Schema theory in reading class
SCHEMA THEORY IN READING CLASS
Fahriany
([email protected])
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Comprehension is making a sense out of text. It is a process of using
reader’s existing knowledge (schemata) to interpret texts in order to
construct meaning. Many reading experts agree that the schema theory
is one of the reasonable theories of human information processing.
Schemata, the plural of schema, are believed to be the building blocks
of cognition. This paper discusses the role of readers’ preexisting
knowledge on linguistics code as well as readers’ knowledge of the
world (schema), which for the case of reading has similar importance
of the printed words in the text. It is argued that the more non visual
information the reader posses, the less visual information is needed.
For teaching and learning, teachers are expected to use different
strategies in order to deal with different students’ preexisting
knowledge and schema to maximize students’ learning.
Key Words: schema theory, reading class
INTRODUCTION
knowledge itself, these packets of
Schema theory is a theory
knowledge embedded information
about knowledge. It is a theory
about how this knowledge is to be
about
is
used. Therefore, schemata are used
represented and about how the
by readers to make sense of text;
representation facilitates the use of
the
the knowledge in particular ways.
reader’s experiences, as well as past
According to the schema theory, all
and potential relationships.
how
knowledge
knowledge is packed into units,
called schemata. In addition to
printed
A
work
schema
evokes
has
the
some
characteristics (Rummelhart, 1980,
Fahriany
P.25). First, it has variables. These
Such
variables can be associated with
instantiated schema. It is believed
different environment instantiatio-
that
ns of schema. In a schema theory,
schemata serve as the basis of
variable
recollections.
constraints
serve
two
a
schema
the
is
irises
of
called
an
instantiated
important functions. They help the
Third, a schema is not a
identification of various aspects of
complete specification of every
situations with the variable of the
detail of situations. A schema
schema. They also help by serving
allows
as
variation
“default
values”
or
initial
room
for
irrelevant
and
creative
guesses for variable whose values
interpretation. A schema is not so
he/she has not yet observed. For
rigidly applied that no variation is
example, if he/she observes a
allowed. The schema only provides
transaction to be one of buying but
the skeleton around which the
does not notice the money, he/she
situations is interpreted.
can infer that there is money. In
Fourth, a schema is much more
this way, the schema can help
abstract than the real situation. The
making
buy schema is much more abstract
inferences
about
unobserved aspects of a situation.
Second, a schema needs to be
instantiated.
A
schema
is
an
that the actual buying event, and is
applicable to any case of buying. A
schema
should
be
viewed
as
instantiated whenever a particular
consisting of a configuration of
configuration of values is to a
sub-schema corresponding to the
bound to a particular moment in
constituents of the concept being
time. Interpreting a situation to be
represented.
an
instance
of
some
Fifth,
concepts
schemata
are
like
involves that instantiation of an
theories. Schemata contain theories
appropriate schema by associating
about the nature of reality that exist
various variables of the schema
in
with various aspects of situation.
supposed
18| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
mind.
These
to
theories
serve
in
are
the
Schema Theory in Reading Class
construction of the interpretation of
schemata is a kind of parsing
situation during the process of
process that works with conceptual
comprehending, which is viewed
elements finding constituents and
as hypothesis testing. In reading,
sub-constituents among the data
the reader constantly evaluates
being the processed.
hypothesis about the most possible
interpretation of texts.
Sixth,
schemata
processes.
are
Schemata
are
active
like
procedures. A schema should be
viewed as a procedure the function
of which is to determine whether
and to what degree it accounts for
the pattern of observation. This is
because
schemata
underlies
concepts, and hence a schema
theory is both a prototype and
procedural
theory
of
meaning.
Finally, schemata are like parser. A
parser is a device that determines
whether a sequence of symbols
forms the legal sentence, according
to the rule of grammars, and if it
does, determines the constituent
structure of sentence. This means
the
parser
symbols
determines
in
the
THE SCHEMA THEORY IN READING CLASS
which
sequence
correspond to which constituents
of the sentence. The process of
finding and verifying appropriate
Most teaching as we know
takes place in a classroom with
thirty to forty or even more
students.
They
have
different
abilities, interests, attitudes, and
socio economic conditions. It adds
up to the so called “background,”
and “the background that each
student brings to school constitutes
a
hidden
student’s
curriculum
person,
of
the
personal
experience, and spirit” (Harris &
Sipay, 1984, p.25). All these are not
superficial differences, as every
teacher knows. In conjunction with
the students’ differences, teachers
when teaching English reading are
not trying to determine how to
teach a student one-by-one. Rather,
they look for the most effective
approach and strategies to use to
meet the needs of students in
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |19
Fahriany
majority and create activities that
print stand for the familiar oral
can make the students become
symbols of speech and that these
active-participant in the classroom.
sounds, in term, represent objects,
Reading
is
a
complex
act
persons, or events about which he
requiring certain skills. Several
knows. She must learn to make
recognizable stages must be met
many associations between these
and mastered along the way from
two sets of language symbols.
the level of pre-reading to the level
Some words are made up of
of purposeful reading. The learner
letter, which represent consistently
must have many opportunities to
the sounds of the learner’s. Many
pay attention, to listen, to perceive
words in many languages do not
and
have
discriminate
forms
and
a
regular
sound-symbol
sounds, to understand directions,
correspondence. These words are
to move her eyes and her hands in
usually called the sight words of a
a left-to-right direction, to add to
language because they are best
her spoken vocabulary, and to
learned through the memorizing of
experience success in the pre-
their
reading activities, before a formal
words are learned because the
introduction to print (Thonis, 1990).
students are able to put two or
These basic skills must be revised
more smaller words together to
and maintained in order to provide
make the new word. This practice
foundation for the building of the
calls attention to the structures of
basic reading skills. The basic
words.
visual
appearance.
Some
reading skills include the skill of
Developing vocabularies is also
developing vocabulary and the
built through the use of meaning
skill of comprehending what is
clues which may be applied to
read.
unknown words and which may
Developing vocabulary begins
help pupils discover a word in a
when the students are aware that
specific context. Pictures may give
the unfamiliar written symbols of
students clues to the discovery of
20| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
Schema Theory in Reading Class
new words. One of the most useful
must also recognize the details of
techniques for recognizing words is
persons, places, events, and time of
the application of phonics skills. In
what he reads. He/she enriches his
theory, phonics skills help students
reading by becoming aware of the
sound out and pronounce words
general feeling, mood, or emotional
which are known to them in
tone of stories. He/she must learn
speech, but unknown or unfamiliar
to appreciate motives and traits of
in print. Each learner should be
people, to see the relationships
encouraged
his/her
between circumstances and actions,
reading vocabulary by applying
and gain greater insight into people
the techniques, which work best for
and events. He/she must think
him./her
about what he reads in order to
to
build
Comprehension or understanding in every reading activity is an
interpret meaning as well as to get
the factual information.
skill
In reading activity, it is not
additional
always necessary to read every
must
be
word of a passage. Too much time
added to the abilities to organize
spent on individual words or
and to gain meaning from words or
corpuses
group of words if the reader is to
understanding of a passage. The
grasp fully the significance of what
purpose for reading sometimes
a paragraph consisting of many
determines how closely we should
sentences and select the one main
read. According to Grellet (1990),
idea to which all the sentences
the reading techniques includes,
refer.
skimming, scanning, intensive and
important
part
learning.
However,
comprehension
of
skills
each
can
destroy
ones’
After the reader is able to
extensive reading. Skimming is a
comprehend the most important
specific reading technique which is
thought is that he/she needs to be
necessary for quick and efficient
able to identify the details which
reading. Once we know what our
support the main idea. He/she
purpose is, skimming is a valuable
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |21
Fahriany
procedure. Skimming through a
not quickly read the passage again
passage involves reading very fast
to look for the information you
in order to recognize main ideas
need and (7) read the answer to the
and supporting details. Although
question you have asked (Wise,
skimming should never replace
1984).
careful reading, it can save time in
Skimming which is aimed to
deciding what or what not to read,
find a specific piece of information
in getting the general content of a
such as a number or the answer of
passage,
and
the
a question is called scanning. When
authors’
main
without
scanning, we only try to locate
in
finding
point
specific information and often we
having to deal with details.
Skimming is therefore a more
do not even follow the linearity of
through activity which requires an
the passage to do so. We simply let
overall view of the text and implies
our eyes wonder over the text until
a definite
competence.
we find what we are looking for,
Some strategies to skim include:
whether it is a name, a data, or less
(1) making sure that you know
specific
what information you are looking
Scanning only means retrieving
for. Ask yourself a question and
what information is relevant to our
look for a key word; (2) moving
purpose.
reading
piece
of
information.
your eyes quickly from line to line
In reading shorter texts to
and from sentence to sentence;
extract specific information, the
(3) when you think you have found
technique of intensive reading is
what you are looking for, stop;
needed. Intensive reading usually
(4) read slowly the part of the line
involves approaching a certain text
or sentence that tells you what you
under the guidance of the teacher,
want to know; (5) think about the
or under the guidance of a task
question
to
which forces the student to pay
answer; (6) does the information
great attention to the text. The aim
you find answer the question? If
of this reading technique is to
you
were
22| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
trying
Schema Theory in Reading Class
arrive at a profound and detailed
appealing, easy, short and varied.
understanding of the text not only
Extensive reading can be provided
of what it means, but also of how
to students who have not acquired
the
the
meaning
is
produced.
reading
habit
and
often
(1985),
daunted by books. Moreover, as
intensive reading should be done
there is no absolute divide between
in the classroom. The text should
intensive and extensive reading,
be placed in front of the students
the same text can usefully be
and teacher assigns tasks that will
employed for training in both, key
help the students to understand the
passage from it being used for
text, and then stand out of the way
intensive
while the students get to grip with
illuminating the book as a whole.
According
to
Nutall
study
and
in
turn
In line with the perspective on
the text.
Extensive reading is reading
the teaching, in this case, the
longer texts, usually for ones’ own
teaching of English reading as
pleasure. This is a fluency activity,
mastering sets of skills or as
mainly
global
involving students in a holistic
understanding. Extensive reading
process, it can be traced to the
is needed to activate reading out of
theories
class. Nuttall (1985) also stated that
discussed above. The view of
extensive reading is an out of
learning to read by mastering and
school work. Class time is always
integrating
a
in short supply and the amount of
recognition
and
reading needed to achieve fluency
sub skills is based on the bottom up
and efficiency is very great, much
belief. On the other hand, the view
greater than most students will
of teaching reading as creating
undertake it left to them.
opportunities for the students to be
In
involving
addition,
Nuttall
(models)
of
series
reading
of
word
comprehension
(1985)
involved in whole language is
considered that the materials for
based on the top-down and strong
extensive
interactive beliefs that students
reading
should
be
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |23
Fahriany
learn to read through meaningful
approach
activities.
implementing the teaching and
and
strategies
in
Dealing with the beliefs about
learning activities in the classroom.
reading and the theory of reading,
Rumelhart, Mc Neil, Nuttal,
the trend of teaching language,
and Vacca
especially of teaching English in
strategies are
our country is compatible with top-
teaching of reading; they are the
down and interactive models of
hour-by-hour, day-by-day evidence
reading.
brings
of what is really happening in the
about the great impact on the
classroom. This statement implies
application of the approach in the
that
classroom, the so-called Commun-
important role in the teaching and
icative Approach. This approach
learning
stresses
the
of
teachers should master a variety of
students
in
and
strategies and techniques that they
learning activities. To activate the
will adapt to fit the needs of their
students,
create
students. Strategies and techniques
suitable circumstances and apply
are essential for every reading
strategies that can contribute the
teacher
students to actively get involved in
reading. The mastery of strategies
the activities. Thus, the use of
and techniques on the part of the
suitable approach and strategies
teacher will make them easier
will facilitate students in learning
conduct their instruction that in
to read in the classroom.
turn it will facilitate the students in
This
condition
involvement
the
teacher
teaching
must
The heart of the instructional
programs is the quality of the
(1987) indicates the
the key
strategies
play
process.
to
a
The
especially
of
the
very
effective
English
learning to read.
The teachers’ knowledge of
teaching. This implies that the
strategies
success of instructional programs
reflect
may much depend on the teachers’
teaching of reading. The teachers’
ability to master and use suitable
beliefs
24| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
and
their
will
techniques
beliefs
about
influence
may
the
their
Schema Theory in Reading Class
strategies and activities in the
strategies is started “from the
classroom.
It
Rumelhart,
is
et
line
with
simple to the complex”. In the
(1987)
who
other
in
al.
words,
the
teaching
of
indicate that “beliefs about the
reading by applying bottom-up
teaching of reading are reflected in
strategies triggers from identifying
teachers’ strategies and actions in
and decoding features of letters to
the classroom” (p.19). If teachers
comprehending the whole text.
advocate students to talk as an
Furthermore,
the
top-down
important aspect of comprehensi -
strategies can also be applied as the
on, because it brings the students’
basis of strategies to the teaching of
background into what they are
reading. In using these strategies,
reading, his teaching activities will
teachers
then
students the story and asking them
reflect
the
top-down
or
interactive theory of reading.
of
telling
the
later learn to deal with individual
reading,
words. Sub-skills are not taught
teachers can apply the bottom-up
because they are considered to
strategies as the basis of teaching
fragmenting
strategies to beginning learners. In
making learning to read more
the case, teachers can begin by
abstract and difficult (Goodman,
showing and introducing students
1992, P.13).
the names and shapes of the letter
down strategies as the underlying
of the alphabets. Then, the students
strategy
are introduced the combination of
appears in the teaching which
the
applying
letters
English
by
to memorize the whole story and
In the teaching of reading,
especially
start
in
syllables
and
the
process
and
The use of the top-
for
teaching
pre-reading
reading
activities,
continued to words, phrases, and
during/whilst reading activities,
sentences. In teaching reading as
and post-reading activities. In the
such, the students are taught the
case, teachers start by activating the
sub-kills of reading in stages. The
students’ schemata and moving to
teaching
see the words to check and confirm
of
reading
by
these
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |25
Fahriany
their prediction and hypothesis
classroom. In teaching of reading
made before.
the teachers’ beliefs about reading
In the teaching of reading
are very essential. The mastery of
nowadays, especially of English
strategies
reading, it is much more influenced
facilitate teachers to implement
by
In
their programs. In executing the
teaching reading, teachers teach
teaching in the classroom, teachers
skills directly, especially in the
can apply bottom-up, top-down
beginning, but they do not over do
and interactive strategies in order
it.
that the students can understand
interactive
In
strategies.
the
teaching-learning
activities, teachers provide plenty
of opportunities for the students to
experience the holistic nature of
reading activities by having them
read whole books. Giving more
chances to the learners in reading
activities is based on the principle
of teaching reading that indicates
reading should be thought in a way
that allows each learner to the
experience success. In other words,
the success of teaching reading the
learners
must
opportunities
be
to
given
more
participate
in
reading activities.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the success of
instructional programs depends on
the teaching-learning process in the
26| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
and
techniques
will
the text read.
REFERENCES
Beer, T. 1997. Schema- Theoretic
Models
of
Reading:
Humanizing The Machine,
Reading Research Quarterly, 22
(3): 36-37.
Bolinger, Dwigth. 1992. Aspect of
Language. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
Coady, James dan Barkman, B.
1999.
Reading in a second
Languages. Rowlet: Newsbury
House.
Goodman, K.S. 1967. Reading: A
Psycholinguistic Guessing Games, Journal of the Reading
Specialist.
Grellet, F. 1990. Developing Reading
Skills: A Practical Guide to
Reading Comprehension Exerc -
Schema Theory in Reading Class
ise. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Harris, A.J., and Sipay. 1984. E.R.
How to Increase Reading Ability,
New York: Longman.
McNeil, John D. 1992. Reading
Comprehension (3rd ed). New
York:
Harpen
Collins
rd
Publishers 3 Edition.
Nuttall, Christine. 1985. Teaching
Reading
Skill
a
Foreign
Language. London: Heinemann
Educational
Books
Limited.
Thonis, E.W. 1990. Teaching Reading
to
Non-English
Speakers.
London: Macmillan.
Rumelhart, D.E., Mc Neil, John D.,
Nuttal, C., Vacca, Jo Anne L.
et al. 1987. Reading and
Learning to Read, Illinois: Scolt.
Foresman and Company.
Wise, J.H. 1984. Meaning in reading.
New York : Harcout Brace
and Co.
Rummelhart, D.E. 1980. Schemata:
The
Building
Block
of
Cognition. Spiro. In. R. J.,
Bruce, B.C. and Bsewer,
B.F.(Eds). Technical Issues in
Reading Comprehension, Perspective
from
Cognitive
Psychology,
Linguistics,
Artificials
Intelegence,
and
Education. Hillsdale, New
Jersey : Lowrence Erlbaum
Associates Publisher.
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |27
Fahriany
28| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
Fahriany
([email protected])
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta
ABSTRACT
Comprehension is making a sense out of text. It is a process of using
reader’s existing knowledge (schemata) to interpret texts in order to
construct meaning. Many reading experts agree that the schema theory
is one of the reasonable theories of human information processing.
Schemata, the plural of schema, are believed to be the building blocks
of cognition. This paper discusses the role of readers’ preexisting
knowledge on linguistics code as well as readers’ knowledge of the
world (schema), which for the case of reading has similar importance
of the printed words in the text. It is argued that the more non visual
information the reader posses, the less visual information is needed.
For teaching and learning, teachers are expected to use different
strategies in order to deal with different students’ preexisting
knowledge and schema to maximize students’ learning.
Key Words: schema theory, reading class
INTRODUCTION
knowledge itself, these packets of
Schema theory is a theory
knowledge embedded information
about knowledge. It is a theory
about how this knowledge is to be
about
is
used. Therefore, schemata are used
represented and about how the
by readers to make sense of text;
representation facilitates the use of
the
the knowledge in particular ways.
reader’s experiences, as well as past
According to the schema theory, all
and potential relationships.
how
knowledge
knowledge is packed into units,
called schemata. In addition to
printed
A
work
schema
evokes
has
the
some
characteristics (Rummelhart, 1980,
Fahriany
P.25). First, it has variables. These
Such
variables can be associated with
instantiated schema. It is believed
different environment instantiatio-
that
ns of schema. In a schema theory,
schemata serve as the basis of
variable
recollections.
constraints
serve
two
a
schema
the
is
irises
of
called
an
instantiated
important functions. They help the
Third, a schema is not a
identification of various aspects of
complete specification of every
situations with the variable of the
detail of situations. A schema
schema. They also help by serving
allows
as
variation
“default
values”
or
initial
room
for
irrelevant
and
creative
guesses for variable whose values
interpretation. A schema is not so
he/she has not yet observed. For
rigidly applied that no variation is
example, if he/she observes a
allowed. The schema only provides
transaction to be one of buying but
the skeleton around which the
does not notice the money, he/she
situations is interpreted.
can infer that there is money. In
Fourth, a schema is much more
this way, the schema can help
abstract than the real situation. The
making
buy schema is much more abstract
inferences
about
unobserved aspects of a situation.
Second, a schema needs to be
instantiated.
A
schema
is
an
that the actual buying event, and is
applicable to any case of buying. A
schema
should
be
viewed
as
instantiated whenever a particular
consisting of a configuration of
configuration of values is to a
sub-schema corresponding to the
bound to a particular moment in
constituents of the concept being
time. Interpreting a situation to be
represented.
an
instance
of
some
Fifth,
concepts
schemata
are
like
involves that instantiation of an
theories. Schemata contain theories
appropriate schema by associating
about the nature of reality that exist
various variables of the schema
in
with various aspects of situation.
supposed
18| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
mind.
These
to
theories
serve
in
are
the
Schema Theory in Reading Class
construction of the interpretation of
schemata is a kind of parsing
situation during the process of
process that works with conceptual
comprehending, which is viewed
elements finding constituents and
as hypothesis testing. In reading,
sub-constituents among the data
the reader constantly evaluates
being the processed.
hypothesis about the most possible
interpretation of texts.
Sixth,
schemata
processes.
are
Schemata
are
active
like
procedures. A schema should be
viewed as a procedure the function
of which is to determine whether
and to what degree it accounts for
the pattern of observation. This is
because
schemata
underlies
concepts, and hence a schema
theory is both a prototype and
procedural
theory
of
meaning.
Finally, schemata are like parser. A
parser is a device that determines
whether a sequence of symbols
forms the legal sentence, according
to the rule of grammars, and if it
does, determines the constituent
structure of sentence. This means
the
parser
symbols
determines
in
the
THE SCHEMA THEORY IN READING CLASS
which
sequence
correspond to which constituents
of the sentence. The process of
finding and verifying appropriate
Most teaching as we know
takes place in a classroom with
thirty to forty or even more
students.
They
have
different
abilities, interests, attitudes, and
socio economic conditions. It adds
up to the so called “background,”
and “the background that each
student brings to school constitutes
a
hidden
student’s
curriculum
person,
of
the
personal
experience, and spirit” (Harris &
Sipay, 1984, p.25). All these are not
superficial differences, as every
teacher knows. In conjunction with
the students’ differences, teachers
when teaching English reading are
not trying to determine how to
teach a student one-by-one. Rather,
they look for the most effective
approach and strategies to use to
meet the needs of students in
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |19
Fahriany
majority and create activities that
print stand for the familiar oral
can make the students become
symbols of speech and that these
active-participant in the classroom.
sounds, in term, represent objects,
Reading
is
a
complex
act
persons, or events about which he
requiring certain skills. Several
knows. She must learn to make
recognizable stages must be met
many associations between these
and mastered along the way from
two sets of language symbols.
the level of pre-reading to the level
Some words are made up of
of purposeful reading. The learner
letter, which represent consistently
must have many opportunities to
the sounds of the learner’s. Many
pay attention, to listen, to perceive
words in many languages do not
and
have
discriminate
forms
and
a
regular
sound-symbol
sounds, to understand directions,
correspondence. These words are
to move her eyes and her hands in
usually called the sight words of a
a left-to-right direction, to add to
language because they are best
her spoken vocabulary, and to
learned through the memorizing of
experience success in the pre-
their
reading activities, before a formal
words are learned because the
introduction to print (Thonis, 1990).
students are able to put two or
These basic skills must be revised
more smaller words together to
and maintained in order to provide
make the new word. This practice
foundation for the building of the
calls attention to the structures of
basic reading skills. The basic
words.
visual
appearance.
Some
reading skills include the skill of
Developing vocabularies is also
developing vocabulary and the
built through the use of meaning
skill of comprehending what is
clues which may be applied to
read.
unknown words and which may
Developing vocabulary begins
help pupils discover a word in a
when the students are aware that
specific context. Pictures may give
the unfamiliar written symbols of
students clues to the discovery of
20| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
Schema Theory in Reading Class
new words. One of the most useful
must also recognize the details of
techniques for recognizing words is
persons, places, events, and time of
the application of phonics skills. In
what he reads. He/she enriches his
theory, phonics skills help students
reading by becoming aware of the
sound out and pronounce words
general feeling, mood, or emotional
which are known to them in
tone of stories. He/she must learn
speech, but unknown or unfamiliar
to appreciate motives and traits of
in print. Each learner should be
people, to see the relationships
encouraged
his/her
between circumstances and actions,
reading vocabulary by applying
and gain greater insight into people
the techniques, which work best for
and events. He/she must think
him./her
about what he reads in order to
to
build
Comprehension or understanding in every reading activity is an
interpret meaning as well as to get
the factual information.
skill
In reading activity, it is not
additional
always necessary to read every
must
be
word of a passage. Too much time
added to the abilities to organize
spent on individual words or
and to gain meaning from words or
corpuses
group of words if the reader is to
understanding of a passage. The
grasp fully the significance of what
purpose for reading sometimes
a paragraph consisting of many
determines how closely we should
sentences and select the one main
read. According to Grellet (1990),
idea to which all the sentences
the reading techniques includes,
refer.
skimming, scanning, intensive and
important
part
learning.
However,
comprehension
of
skills
each
can
destroy
ones’
After the reader is able to
extensive reading. Skimming is a
comprehend the most important
specific reading technique which is
thought is that he/she needs to be
necessary for quick and efficient
able to identify the details which
reading. Once we know what our
support the main idea. He/she
purpose is, skimming is a valuable
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |21
Fahriany
procedure. Skimming through a
not quickly read the passage again
passage involves reading very fast
to look for the information you
in order to recognize main ideas
need and (7) read the answer to the
and supporting details. Although
question you have asked (Wise,
skimming should never replace
1984).
careful reading, it can save time in
Skimming which is aimed to
deciding what or what not to read,
find a specific piece of information
in getting the general content of a
such as a number or the answer of
passage,
and
the
a question is called scanning. When
authors’
main
without
scanning, we only try to locate
in
finding
point
specific information and often we
having to deal with details.
Skimming is therefore a more
do not even follow the linearity of
through activity which requires an
the passage to do so. We simply let
overall view of the text and implies
our eyes wonder over the text until
a definite
competence.
we find what we are looking for,
Some strategies to skim include:
whether it is a name, a data, or less
(1) making sure that you know
specific
what information you are looking
Scanning only means retrieving
for. Ask yourself a question and
what information is relevant to our
look for a key word; (2) moving
purpose.
reading
piece
of
information.
your eyes quickly from line to line
In reading shorter texts to
and from sentence to sentence;
extract specific information, the
(3) when you think you have found
technique of intensive reading is
what you are looking for, stop;
needed. Intensive reading usually
(4) read slowly the part of the line
involves approaching a certain text
or sentence that tells you what you
under the guidance of the teacher,
want to know; (5) think about the
or under the guidance of a task
question
to
which forces the student to pay
answer; (6) does the information
great attention to the text. The aim
you find answer the question? If
of this reading technique is to
you
were
22| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
trying
Schema Theory in Reading Class
arrive at a profound and detailed
appealing, easy, short and varied.
understanding of the text not only
Extensive reading can be provided
of what it means, but also of how
to students who have not acquired
the
the
meaning
is
produced.
reading
habit
and
often
(1985),
daunted by books. Moreover, as
intensive reading should be done
there is no absolute divide between
in the classroom. The text should
intensive and extensive reading,
be placed in front of the students
the same text can usefully be
and teacher assigns tasks that will
employed for training in both, key
help the students to understand the
passage from it being used for
text, and then stand out of the way
intensive
while the students get to grip with
illuminating the book as a whole.
According
to
Nutall
study
and
in
turn
In line with the perspective on
the text.
Extensive reading is reading
the teaching, in this case, the
longer texts, usually for ones’ own
teaching of English reading as
pleasure. This is a fluency activity,
mastering sets of skills or as
mainly
global
involving students in a holistic
understanding. Extensive reading
process, it can be traced to the
is needed to activate reading out of
theories
class. Nuttall (1985) also stated that
discussed above. The view of
extensive reading is an out of
learning to read by mastering and
school work. Class time is always
integrating
a
in short supply and the amount of
recognition
and
reading needed to achieve fluency
sub skills is based on the bottom up
and efficiency is very great, much
belief. On the other hand, the view
greater than most students will
of teaching reading as creating
undertake it left to them.
opportunities for the students to be
In
involving
addition,
Nuttall
(models)
of
series
reading
of
word
comprehension
(1985)
involved in whole language is
considered that the materials for
based on the top-down and strong
extensive
interactive beliefs that students
reading
should
be
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |23
Fahriany
learn to read through meaningful
approach
activities.
implementing the teaching and
and
strategies
in
Dealing with the beliefs about
learning activities in the classroom.
reading and the theory of reading,
Rumelhart, Mc Neil, Nuttal,
the trend of teaching language,
and Vacca
especially of teaching English in
strategies are
our country is compatible with top-
teaching of reading; they are the
down and interactive models of
hour-by-hour, day-by-day evidence
reading.
brings
of what is really happening in the
about the great impact on the
classroom. This statement implies
application of the approach in the
that
classroom, the so-called Commun-
important role in the teaching and
icative Approach. This approach
learning
stresses
the
of
teachers should master a variety of
students
in
and
strategies and techniques that they
learning activities. To activate the
will adapt to fit the needs of their
students,
create
students. Strategies and techniques
suitable circumstances and apply
are essential for every reading
strategies that can contribute the
teacher
students to actively get involved in
reading. The mastery of strategies
the activities. Thus, the use of
and techniques on the part of the
suitable approach and strategies
teacher will make them easier
will facilitate students in learning
conduct their instruction that in
to read in the classroom.
turn it will facilitate the students in
This
condition
involvement
the
teacher
teaching
must
The heart of the instructional
programs is the quality of the
(1987) indicates the
the key
strategies
play
process.
to
a
The
especially
of
the
very
effective
English
learning to read.
The teachers’ knowledge of
teaching. This implies that the
strategies
success of instructional programs
reflect
may much depend on the teachers’
teaching of reading. The teachers’
ability to master and use suitable
beliefs
24| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
and
their
will
techniques
beliefs
about
influence
may
the
their
Schema Theory in Reading Class
strategies and activities in the
strategies is started “from the
classroom.
It
Rumelhart,
is
et
line
with
simple to the complex”. In the
(1987)
who
other
in
al.
words,
the
teaching
of
indicate that “beliefs about the
reading by applying bottom-up
teaching of reading are reflected in
strategies triggers from identifying
teachers’ strategies and actions in
and decoding features of letters to
the classroom” (p.19). If teachers
comprehending the whole text.
advocate students to talk as an
Furthermore,
the
top-down
important aspect of comprehensi -
strategies can also be applied as the
on, because it brings the students’
basis of strategies to the teaching of
background into what they are
reading. In using these strategies,
reading, his teaching activities will
teachers
then
students the story and asking them
reflect
the
top-down
or
interactive theory of reading.
of
telling
the
later learn to deal with individual
reading,
words. Sub-skills are not taught
teachers can apply the bottom-up
because they are considered to
strategies as the basis of teaching
fragmenting
strategies to beginning learners. In
making learning to read more
the case, teachers can begin by
abstract and difficult (Goodman,
showing and introducing students
1992, P.13).
the names and shapes of the letter
down strategies as the underlying
of the alphabets. Then, the students
strategy
are introduced the combination of
appears in the teaching which
the
applying
letters
English
by
to memorize the whole story and
In the teaching of reading,
especially
start
in
syllables
and
the
process
and
The use of the top-
for
teaching
pre-reading
reading
activities,
continued to words, phrases, and
during/whilst reading activities,
sentences. In teaching reading as
and post-reading activities. In the
such, the students are taught the
case, teachers start by activating the
sub-kills of reading in stages. The
students’ schemata and moving to
teaching
see the words to check and confirm
of
reading
by
these
IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014 |25
Fahriany
their prediction and hypothesis
classroom. In teaching of reading
made before.
the teachers’ beliefs about reading
In the teaching of reading
are very essential. The mastery of
nowadays, especially of English
strategies
reading, it is much more influenced
facilitate teachers to implement
by
In
their programs. In executing the
teaching reading, teachers teach
teaching in the classroom, teachers
skills directly, especially in the
can apply bottom-up, top-down
beginning, but they do not over do
and interactive strategies in order
it.
that the students can understand
interactive
In
strategies.
the
teaching-learning
activities, teachers provide plenty
of opportunities for the students to
experience the holistic nature of
reading activities by having them
read whole books. Giving more
chances to the learners in reading
activities is based on the principle
of teaching reading that indicates
reading should be thought in a way
that allows each learner to the
experience success. In other words,
the success of teaching reading the
learners
must
opportunities
be
to
given
more
participate
in
reading activities.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the success of
instructional programs depends on
the teaching-learning process in the
26| IJEE, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2014
and
techniques
will
the text read.
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Beer, T. 1997. Schema- Theoretic
Models
of
Reading:
Humanizing The Machine,
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Bolinger, Dwigth. 1992. Aspect of
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Prentice Hall.
Coady, James dan Barkman, B.
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Goodman, K.S. 1967. Reading: A
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Grellet, F. 1990. Developing Reading
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Schema Theory in Reading Class
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rd
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