latter s more frequent wth that from monogastrc anmals. The stressor that causes
these abnormal phenomenon are typcally nduced by human-anmal nteractons
(Coleman & Hemsworth, 2012), but can also be caused by other factors such as
extreme weather fluctuatons (Kng, Wheeler, Shackelford &Koohmarae, 2009).
After the meat has been purchased and cooked, the next mportant qualty
characterstc s the tenderness. Ths characterstc also plays a very mportant role
n the consumer’s wllngness to repurchase the same product (Aaslyng, 2009).
Although t s well recognsed that the age of the anmal plays an mportant role n
determnng the tenderness of meat (older anmals have more heat stable collagen),
most anmals slaughtered n ntensve producton unts are young adults, of whch a
large proporton are ntact males. Age-nduced toughness s thus generally of lessor
mportance. Other factors such as ante mortem stress also play an mportant role
(Kng et al., 2009; Terlouw, Bourguet&Dess, 2012) n terms of tenderness. When
anmals experence stress, they frequently try and move away from the stressor,whch
results n the metabolsm of glycogen reserves pror to death. The entre aerobc/
anaerobc metabolsm s nfluenced, causng thepost mortem lactc acd producton
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Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
(measured as pH) to devate from the norm and resultng n ether DFD or PSE.
Ths n turnmpactson the actvty of the proteolytc enzymes that are responsble
for tendersng the meat (Devne et al., 2006). Numerous strateges may be appled
n an attempt tonegate the decrease n tenderness, ncludngelectrcal stmulaton,
carcass suspenson, chllng regme, agng, use of external enzymes, mechancal,
hydrodynamc shock, pressure and pre-rigor stretchng (Thompson, 2002; Farouk,
Wklund &Rosenvold, 2009). Nonetheless, all of these methods are costly, and the
qualty of the end product stll frequently dffers consderably from that expected of
the fresh meat product. Of specal note n ths regardare the Bosindicus breeds that
are known to have hgher levels of calpastatn, the nhbtor for the calpan enzymes,
causng the meat from these breeds to be tougher (Shackelford, Koohmarae, Mller,
Crouse & Reagan, 1991; Strydom, 2006).
Jucness s an mportant factor n the eatng qualty of meat, although ts
mportance s determned by the specfc meat product beng consumed.For nstance,
jucness s more mportant when consumng a steak than t s when consumng
that meat whch has been cut nto small strps for a stew. Whereas ante mortem
stress plays an mportant factor n determnng the water-bndng capacty of fresh
muscle (by nfluencng the rate of decrease of muscle pH as well as the fnal pH), the
man factor determnng the jucness of meat s the end-pont temperature durng
the cookng (Aaslyng, 2009).Increased amounts of ntermuscular fat also ncreases
jucness, especally when the meat s cooked at a hgh temperature. Aaslyng (2009)
noted that the most mportant factor to ncrease the jucness of meat s to educate
the consumer on not over-cookng the meat. However, ethnc dfferences n food
preparaton also have to be taken nto account when addressng ths parameter.
The flavour of any meat s a combnaton of ts taste and aroma, whch are
strongly nfluenced by addtonal factors such as mouthfeel and jucness. Raw
meat has hardly any aroma and only a blood-lke flavour. Durng the applcaton
of heat, a complex seres of thermally-nduced reactons occur between the nonvolatle components of the lean and fatty tssues (Elmore &Mottram, 2009). Over
1000 volatle compounds have been dentfed n meat. Elmore &Mottram (2009)
revewed the two man reactons that result n flavour development as meat s
cooked. The frst s the Mallard reacton, occurrng between the reducng sugars
and amno acds, and whch s responsble for the typcal meaty flavour and savoury,
roast and boled character. The second factor s lpd degradaton that results n fatty
aromas typcally found n cooked meat. Inevtably, t s also the fat composton that
s responsble for the flavour and aroma dfferences between speces (Wasserman &
Talley, 1968).
The det has a strong nfluence on the fatty acd composton of anmals, especally
when consderng monogastrc anmals. In rumnants, the rumen mcroorgansms n
the dgestve system have a major mpact on the composton of fatty acds leavng
the rumen for absorpton n the small ntestne (Jenkns, 1993; Doreau&Chllard,
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
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1997). Mcrobal enzymes derved from Butyrivibriofibrisolvensare responsble for
the somersaton and hydrolyss of detary lpds and the converson of unsaturated
fatty acds (UFA) to varous partally and fully saturated dervatves, ncludng
conjugated lnolec acd (CLA: C18:2 cs-9, t-11) (c), trans vaccenc acd (C18:1 t11) (VA) and stearic acid (C18:0). Althoughlinoleic (C18:2 n−6) (LA) and linolenic
(C18:3 n−3) (ALA) acids are the main UFA in the diet of ruminants, the processes
occurrng wthn the rumen ensure that the major fatty acd leavng the rumen s
C18:0. The uptake of UFA nto the small ntestne by rumnants s smlar to that
n non-rumnant anmals, but dffers n the case of saturated fatty acds (SFA)
(Bauchart, 1993). The ntestnal absorpton co-effcent of ndvdual fatty acds
s hgher n rumnants than n non-rumnants, rangng from 80% for SFA to 92%
for polyunsaturated fatty acds (PUFA) n conventonal low fat dets. The hgher
absorpton effcency of SFA by rumnants has been attrbuted to the greater capacty
of the ble salt and lysophospholpdmcellar system to solublse fatty acds, as well
as the acd condtons wthn the duodenum and jejunum (pH 3.0–6.0). The low pH
s due to a low concentraton of pancreatc hydrogen carbonate whch reduces the
converson of SFA nto nsoluble calcum salts (whch cannot be absorbed by the
enterocytes). However, tracylglycerol resynthess n rumnants takes place va the
glycerol-6-phosphate pathway due to the vrtual absence of 2-monoacylglycerol.
The resyntheszed lpd s carred as lpoprotens, chylomcrons and very low densty
lpoprotens (VLDLP) n the blood stream for uptake by the lpoproten lpase
enzyme and ncorporaton nto the tssues. An mportant dfference between nonrumnant and rumnant anmals s that n the latter, the long chan PUFA, C20 and
C22, are not ncorporated to any great extent nto tracylglycerols, but nstead are
ncorporated nto the membrane phospholpds and wll be deposted n sgnfcant
amounts n the ntramuscular tssue (Enser, Hallett, Hewett, Fursey& Wood,1996;
Offer, Marsden, Dxon, Speake& Thacker,1999).
Healthness
The past number of years has been characterzed by an ncrease n consumer
nterest n ther nutrton and health, whch has resulted n the development of health
drectves by governments for some food components, especally fats (Smopoulos,
2001).
Beef, Lamb and mutton contan hgh concentratons of SFA, so much so that
ther PUFA:SFA rato s lower than the recommended mnmum value of 0.45 for
human dets. The excessveconsumpton of food wth a hgh proporton of SFA s
a major predsposng factor to the rsk of coronary heart dseases (CHD), hypertenson, stroke, dabetes and obesty n humans, whch has led to a worldwde declne
n red meat consumpton (Webb, Casey & Van Nekerk,1994; Moloney, Mooney,
Kerry & Troy, 2001). Although the relatonshp between detary fat and the n14
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
cdence of dseases assocated wth the modern lfestyle are wdely documented,
especally CHD (Krtchevsky, 1998, 2000) and varous cancers (Wood et al., 2003),
ths has also been challenged n the past few years (McAfee et al., 2010). As an example, n a meta-analyss and revew of epdemologcal cohort studes, no ndependent assocaton could be found between the consumpton of anmal fat and breast
cancer (Alexander, Mormoto, Mnk & Lowe, 2010). The low PUFA:SFA rato of
rumnants s a consequence of the extensve bohydrogenaton of ngested PUFA
by the rumen mcroorgansms, leadng to the formaton of trans-MUFAs and SFA,
whch are then ncorporated nto the lpds n the muscle (Jenkns, 1993).
The degree of saturaton of anmal fats s nfluenced by ts fatty acd composton
(Webb & Casey, 1995). Accordngly, the qualty of fat s determned by the fatty
acd composton, whch affects the palatablty and shelf lfe. As mentoned, a
shft n fatty acd composton can be nduced by means of detary manpulaton,
whch wll subsequently enhance the nutrtonal qualty of red meat and fat qualty.
Detary manpulaton strateges are also avalable that mnmse bohydrogenaton
of ngested PUFA n the rumen (Chkunya, Demrel, Enser, Wood, Wlknson &
Snclar, 2004).
Another aspect that has been the focus of consumer attenton as pertanng to
red meat s the level of sodum (Na), due to ts correlaton wth hgh blood pressure.
Epdemologcal studes ndcate a postve assocaton between excessve ntake of
Na, blood pressure and prevalence of hypertenson (Appel et al., 2006). However,
the Na levels n fresh meat are low. Rather, t s frequently the hgh levels of salt
(NaCl) that are added to many processed meats consumed n the western det that
leads to an elevaton n the Na levels. However, consumers are generally not always
able to dstngush between the Na n fresh meat and that n processed meat.
Convenence
Wthn the current sophstcated world, the purchasng behavour of the consumer has changed. Typcally n an economcally vbrant socety, tme sofpremum
value and the modern consumer prefers the purchasng of a convenent product.
Ths product should ether be a ready-to-eat (RTE) one or t shouldbe packaged n
such a manner that t requres mnmal preparaton tme.The food ndustry has largely addressed ths consumer desre by developng and producng a varety of RTE
products whch are now wdely marketed n retal outlets across the globe. Snce
RTE products generally requre mnmal processng on the part of the consumer, the
safety standards for these are normally strngent and are most often addressed by the
mplementaton ofa strong HACCP (Hazard Analyss Crtcal Control Ponts) plan
n most manufacturng facltes. In addton, a number of novel packagng strateges have been developed to extend the shelf-lfe of RTE products, such as modfed
atmospherc packagng (McMlln, 2008).
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Wth food safety and transparency n mnd, most countres have nowenactedfood
labellng regulatons that requre that certan nformaton be dsplayed on packagng,
whch ncludes (but s not lmted to) a full ngredent lst, nutrtonal composton
data,recommended daly allowances (RDAs), as well as the declaraton of certan
common allergens.A great deal of research, however, has shown that consumers
frequently experence dffculty n understandng much of the nformaton presented
on food labels (Shannon, 1993; Sadler, 1999; Kempden, 2011). When ndvduals
do not understand labellng or nformaton overload arses, they tend to avod the
presented nformaton altogether (Kaswell&Padberg, 1992) and food labels become
an neffectve nformaton source and do not serve as successful purchasng drvers
(Kempden, 2011).
New nnovatve moble phone technology now allows consumers to selectvely
acqure addtonal nformaton on certan characterstcs of food products, and n
so dong, asssts wth ther nterpretaton of food labels. Usng such applcatons,
ndvduals are able to scan food product barcodes n store usng ther cellular phones
and they can thereafter browse nformaton relatng to the nutrtonal composton
of the product, the farm of orgn, the carbon footprnt and other pertnent content
relatng to anmal treatment and envronmental sustanablty. Another technologcal
trend geared towards convenence s shoppng on-lne, whch permts consumers to
choose whch products they wsh to purchase wthout gong nto the store.
Although there has undoubtedlybeen an ncreased preference for convenence
foods, there has also been a recent consumer trend towards the purchasng of ‘homegrown’or ‘locally-produced’ products, typcally from weekend markets or farmstalls. The drvng deology behnd ths trend s that‘home-grown’ and ‘local’ s best,
wth all attrbutes lnked to the modern concepts of organcally-produced, carbon
foot prnt and so forth, whch encompasses not only the producton system but also
the value chan as pertanng to transport and packagng. Underlyng the purchasng
of these products s a belef that they are healthy and safe to consume (Gellynck,
Verbeke&Vermere (2006), whch may not always be the case, especally where
there are no authortes to ensure that the necessary regulatons are adhered to.
Process/producton characterstcs
The response to anmal welfare s largely a ctzen response based on extrnsc and
ntrnsc cues (Grunert, 2006). However, there are an ncreasng number of consumers
who are wllng to pay more for a product that s perceved to have been produced n
an ethcal manner, that ncludes accepted standards and norms as pertanng to anmal
welfare (Bennett et al., 2002; Napoltano, Grolam&Bragher, 2010). Of course, the
credblty of the authentcaton authorty s of utmost mportance as pertanng to the
consumer’s wllngness to pay for the product beng endorsed (Martell, 2009; Van
Loo et al., 2011). Anmal scentsts, food scentsts and consumers all have dfferent
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Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
deas and perceptons onthe defntons ofmeat qualty.There are unquestonably
certan congruences and dvergences between producers and consumers (Sepúlveda,
Maza&Pardos, 2011), ndcatng that the flow of nformaton between these two
ends of the value chan requres further development. To an anmal scentst, qualty
would be lnked to producton performance, wherethe welfare aspects would be
underwrtten by the followng fve basc prncples: adequate ar, water, and feed;
safe housng and suffcent space; approprate complexty of the envronment;
regular supervson and effectve health care; sensble handlng. On the other hand,
for a food scentst, qualty would be lnked to aspects measurable n the product,
such as pH, colour, chemcal composton as well as sensory characterstcs. For the
consumer, the followng major dmensons have been dentfed whch are consdered
as beng relevant to the qualty of anmal products: sensory characterstcs, ncludng
taste, odour, appearance, texture; healthness, as anmal-based foods are assocated
wth ther composton; ntake of essental nutrents but these are also frequently
deemed as potentally mparng human health (e.g. source of saturated fatty acds,
vector of nfectons or pollutants); convenence, concernng the ease of preparaton;
and process characterstcs, dealng wth the way food products of anmal orgn
are obtaned, ncludng farmng systems, even though these aspects may have no
effects on the other qualty dmensons (Grunert, Beach-Larsen &Bredal, 2000).
Each dmenson ams to satsfy consumer purchase motves or values wthn the
correspondng context (Grunert, 2006).
The anmal producer s well aware that f they were to abde by the basc
prncples of anmal welfare, the producton performance of the anmals would be
mproved. In dary cattle, for nstance, close human nteracton wth the anmal wll
result n better mlk yeld (Hemsworth, Coleman, Barnett, Borg & Dowlng, 2002).
In young glts, a postve experence wth the stockperson wll result n larger ltter
szes (Hemsworth, Barnett, Coleman & Hansen, 1989), however, an mportant
aspect n ths regard would be the anmal-stockperson nteracton and the atttude
of the latter to anmals (Hemsworth, 2003).It s therefore n the best nterest of the
producer to ensure that the anmal s comfortable and has all ts needs addressed. It
s also well known that the anmal welfare, especally as relatng to the ante mortem
stress experenced by an anmal, wll result n a declne n meat qualty (Mach, Bach,
Velarde& Devant, 2008). However, n the developng world n partcular, producers
frequently have no nputs nto the value chan of the anmal leavng the farm en
route to the abattor, nor do they have any nput on the actvtes assocated durng
the offloadng, larage and ultmately stunnng and kllng of the anmal.Hoffman
and Lühl(2012), for nstance,noted that there were numerous factors contrbutng to
the stress (brusng) of cattle durng thertransportaton n Namba that were outsde
the control of the producer. Addtonally, Hoffman and Fsher (2010) found that
the condton of the roads nfluenced the stress experenced by pgs en route to
the abattor. Smlarly, Huertaset al. (2010) also reported that the condtons of the
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road nfluenced the level of brusng and thus the welfare of cattle transported to
slaughterhouses n Uruguay. Alamet al. (2010) found that the treatment of cattle
and spent water buffalos n Bangladesh at the pont of sale and durng the transport
to the abattor dd not adhere to anmal welfare gudelnes. Most of the welfare
malpractces noted was caused by others along the process/value chan and not the
producer.It s of further nterest to note that as from 1 January 2013, all countres
exportng meat nto the EU wll have to meet the requrements of Councl Regulaton
(EC) No 1099/2009 (2009), whch ncludes requrements n the followng areas: the
layout, constructon and equpment of slaughterhouses, handlng and restranng of
anmals and stunnng and slaughter (Cassdy, 2012).
In some cases, the modern marketplace tself places requrements on the
producers that are actually detrmental to the anmal’s welfare, for example, the
regulatons found n most countresrequrng that cattle be dentfed pror to
beng slaughtered. Ths practce results n the excessve handlng of cattle durng
musterng n Namba where the anmals need to be hot branded for ownershp
dentfcaton (Hoffman &Lühl, 2012). In the revew by Gregory (2008), t was
concluded that the addtonal handlng mposed by checkng lvestock passports
needs to be reconsdered and that the use of remote anmal dentfcaton methods
may help solve anmal welfare problems assocated wth the readng of ear tags.
For the modern consumer, the dea of a wet market where lve anmals are kept and
slaughtered n publc s abhorrent, not only from the perceved nhumane treatment
of the anmals, but also from the beastalty response nvoked when the anmal s
butchered n publc. Gregory (2008) expands on the welfare ssues related to wet
markets such as excess handlng and rudmentary care.
Concluson
It s clear that as the profle of the modern consumer changes, ther requrements
for fresh meat and meat products are concurrently modfed. Today, more emphass
s beng placed on the ethcal producton of meat and t effect on the envronment.
Fortunately for the anmal producer, ethcal producton and treatment for anmals
s postvely correlated wth good welfare practces. To meet the ncreasng global
demand for anmal proten, producers wll need to become more scentfc n ther
producton systems – even when farmng extensvely. An area where there wll be
a rapd ncrease n the near future wll be the genetc selecton of anmals to ensure
that ther performance meets the requrements of the consumer.
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Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
Louw Hoffman & Donna Cawthorn
Department of Animal Sciences, Stellenbosch University, P Bag X1 Stellenbosch,
7602 South Africa.
e-mail: lch@sun.ac.za
Abstract
This paper addresses some of the requirements of modern consumers for fresh
and processed meats. A focus is placed on the sensory quality attributes of meat
tenderness, juiciness, flavour and odour and how these relate to the needs of the
consumer. At the same time, cognizance is taken of the currentrequirements for healthy
and nutritious food products, especially as pertaining to the lipid composition and
the salt in the diet.Consumer desires for convenient and ready-to-eat meat products
are discussed, as are some important issues surrounding process and/or production
characteristics and their relation to animal welfare.
Keywords: meat, preference
Introducton
Anmal producers around the world are currently faced wth the common
challenge of tryng to feed the seven bllon people on earth wth an ever-dmnshng
supply of natural resources. Not only are there global decreases n the amount of
sutable land avalable for farmng, butthere are also a number of other unversal
hardshps beng faced, such as extreme weather patterns, degradaton of land due
to unsound farmng practces and ncreases n zoonotc dseases. The only manner
by whch the producton of meat proten can be ncreased s for anmal producers
to become more scentfc n ther producton methodologes. Ths wll almost
certanly necesstate an ncrease n the ntensfcaton of anmal producton systems.
Nonetheless, modern consumers are frequently expressng aversons to consumng
meat that s derved from an ntensve ‘factory-lke’ producton system.
The ntensfcaton of anmal producton nvarably leads to theprovson
of balanced feeds to the anmals. Ths brngs the needs of the anmals nto drect
opposton wth those of humans, where both would be competng for proten
and energy resources such as those typcally suppled by cereals and other crops.
Addtonally, a strong contender for these energy resources s the bo-fuel ndustry.
Ths has caused many of the feedlot ndustres to use metabolc enhancers (Dkeman,
2007; Hansen, Frylnck& Strydom, 2012) so as to mprove the food converson
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
9
effcency of the system. On the other hand, the use of antbotcs n feed are a common
practce n the poultry ndustres, and to a lesser extent n the pork ndustres(Sofos,
2008). The use of stmulants and antbotcs, however, once agan leads to mxed
perceptons among consumers, prmarly snce dfferent countres may permt or
ban the use thereof.
Another major challenge faced by food producers s to ensure that hghly
pershable products reach the market n a‘safe’ manner, wth a mnmal decrease
n qualty. A large proporton of the meat producton n the world s from regons
that are stuated far from the market, such as s the case n the South Amercas.
Such stuatonsdepend crtcally on the mantenance of the cold chan throughout
transportaton so as to mnmse post-harvest waste. The transportaton of meat across
the globe also has mplcatons n terms of the costs and the carbon footprnt. The
latter, n partcular, has led to consumer movements n some frst-world countres
that promote the purchasng of“locally produced”foods sncethese are perceved to
be more sustanable or envronmentally-frendly.
Another major soco-economc challenge currently beng faced relates to the
fact that a large proporton of the world’s people do not possess suffcent fnancal
means to purchase hgh-qualty proten sources, such as those produced from anmals.
In stark contrast, another porton of the world populaton may have a great surplus
of fnancal resources and these ndvduals can often be hghly crtcal n ther food
choces. In the latter case, extrnsc cues such as the carbon footprnt and anmal
welfare ssues assocated wth the producton process become ncreasngly mportant
purchasng drvers (Grunert, 2006) and the more affluent consumers are frequently
wllng to pay a prce premum for ther choces (Bennett, Anderson &Blaney, 2002).
Although many producers have a strong socal responsblty towards feedng the
world’s populaton, they are also faced wth the realty of havng to be economcally
vable. In other words, farmers wll not produce food unless t s economcally
feasble for them to do so. Accordng to the Unted Natons Food and Agrcultural
Organzaton (FAO), agrcultural output wll need to ncrease by 70% by 2050 n
order to feed the world’s populaton. Such a forecast wll requre the producton of
another bllon tonnes of food gran and 200 mllon tonnes of lvestock meat. The
key to ncreasng food producton from anmals wll rely on the mprovement of
productvty through selectvely usng genetc technologes to breed for ncreased
anmal producton crtera (Gao, Zhang, Hu & L, 2007; Allan & Smth, 2008). These
breedng objectves should smultaneously also address welfare-frendly objectves,
such as enhanced dsease resstance (Thomas, Scollan& Moran, 2011). Other means
of fulfllng the predcted requrementsmay nclude the breedng of anmals that are
approprate or well-suted to ther envronments (Slankove, 2000;Gregory, 2010;
Crane, Elmore, Olsen &Tolleson, 2010; Bell, Charmley, Hunter & Archer, 2011).
Although all ndcatons are that the prce of meat as a proten source wll
contnue to ncrease n the future, the demand for ths commodty s also set to ncrease.
10
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
The ncrease n demand s strongly lnked to the huge ncrease n buyng power from
Chna and Inda. The wealther consumer, who can afford red meat, s frequently
also a well-educated and travelled person who places value on the qualty aspects of
the meat (Martell, 2009). However, ths perceved qualty s mult-dmensonal and
ncludes sensory qualty, healthness, convenence and process characterstcs lke
anmal welfare and producton (frequently ‘organc’) systems (Grunert, 2006). The
pressure on red meat sales due to the worldwde economc recesson has caused a
reapprasal of the factors whch nfluence ts appeal to consumers, whch ultmately
all comes back down to the qualty of the meat. Accordng to Wood, Enser, Fsher,
Nute, Rchardson &Sheard (1999), some of the factors determnng meat qualty
nclude the absence of mcrobal hazards, the preventon of anmal explotaton, the
sensory appeal of the meat and the perceved healthness, especally n relaton to
the amount and type of fat.
Sensory Qualty
Irrespectve of the purchasng ablty of the consumer, each ndvdual nevtably
wants to have the best eatng experence for ther money. In the lower ncome groups,
meat s eaten for ts nutrtonal value, whle n the hgher ncome groups t s often
consumed for the eatng experence tself. In fact, the consumpton of meat s seen
as a sgn of prosperty and wealth. Thus, as the wealth of a communty ncreases,
sodoes ther meat consumpton (Aaslyng, 2009). However, the type and amount of
meat consumed s nfluenced byother factors, such as gender, age and martal status.
Men eat more meat n general and a greater proporton of red meat than women
(revewed by Aaslyng, 2009). Addtonally, older people typcally eat more meat
n general and a greater proporton of red meat than chldren. Famles also tend
to eat more meat than sngle people. Interestngly, Aaslyng (2009) notes that lesseducated, adult men exhbt one of the hghest levels of meat consumpton, whle
young, well-educated women show one of the lowest levels of consumpton.
It s self-evdent that the tradtonal manner n whch meat s prepared wll
nfluence the qualty descrptors. A consumer eatng a fresh steak wll have dfferent
qualty cues compared to one eatng a tradtonally dry/smoked or stewed meat
product. Although a large amount of research has focused on the qualty attrbutes
of fresh meat (typcally consumed as steaks), the desre for greater convenence n
meal preparaton has also resulted n an ncrease n the consumpton of ready-to-eat
meat products. The qualty attrbutes of these would also dffer and be more focused
on perceved healthness (fat levels, cholesterol, salt concentratons) and ease of
preparaton and consumpton, wth tme-savng beng of essence.
Ultmately, meat s consumed for pleasure. For fresh meats such as steaks, chops
and roasts, three sensory attrbutes are of major mportance for the hedonc value of
the meat: tenderness, jucness and flavour (both n the presence of fred flavour and
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
11
the absence of off-flavours) (Aaslyng, 2009). These three attrbutes have receved a
huge research focus n the past and wll contnue to receve attenton n the future.
The value of each characterstc also dffers wthn each stuaton. For nstance,
when meat s very tender, then the value placed on jucness and flavour becomes
more mportant. However, tenderness s the most mportant of the three. It s now
well establshed that no sngle factor nfluences these characterstcs, but that t s
rather a cumulatve effect of a large number of factors that are extrnsc and ntrnsc
to the anmal tself. The modern scentfc anmal producer wll use a number of
technologes (such as DNA markers for meat qualty trats) and producton systems
(ntensve feedlot that restrct movement thereby mnmsng the effect of exercse
on muscle colour and toughness) to ensure that a fresh product s produced that
meets the expected hedonc value deemed approprate by the consumer. However,
t s also known that a number of negatve actvtes along the supply chan could
negate these technologes.Of specal nterest to the modern dscernng consumer s
the welfare status of the anmals n transt to the abattor (see secton 6).
The aforementoned qualty characterstcs are all applcable to cooked meat.
Pror to cookng, the meat has to be purchased and the prmary qualty characterstc
at ths tme s the vsual appearance (colour of the meat). The colour of the meat s
determned by numerous extrnsc and ntrnsc factors such as the age of the anmal,
the envronment n whch the anmal was rased (.e. whether t was exposed to a
hgh level of physcal actvty), the muscle type, the concentraton of myoglobn
pgments and then the chemcal state of the myoglobn (Mancn, 2009; Mancn
&Hunt, 2005). Other factors such as ante mortem stress also lead to abnormal colour
developments, such as dark, frm and dry (DFD) or pale soft and exudatve (PSE)
meat. The former s typcally assocated wth the meatfrom rumnants, whlst the
latter s more frequent wth that from monogastrc anmals. The stressor that causes
these abnormal phenomenon are typcally nduced by human-anmal nteractons
(Coleman & Hemsworth, 2012), but can also be caused by other factors such as
extreme weather fluctuatons (Kng, Wheeler, Shackelford &Koohmarae, 2009).
After the meat has been purchased and cooked, the next mportant qualty
characterstc s the tenderness. Ths characterstc also plays a very mportant role
n the consumer’s wllngness to repurchase the same product (Aaslyng, 2009).
Although t s well recognsed that the age of the anmal plays an mportant role n
determnng the tenderness of meat (older anmals have more heat stable collagen),
most anmals slaughtered n ntensve producton unts are young adults, of whch a
large proporton are ntact males. Age-nduced toughness s thus generally of lessor
mportance. Other factors such as ante mortem stress also play an mportant role
(Kng et al., 2009; Terlouw, Bourguet&Dess, 2012) n terms of tenderness. When
anmals experence stress, they frequently try and move away from the stressor,whch
results n the metabolsm of glycogen reserves pror to death. The entre aerobc/
anaerobc metabolsm s nfluenced, causng thepost mortem lactc acd producton
12
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
(measured as pH) to devate from the norm and resultng n ether DFD or PSE.
Ths n turnmpactson the actvty of the proteolytc enzymes that are responsble
for tendersng the meat (Devne et al., 2006). Numerous strateges may be appled
n an attempt tonegate the decrease n tenderness, ncludngelectrcal stmulaton,
carcass suspenson, chllng regme, agng, use of external enzymes, mechancal,
hydrodynamc shock, pressure and pre-rigor stretchng (Thompson, 2002; Farouk,
Wklund &Rosenvold, 2009). Nonetheless, all of these methods are costly, and the
qualty of the end product stll frequently dffers consderably from that expected of
the fresh meat product. Of specal note n ths regardare the Bosindicus breeds that
are known to have hgher levels of calpastatn, the nhbtor for the calpan enzymes,
causng the meat from these breeds to be tougher (Shackelford, Koohmarae, Mller,
Crouse & Reagan, 1991; Strydom, 2006).
Jucness s an mportant factor n the eatng qualty of meat, although ts
mportance s determned by the specfc meat product beng consumed.For nstance,
jucness s more mportant when consumng a steak than t s when consumng
that meat whch has been cut nto small strps for a stew. Whereas ante mortem
stress plays an mportant factor n determnng the water-bndng capacty of fresh
muscle (by nfluencng the rate of decrease of muscle pH as well as the fnal pH), the
man factor determnng the jucness of meat s the end-pont temperature durng
the cookng (Aaslyng, 2009).Increased amounts of ntermuscular fat also ncreases
jucness, especally when the meat s cooked at a hgh temperature. Aaslyng (2009)
noted that the most mportant factor to ncrease the jucness of meat s to educate
the consumer on not over-cookng the meat. However, ethnc dfferences n food
preparaton also have to be taken nto account when addressng ths parameter.
The flavour of any meat s a combnaton of ts taste and aroma, whch are
strongly nfluenced by addtonal factors such as mouthfeel and jucness. Raw
meat has hardly any aroma and only a blood-lke flavour. Durng the applcaton
of heat, a complex seres of thermally-nduced reactons occur between the nonvolatle components of the lean and fatty tssues (Elmore &Mottram, 2009). Over
1000 volatle compounds have been dentfed n meat. Elmore &Mottram (2009)
revewed the two man reactons that result n flavour development as meat s
cooked. The frst s the Mallard reacton, occurrng between the reducng sugars
and amno acds, and whch s responsble for the typcal meaty flavour and savoury,
roast and boled character. The second factor s lpd degradaton that results n fatty
aromas typcally found n cooked meat. Inevtably, t s also the fat composton that
s responsble for the flavour and aroma dfferences between speces (Wasserman &
Talley, 1968).
The det has a strong nfluence on the fatty acd composton of anmals, especally
when consderng monogastrc anmals. In rumnants, the rumen mcroorgansms n
the dgestve system have a major mpact on the composton of fatty acds leavng
the rumen for absorpton n the small ntestne (Jenkns, 1993; Doreau&Chllard,
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
13
1997). Mcrobal enzymes derved from Butyrivibriofibrisolvensare responsble for
the somersaton and hydrolyss of detary lpds and the converson of unsaturated
fatty acds (UFA) to varous partally and fully saturated dervatves, ncludng
conjugated lnolec acd (CLA: C18:2 cs-9, t-11) (c), trans vaccenc acd (C18:1 t11) (VA) and stearic acid (C18:0). Althoughlinoleic (C18:2 n−6) (LA) and linolenic
(C18:3 n−3) (ALA) acids are the main UFA in the diet of ruminants, the processes
occurrng wthn the rumen ensure that the major fatty acd leavng the rumen s
C18:0. The uptake of UFA nto the small ntestne by rumnants s smlar to that
n non-rumnant anmals, but dffers n the case of saturated fatty acds (SFA)
(Bauchart, 1993). The ntestnal absorpton co-effcent of ndvdual fatty acds
s hgher n rumnants than n non-rumnants, rangng from 80% for SFA to 92%
for polyunsaturated fatty acds (PUFA) n conventonal low fat dets. The hgher
absorpton effcency of SFA by rumnants has been attrbuted to the greater capacty
of the ble salt and lysophospholpdmcellar system to solublse fatty acds, as well
as the acd condtons wthn the duodenum and jejunum (pH 3.0–6.0). The low pH
s due to a low concentraton of pancreatc hydrogen carbonate whch reduces the
converson of SFA nto nsoluble calcum salts (whch cannot be absorbed by the
enterocytes). However, tracylglycerol resynthess n rumnants takes place va the
glycerol-6-phosphate pathway due to the vrtual absence of 2-monoacylglycerol.
The resyntheszed lpd s carred as lpoprotens, chylomcrons and very low densty
lpoprotens (VLDLP) n the blood stream for uptake by the lpoproten lpase
enzyme and ncorporaton nto the tssues. An mportant dfference between nonrumnant and rumnant anmals s that n the latter, the long chan PUFA, C20 and
C22, are not ncorporated to any great extent nto tracylglycerols, but nstead are
ncorporated nto the membrane phospholpds and wll be deposted n sgnfcant
amounts n the ntramuscular tssue (Enser, Hallett, Hewett, Fursey& Wood,1996;
Offer, Marsden, Dxon, Speake& Thacker,1999).
Healthness
The past number of years has been characterzed by an ncrease n consumer
nterest n ther nutrton and health, whch has resulted n the development of health
drectves by governments for some food components, especally fats (Smopoulos,
2001).
Beef, Lamb and mutton contan hgh concentratons of SFA, so much so that
ther PUFA:SFA rato s lower than the recommended mnmum value of 0.45 for
human dets. The excessveconsumpton of food wth a hgh proporton of SFA s
a major predsposng factor to the rsk of coronary heart dseases (CHD), hypertenson, stroke, dabetes and obesty n humans, whch has led to a worldwde declne
n red meat consumpton (Webb, Casey & Van Nekerk,1994; Moloney, Mooney,
Kerry & Troy, 2001). Although the relatonshp between detary fat and the n14
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
cdence of dseases assocated wth the modern lfestyle are wdely documented,
especally CHD (Krtchevsky, 1998, 2000) and varous cancers (Wood et al., 2003),
ths has also been challenged n the past few years (McAfee et al., 2010). As an example, n a meta-analyss and revew of epdemologcal cohort studes, no ndependent assocaton could be found between the consumpton of anmal fat and breast
cancer (Alexander, Mormoto, Mnk & Lowe, 2010). The low PUFA:SFA rato of
rumnants s a consequence of the extensve bohydrogenaton of ngested PUFA
by the rumen mcroorgansms, leadng to the formaton of trans-MUFAs and SFA,
whch are then ncorporated nto the lpds n the muscle (Jenkns, 1993).
The degree of saturaton of anmal fats s nfluenced by ts fatty acd composton
(Webb & Casey, 1995). Accordngly, the qualty of fat s determned by the fatty
acd composton, whch affects the palatablty and shelf lfe. As mentoned, a
shft n fatty acd composton can be nduced by means of detary manpulaton,
whch wll subsequently enhance the nutrtonal qualty of red meat and fat qualty.
Detary manpulaton strateges are also avalable that mnmse bohydrogenaton
of ngested PUFA n the rumen (Chkunya, Demrel, Enser, Wood, Wlknson &
Snclar, 2004).
Another aspect that has been the focus of consumer attenton as pertanng to
red meat s the level of sodum (Na), due to ts correlaton wth hgh blood pressure.
Epdemologcal studes ndcate a postve assocaton between excessve ntake of
Na, blood pressure and prevalence of hypertenson (Appel et al., 2006). However,
the Na levels n fresh meat are low. Rather, t s frequently the hgh levels of salt
(NaCl) that are added to many processed meats consumed n the western det that
leads to an elevaton n the Na levels. However, consumers are generally not always
able to dstngush between the Na n fresh meat and that n processed meat.
Convenence
Wthn the current sophstcated world, the purchasng behavour of the consumer has changed. Typcally n an economcally vbrant socety, tme sofpremum
value and the modern consumer prefers the purchasng of a convenent product.
Ths product should ether be a ready-to-eat (RTE) one or t shouldbe packaged n
such a manner that t requres mnmal preparaton tme.The food ndustry has largely addressed ths consumer desre by developng and producng a varety of RTE
products whch are now wdely marketed n retal outlets across the globe. Snce
RTE products generally requre mnmal processng on the part of the consumer, the
safety standards for these are normally strngent and are most often addressed by the
mplementaton ofa strong HACCP (Hazard Analyss Crtcal Control Ponts) plan
n most manufacturng facltes. In addton, a number of novel packagng strateges have been developed to extend the shelf-lfe of RTE products, such as modfed
atmospherc packagng (McMlln, 2008).
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
15
Wth food safety and transparency n mnd, most countres have nowenactedfood
labellng regulatons that requre that certan nformaton be dsplayed on packagng,
whch ncludes (but s not lmted to) a full ngredent lst, nutrtonal composton
data,recommended daly allowances (RDAs), as well as the declaraton of certan
common allergens.A great deal of research, however, has shown that consumers
frequently experence dffculty n understandng much of the nformaton presented
on food labels (Shannon, 1993; Sadler, 1999; Kempden, 2011). When ndvduals
do not understand labellng or nformaton overload arses, they tend to avod the
presented nformaton altogether (Kaswell&Padberg, 1992) and food labels become
an neffectve nformaton source and do not serve as successful purchasng drvers
(Kempden, 2011).
New nnovatve moble phone technology now allows consumers to selectvely
acqure addtonal nformaton on certan characterstcs of food products, and n
so dong, asssts wth ther nterpretaton of food labels. Usng such applcatons,
ndvduals are able to scan food product barcodes n store usng ther cellular phones
and they can thereafter browse nformaton relatng to the nutrtonal composton
of the product, the farm of orgn, the carbon footprnt and other pertnent content
relatng to anmal treatment and envronmental sustanablty. Another technologcal
trend geared towards convenence s shoppng on-lne, whch permts consumers to
choose whch products they wsh to purchase wthout gong nto the store.
Although there has undoubtedlybeen an ncreased preference for convenence
foods, there has also been a recent consumer trend towards the purchasng of ‘homegrown’or ‘locally-produced’ products, typcally from weekend markets or farmstalls. The drvng deology behnd ths trend s that‘home-grown’ and ‘local’ s best,
wth all attrbutes lnked to the modern concepts of organcally-produced, carbon
foot prnt and so forth, whch encompasses not only the producton system but also
the value chan as pertanng to transport and packagng. Underlyng the purchasng
of these products s a belef that they are healthy and safe to consume (Gellynck,
Verbeke&Vermere (2006), whch may not always be the case, especally where
there are no authortes to ensure that the necessary regulatons are adhered to.
Process/producton characterstcs
The response to anmal welfare s largely a ctzen response based on extrnsc and
ntrnsc cues (Grunert, 2006). However, there are an ncreasng number of consumers
who are wllng to pay more for a product that s perceved to have been produced n
an ethcal manner, that ncludes accepted standards and norms as pertanng to anmal
welfare (Bennett et al., 2002; Napoltano, Grolam&Bragher, 2010). Of course, the
credblty of the authentcaton authorty s of utmost mportance as pertanng to the
consumer’s wllngness to pay for the product beng endorsed (Martell, 2009; Van
Loo et al., 2011). Anmal scentsts, food scentsts and consumers all have dfferent
16
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
deas and perceptons onthe defntons ofmeat qualty.There are unquestonably
certan congruences and dvergences between producers and consumers (Sepúlveda,
Maza&Pardos, 2011), ndcatng that the flow of nformaton between these two
ends of the value chan requres further development. To an anmal scentst, qualty
would be lnked to producton performance, wherethe welfare aspects would be
underwrtten by the followng fve basc prncples: adequate ar, water, and feed;
safe housng and suffcent space; approprate complexty of the envronment;
regular supervson and effectve health care; sensble handlng. On the other hand,
for a food scentst, qualty would be lnked to aspects measurable n the product,
such as pH, colour, chemcal composton as well as sensory characterstcs. For the
consumer, the followng major dmensons have been dentfed whch are consdered
as beng relevant to the qualty of anmal products: sensory characterstcs, ncludng
taste, odour, appearance, texture; healthness, as anmal-based foods are assocated
wth ther composton; ntake of essental nutrents but these are also frequently
deemed as potentally mparng human health (e.g. source of saturated fatty acds,
vector of nfectons or pollutants); convenence, concernng the ease of preparaton;
and process characterstcs, dealng wth the way food products of anmal orgn
are obtaned, ncludng farmng systems, even though these aspects may have no
effects on the other qualty dmensons (Grunert, Beach-Larsen &Bredal, 2000).
Each dmenson ams to satsfy consumer purchase motves or values wthn the
correspondng context (Grunert, 2006).
The anmal producer s well aware that f they were to abde by the basc
prncples of anmal welfare, the producton performance of the anmals would be
mproved. In dary cattle, for nstance, close human nteracton wth the anmal wll
result n better mlk yeld (Hemsworth, Coleman, Barnett, Borg & Dowlng, 2002).
In young glts, a postve experence wth the stockperson wll result n larger ltter
szes (Hemsworth, Barnett, Coleman & Hansen, 1989), however, an mportant
aspect n ths regard would be the anmal-stockperson nteracton and the atttude
of the latter to anmals (Hemsworth, 2003).It s therefore n the best nterest of the
producer to ensure that the anmal s comfortable and has all ts needs addressed. It
s also well known that the anmal welfare, especally as relatng to the ante mortem
stress experenced by an anmal, wll result n a declne n meat qualty (Mach, Bach,
Velarde& Devant, 2008). However, n the developng world n partcular, producers
frequently have no nputs nto the value chan of the anmal leavng the farm en
route to the abattor, nor do they have any nput on the actvtes assocated durng
the offloadng, larage and ultmately stunnng and kllng of the anmal.Hoffman
and Lühl(2012), for nstance,noted that there were numerous factors contrbutng to
the stress (brusng) of cattle durng thertransportaton n Namba that were outsde
the control of the producer. Addtonally, Hoffman and Fsher (2010) found that
the condton of the roads nfluenced the stress experenced by pgs en route to
the abattor. Smlarly, Huertaset al. (2010) also reported that the condtons of the
Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012
17
road nfluenced the level of brusng and thus the welfare of cattle transported to
slaughterhouses n Uruguay. Alamet al. (2010) found that the treatment of cattle
and spent water buffalos n Bangladesh at the pont of sale and durng the transport
to the abattor dd not adhere to anmal welfare gudelnes. Most of the welfare
malpractces noted was caused by others along the process/value chan and not the
producer.It s of further nterest to note that as from 1 January 2013, all countres
exportng meat nto the EU wll have to meet the requrements of Councl Regulaton
(EC) No 1099/2009 (2009), whch ncludes requrements n the followng areas: the
layout, constructon and equpment of slaughterhouses, handlng and restranng of
anmals and stunnng and slaughter (Cassdy, 2012).
In some cases, the modern marketplace tself places requrements on the
producers that are actually detrmental to the anmal’s welfare, for example, the
regulatons found n most countresrequrng that cattle be dentfed pror to
beng slaughtered. Ths practce results n the excessve handlng of cattle durng
musterng n Namba where the anmals need to be hot branded for ownershp
dentfcaton (Hoffman &Lühl, 2012). In the revew by Gregory (2008), t was
concluded that the addtonal handlng mposed by checkng lvestock passports
needs to be reconsdered and that the use of remote anmal dentfcaton methods
may help solve anmal welfare problems assocated wth the readng of ear tags.
For the modern consumer, the dea of a wet market where lve anmals are kept and
slaughtered n publc s abhorrent, not only from the perceved nhumane treatment
of the anmals, but also from the beastalty response nvoked when the anmal s
butchered n publc. Gregory (2008) expands on the welfare ssues related to wet
markets such as excess handlng and rudmentary care.
Concluson
It s clear that as the profle of the modern consumer changes, ther requrements
for fresh meat and meat products are concurrently modfed. Today, more emphass
s beng placed on the ethcal producton of meat and t effect on the envronment.
Fortunately for the anmal producer, ethcal producton and treatment for anmals
s postvely correlated wth good welfare practces. To meet the ncreasng global
demand for anmal proten, producers wll need to become more scentfc n ther
producton systems – even when farmng extensvely. An area where there wll be
a rapd ncrease n the near future wll be the genetc selecton of anmals to ensure
that ther performance meets the requrements of the consumer.
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Proceeding of the 2nd International Seminar on Animal Industry | Jakarta, 5-6 July 2012