Bahan Ajar Bahasa Inggris

LEARNING MODULE

ENGLISH

PROGRAM DIPLOMA III KEUANGAN

MUHAMMAD AGUNG DARLIANTO

SEKOLAH TINGGI AKUNTANSI NEGARA

TAHUN 2011

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F O R E W O R D

Alhamdulillahirabbil‘alamin, Praise Allah SWT, The Lord of the universe, for His precious blessing and ni‘mat that finally the author managed to finish publishing this Study Module of English exclusively for the students of Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara.

Sincere gratitude has to be addressed to The Director of Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara, Mr. Kusmanadji, for the opportunity given to the author to develop himself by pouring the ideas, thoughts, and knowledges combined with all supporting materials from the online and offline sources into this module dedicated to all readers who are in need of information of English Grammar and especially to all students of STAN. The greetings also go the author‘s supervisors and coleagues at STAN, Mr. Fadlil Usman, Mr. Budi Setiawan, Mrs. Aisyah Nur Kustiani, Mrs. Nancy G. Saija, Mrs. Dessy Bernawati, and also Titis and Ichsan who have been burdened with so many questions and requests by the author regarding the writing and compiling process.

Biggest thanks to all mates at Room C-108 (the Room of Inspiration) where the author spent most of the time while working on the module, Mr. Bambang Widjajarso for his restless spirit and precious motivation; Mr. Izzudin, Heri, Diah, Ira, Vera, Mas Agus for being the very friendly buddies; and absolutely, Jeni Wardin, the author‘s best man, for all his never ending accompanying the author, even on extra-hours-working on holidays. To the author‘s family; parents (Darmojo and Erlina Yusni), little brother (Chandra Kusuma), beloved wife (Risma Afriani), and the adorable Princess Nada, the author thanks them so much for their all endless supports. This hard work could not have been victoriously done without all of them.

Learning module is one of supporting materials in determining the quality of the learning process standardization for subjects taught at Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara. The presence of this learning module is expected to ease students in understanding and comprehending the English subject in accordance with GBPP (Teaching Program Outlines) that had been developed in such a way as to further enhance the competence of the STAN graduates.

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This module contains ―minimum requirements‖ to be met by readers and students who would like to know, comprehend, and try to develop English language as one of the crucial things to be mastered in this highly competitive era. That includes important subjects, rules, and knowledges of English Grammar.

All materials in this module are written in English to encourage the readers and the students to start using the language from the very first as learning by doing is more likely to be better to improve one‘s verbal skill. The Review Exercises are also provided at the end of every chapter to measure and evaluate the understanding of the materials given. This module is also equipped with some useful supplements to help the readers and the students to gain more for the knowing in learning.

Due to the great number of materials and discussion in English language, of course, it takes time toward the completeness and the perfection of this module. Improvement, additions and updates of the contents will continue to be performed. The author welcomes all criticism, suggestions and constructive ideas to assist the development of this module in the future. At the end, may this work be a great contribution to Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara in particular and education world in general.

Let‘s speak up in English!

Jakarta, 20 April 2011

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ... 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... 3

LIST OF TABLES ... 7

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ... 8

CHAPTER I PARTS OF SPEECH ... 10

Parts of Speech Classification ... 10

Noun ... 10

Pronoun ... 13

Adjective ... 13

Verb ... 14

Adverb ... 14

Preposition ... 15

Conjunction ... 16

Interjection ... 17

Derivative ... 18

Sentences ... 19

Articles ... 21

Indefinite Article ... 22

Definite Article ... 23

Determiner & Quantifier ... 24

Determiner ... 24

Quantifier ... 25

Adjective Word Order ... 27

Participial Adjective ... 27

Modals ... 28

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CHAPTER II TENSES ... 31

Present Tense ... 31

Present Simple ... 31

Present Progressive ... 32

Present Perfect ... 33

Present Perfect Progressive ... 34

Past Tense ... 35

Past Simple ... 35

Past Progressive ... 36

Past Perfect ... 37

Past Perfect Progressive ... 38

Future Tense ... 38

Future Simple ... 39

Future Progressive ... 40

Future Perfect ... 40

Future Perfect Progressive ... 41

Past-Future Tense ... 42

Past-Future Simple ... 42

Past-Future Progressive ... 43

Past-Future Perfect ... 43

Past-Future Perfect Progressive ... 44

Chapter Review Exercise ... 46

CHAPTER III DEGREE OF COMPARISON ... 48

Introduction ... 48

Positive/in-Line Comparison ... 48

Comparative Comparison ... 49

Superlative Comparison... 50

Common Exception ... 50

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CHAPTER IV PASSIVE VOICE ... 52

General Pattern ... 52

Stative Passive ... 53

Chapter Review Exercise ... 54

CHAPTER V QUESTION TAG ... 55

Chapter Review Exercise ... 57

CHAPTER VI CAUSATIVE ... 58

Chapter Review Exercise ... 59

CHAPTER VII CONDITIONAL & SUBJUNCTIVE ... 60

Conditional ... 60

Future Conditional ... 60

Present Conditional ... 61

Past Conditional ... 62

Zero Conditional ... 63

Subjunctive ... 64

Expressing Hope, Desire, and Regret ... 64

Emphasizing The Importance of Doing Something ... 65

Chapter Review Exercise ... 66

CHAPTER VIII DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH ... 67

Direct Speech ... 67

Indirect/Reported Speech ... 68

Indirect Statement ... 69

Indirect Command/Order/Request ... 72

Indirect Question ... 73

Chapter Review Exercise ... 74

CHAPTER IX DEPENDENT CLAUSE ... 75

Introduction ... 75

Classification ... 76

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Adjective Clause ... 77

Adverb Clause ... 78

Reduced Adjective Clause ... 79

Chapter Review Exercise ... 80

CHAPTER X GERUND & INFINITIVE ... 83

Introduction ... 83

Gerund ... 84

Infinitive ... 86

Chapter Review Exercise ... 88

CHAPTER XI PARAGRAPH WRITING ... 90

Introduction ... 90

Writing A Good Paragraph ... 92

Chapter Review Exercise ... 94

SUPPLEMENT 1 READING COMPREHENSION ... 96

SUPPLEMENT 2 CUMULATIVE REVIEW EXERCISE ... 125

SUPPLEMENT 3 AMERICAN & BRITISH ENGLISH ... 143

SUPPLEMENT 4 LIST OF PHRASAL VERBS ... 146

REFERENCES ... 161

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Certain Plural Forms in English ... 11

Table 2. Pronoun List in English ...... 13

Table 3. Examples of Tenses-Changing Verb ...... 14

Table 4. Examples of Adverb Usage in Sentences ...... 15

Table 5. Several Commonly Used Prepositions ...... 15

Table 6. Several Examples of Interjection ...... 17

Table 7. Forms of Quantifier ...... 26

Table 8. Forms of Quantifier 2 ...... 26

Table 9. Basic Rules of Tag Question ...... 55

Table 10. Imperative Tag Question ...... 56

Table 11. Exceptions in Tag Question ...... 56

Table 12. Tenses Changes in Reported Speech ...... 70

Table 13. Pronoun Changes in Reported Speech ...... 70

Table 14. Adverb Changes in Reported Speech ...... 71

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustration 1. Coordinative & Corelative Conjunction ...... 16

Illustration 2. Subordinative Conjunction ...... 16

Illustration 3. Conjunctive Adverb ...... 17

Illustration 4. Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb Forming with Affixes ..... 18

Illustration 5. Simple Sentence Formula ...... 20

Illustration 6. Compound Sentence Formula ...... 20

Illustration 7. Complex Sentence Formula ...... 20

Illustration 8. Complex-Compound Sentence Formula ...... 21

Illustration 9. Present Simple Tense Formula ...... 31

Illustration 10. Present Progressive Tense Formula ...... 32

Illustration 11. Present Perfect Tense Formula ...... 33

Illustration 12. Present Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ...... 34

Illustration 13. Past Simple Tense Formula ...... 35

Illustration 14. Past Progressive Tense Formula ...... 36

Illustration 15. Past Perfect Tense Formula ...... 37

Illustration 16. Past Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ...... 38

Illustration 17. Future Simple Tense Formula ...... 39

Illustration 18. Future Progressive Tense Formula ...... 40

Illustration 19. Future Perfect Tense Formula ...... 41

Illustration 20. Future Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ...... 41

Illustration 21. Past-Future Simple Tense Formula ...... 42

Illustration 22. Past-Future Progressive Tense Formula ...... 43

Illustration 23. Past-Future Perfect Tense Formula ...... 43

Illustration 24. Past-Future Perfect Progressive Tense Formula ... 45

Illustration 25. Positive/In-Line Comparison ...... 49

Illustration 26. Comparative Comparison ...... 49

Illustration 27. Superlative Comparison ...... 50

Illustration 28. Exceptions in Comparison ...... 50

Illustration 29. Passive Voice Formula ...... 52

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Illustration 31. Causative Sentence Formula ...... 58

Illustration 32. Future / First Conditional Formula ...... 60

Illustration 33. Present / Second Conditional Formula ...... 61

Illustration 34. Past / Third Conditional Formula ...... 62

Illustration 35. Zero Conditional Formula ...... 63

Illustration 36. Subjunctive Sentence Formula ...... 64

Illustration 37. Direct Speech General Formula ...... 67

Illustration 38. Indirect / Reported Speech General Formula ...... 69

Illustration 39. Indirect / Reported Command/Order/Request ...... 72

Illustration 40. Indirect / Reported Question ...... 72

Illustration 41. Noun Clause ...... 76

Illustration 42. Adjective Clause ...... 77

Illustration 43. Adverb Clause ...... 78

Illustration 44. Reduced Adjective Clause Clause ...... 79

Illustration 45. Gerund ...... 84

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PARTS OF SPEECH

A. Parts of Speech Classification

There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same function. For example, some words express "action". Other words express a "thing". Other words "join" one word to another word. These are the "building blocks" of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. Concrete is used to make foundations or base. Bricks are for the wall. Window frames are placed to build the windows and door frames are created to make the doorways. To join all parts togetherin a house, cement is used as the element. Each part of the house has its own job. Building a sentence is not quite different from those analogies, different types of words are used. Each type of word has its own job.

1. Noun

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

Nouns can be further classified as countable nouns (which name everything that can be counted (four books, two continents, a few dishes, a dozen buildings), mass nouns or non-countable nouns) (which name everything that can't be counted (water, air, energy, blood)), and collective nouns (which can take a singular form but are composed of more than one individual person or items (jury, team, class, committee, herd)).

1

Special Instructional Objectives :

Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Parts of Speech in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

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Below are given several brief facts about the use of singuar and plural nouns in English:

Table 1. Certain Plural Forms in English

song – songs

book – books In general, the plural forms take –s suffixes behind the nouns.

box – boxes

glass – glasses

We put –es suffixes after the nouns with the ending letters of –

sh, -ch, -s, -z, dan -x. baby – babies

fly - flies butterflies

For the nouns ending with –y, the last consonant are altered

using –ies.

man – men

woman – women

child – children

ox – oxen

foot – feet

There are some nouns which have irregular forms of plural.

echo hero potato tomato

Some nouns ending with –o, the plural forms will be taking –es

at the end of the words. auto

kangaroo kilo memo

radio

Some nouns ending with –o, the plural forms will be taking only

–s at the end of the words.

mosquito tornado volcano

zero

Some nouns ending with –o, the plural forms may take both –s

and –es at the end of the words (although the most common

ones are the –es). knife

leaf self thief

Nouns ending with –f and –fe are taking –ves ending in their plural forms.

belief chief

cliff roof

Some nouns ending with –f and –fe are only taking –s ending in their plural forms.

deer fish sheep shrimp

Some nouns have exactly the same singular and plural forms. phenomenon

(phenomena) fungus (fungi) datum (data)

Some nouns adapted from foreign language take their plurals from their original forms.

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Generally, countable nouns have characteristic of being able to be preceded by a/an article in their singular forms and be ended with -s/-es in their plural forms. In the contrary, such rule is not applicable to the uncountable nouns. Most of uncountable nouns include abstract noun which simply has no physical form, untouchable, and apparently, uncountable.

Some of the uncountable nouns are stated below: 1. mass/collective noun;

(baggage, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, garbage, hardware, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinery, mail, makeup, money/cash/change, postage, scenery, traffic)

2. fluid;

(water, coffee, tea, milk, oil, soup, gasoline, blood)

3. solid things;

(ice, bread, butter, cheese, meat, gold, iron, silver, glass, paper, wood, cotton, wool)

4. gas;

(steam, air, oxygen, nitrogen, smoke, smog, pollution)

5. particle;

(rice, chalk, corn, dirt, dust, flour, grass, hair, pepper, salt, sand, sugar, wheat)

6. abstract noun;

(beauty, confidence, courage, education, enjoyment, fun, happiness, health, help, honesty, hospitality, importance, intelligence, justice, knowledge, laughter, luck, music, patience, peace, pride, progress, recreation, significance, sleep, truth, violence, wealth, advice, information, news, evidence, proof, time, space, energy, homework, work, grammar, slang, vocabulary)

7. language;

(Arabic, Chinese, English, Spanish)

8. academic subject;

(chemistry, engineering, history, literature, mathematics, psychology)

9. recreation;

(baseball, soccer, tennis, chess, bridge, poker)

10. some activities;

(driving, studying, swimming, travelling, walking)

11. natural phenomena

(weather, dew, fog, hail, heat, humidity, lightning, rain, sleet, snow, thunder, wind, darkness, light, sunshine, electricity, fire, gravity)

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2. Pronoun

A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For example, instead of saying John is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of the noun John and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun.

Person Subject Object Possessive Intensive / Reflexive

1st _{I me mine Myself}

2nd _{you you yours Yourself}

3rd _{he/she/it him/her/it his/hers himself/herself/itself}

Person Subject Object Possessive Intensive / Reflexive

1st _{We us ours Ourselves}

2nd _{You you yours Yourselves}

3rd _{They them theirs Themselves}

3. Adjective

An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb.

A given occurrence of an adjective can generally be classified into one of four kinds of uses:

1) Attributive adjectives are part of the noun phrase headed by the noun they modify; for example, happy is an attributive adjective in "happy people". In English, attributive adjectives usually precede their nouns in simple phrases, but often follow their nouns when the adjective is modified or qualified by a phrase acting as an adverb

2) Predicative adjectives are linked via a copula or other linking mechanism to the noun or pronoun they modify; for example, happy is a predicate adjective in "they are happy" and in "that made me happy."

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3) Absolute adjectives do not belong to a larger construction (aside from a larger adjective phrase), and typically modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to; for example, happy is an absolute adjective in "The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going."

4) Nominal adjectives act almost as nouns.

4. Verb

A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to time. Verbs tell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb; for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for something that will happen later, we use the future tense.

Present Past Future

Look looked will look

Move moved will move

Talk talked will talk

Present Past Future

See saw will see

Hear heard will hear

Speak spoke will speak

5. Adverb

An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.

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6. Preposition

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In it, words like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words.

Do it now. I always do my homework

I will see you then. We sometimes get confused.

They will be here soon. He usually gets good grades.

I can't meet you today. I never went skiing.

Let's go tomorrow. She rarely eats a big breakfast.

They told me yesterday. He was once on TV.

Have you traveled recently? He saw the movie twice.

about above according to across after against along along with among apart from around as as for at because of before behind below beneath beside between beyond but* by by means of

concerning despite down during except except for excepting for from in in addition to

in back of in case of in front of in place of

inside in spite of instead of into like near next of off on onto on top of

out out of outside over past regarding round since through throughout till to toward under underneath unlike until up upon up to with within without Table 4. Examples of Adverb Usage in Sentences

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7. Conjunction

A conjunction is a word that "joins" or connects other words or groups of words. We may also state that a conjunction joins two parts of a sentence. Conjunctions have three basic forms:

 Single Word

(and, but, because, although)

 Compound (often ending with as or that) (provided that, as long as, in order that)

 Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective) (so...that)

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

 Coordinating conjunctions (always come between the words or clauses that they join) are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal

 Subordinating conjunctions (usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause) are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause.

and ; or; both...

and…

;

not only…but also…

;

either…or…

;

neither…nor…

Illustration 1. Coordinative & Corelative Conjunction

after

in order (that)

unless

although

insofar as

until

as

in that

when

as far as

lest

whenever

as soon as

no matter how

where

as if

now that

wherever

as though

once

whether

because

provided (that)

while

before

since

why

even if

so that

how

even though

supposing (that)

than

if

that

inasmuch as

in case (that)

though

till

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8. Interjection

Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.

Interjection Meaning Example

Ah

expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good." expressing realization "Ah, now I understand." expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be heped."

expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"

Alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now." Dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"

Eh

asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot today."

expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"

Er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

hello, hullo

expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?" expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"

Table 6. Several Examples of Interjection

after all

in addition

next

also

incidentally

nonetheless

as a result

indeed

on the contrary

besides

in fact

on the other hand

consequently

in other words

otherwise

finally

instead

still

for example

likewise

then

furthermore

meanwhile

therefore

hence

moreover

thus

however

nevertheless

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B. Derivative

An English word can consist of three parts: the root, a prefix and a suffix. The root is the part of the word that contains the basic meaning (definition) of the word. The root is the base element of the word. A prefix is a word element that is placed in front of a root. A prefix changes the word's meaning or makes a new word. A suffix is a word element that is placed after the root. The suffix changes the word's meaning as well as its function (use). Prefixes and suffixes are called affixes because they are attached to a root.

Hey calling attention "Hey! look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy etc "Hey! What a good idea!"

Hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"

Hmm expressing hesitation,

doubt or disagreement "Hmm. I'm not so sure." oh, o

expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache." expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!" Ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

Uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to

that."

uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh." um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

Well expressing surprise "Well, I never!" introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"

Illustration 4. Noun, Adjective, Verb, and Adverb Forming with Affixes

-al; -ent; -ive; -ous; -ful; -less; -able; un-; im-; in-; ir-; il-; non-; dis-; -ish; -ed; -ing anti-; auto-; bi-; co; counter-; dis-; ex-; hyper-; in-;

inter-; kilo-; mal-; mega-; mis-; mini-; mono-; neo-; out-; poly-; pseudo-; re-; semi-; sub-; super-; sur-; tele-; tri-; ultra-; under-; vice-; -tion/-sion; -er; -ment; ant/ent; age; al; ance/ence; ery/ry; or; ism; -ship; -ity; -ness; -cy; -logy; -nomy; -ure; -hood

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C. Sentences

A sentence is defined an expression in natural language, and often defined to indicate a grammatical unit consisting of one or more words that generally bear minimal syntactic relation to the words that precede or follow it. A sentence can include words grouped meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or suggestion.

Based on the structure (the number and types of finite clauses), sentences are divided into four different types:

a. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause with no dependent clauses;

b. A compound sentence consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses are joined together using conjunctions, punctuation, or both;

c. A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause and one dependent clause;

d. A complex-compound sentence (or compound-complex sentence)

consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has at least one dependent clause;

While based on the purpose, sentenced can be classified as:

a. A declarative sentence or declaration, the most common type, commonly makes a statement: "I am going home."

b. An interrogative sentence or question is commonly used to request information — "When are you going to work?"

re-; dis-; over-; un-; mis-; out-; be-; co-; de-; fore-; inter-; pre-inter-; sub-inter-; trans-inter-; under-inter-; en-inter-; -iseinter-; -ateinter-; -fyinter-; -eninter-; -edinter-; -ing

-ward, -ly, adverb of time, place, manner, frequency and others

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c. An exclamative sentence or exclamation is generally a more emphatic form of statement expressing emotion: "What a wonderful day this is!"

d. An imperative sentence or command tells someone to do something: "Go to work at 7:30 in the morning!"

1. Simple Sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Illustration 5. Simple Sentence Formula

 My aunt enjoyed taking the hayride with you.

 China's Han Dynasty marked an official recognition of Confucianism.

2. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a correlative conjunction (with or without a comma), a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses is called a comma splice and is generally considered an error (when used in the English language).

 The clown frightened the little girl, and she ran off screaming.

 The Freedom Riders departed on May 4, 1961, and they were determined to

travel through many southern states.

3. Complex Sentence

A complex sentence is a sentence with one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

Illustration 6. Compound Sentence Formula

21 | P a g e  After Mary added up all the sales, she discovered that the lemonade stand

was 32 cents short.

 While all of his paintings are fascinating, Hieronymus Bosch's triptychs, full of mayhem and madness, are the real highlight of his art.

4. Complex-Compound Sentence

A complex-compound sentence or compound-complex sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (also known as subordinate clauses).

 Catch-22 is widely regarded as Joseph Heller's best novel, and because Heller served in World War II, which the novel satirizes, the zany but savage wit of the novel packs an extra punch.

 We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong.

D. Articles

Article is is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite. A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be the same thing that the speaker has already mentioned, or it may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English is "the". An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a general statement about any such thing. The indefinite article in English is "a" and "an".

The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even if spelled with an initial consonant, as in an hour), and a is used before words that begin with a consonant sound (even if spelled with a vowel, as in a University).

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1. Indefinite Article (a/an)

 In English, the indefinite articles are "a, an, some, any." They are "indefinite" because they do not refer to a particular thing as "the" does, but simply refer to an object or person in a non-specific way, that is, we do not specify exactly to which person or object we are referring to.

 A white house on a green hill.

 A cat ate the sardine

 It is normal to use the indefinite article when we mention someone or something for the first time in our conversation or text.

 I've finally got a good job.

 We bought a new computer and it was cheap.

 Would you like a drink?

 "A" and "an" are also used to refer to a particular member of a group or class.

 She is an English teacher.

 He wants to be a dancer.

 John is an Englishman.

 We also use the indefinite article to talk about price / weight, speed.

 This car does 240 km an hour.

 It is 10 euros a kilo.

 Certain numbers in English require the presence of an indefinite article.

 A hundred, a thousand, a million

 With singular nouns, after the words "what" and "such".

 What a day!

 What a shame!

 She's such a beautiful girl.

 Meaning "one", referring to a single object or person.

 I'd like an orange and two lemons please.

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2. Definite Article (the)

 The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is specific or particular. ―The‖ signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to

a particular member of a group.

 The dog that bit me ran away.

 "The" is used to refer to something which has already been mentioned.

 An elephant and a mouse fell in love. The mouse loved the elephant's long trunk, and the elephant loved the mouse's tiny nose.

 _{―The‖ is required when the noun it refers to} represents something in the abstract.

 “The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as

opposed to the use of public transit.”

 We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns.

 Geographical places

the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Sahara

 Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams)

the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots , the Kusmanadji, the STANERS

 Public institutions/facilities/groups

the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church, the hospital, the PLASMA

 Newspapers

the Times, the Jakarta Post, the Media Indonesia

 _{Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of“}

the leader of the gang, the president of our club, the Head of Marketing

 We use the definite article with names of rivers, oceans, and seas; points on the globe; deserts, forests, gulfs, and peninsulas.

 the Nile, the Pacific; the Equator, the North Pole; the Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the Green Forest, the Korea Peninsula

24 | P a g e  We DO NOT use the definite article (the) with:

 names of most countries/territories

Italy, Mexico, Bolivia; however, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, the Philippines, the United States

 names of cities, towns, or states Seoul, Manitoba, Miami

 names of streets

Washington Blvd., Main St.

 names of lakes and bays

Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of lakes like the Great Lakes

 names of mountains

Mount Everest, Mount Fuji except with ranges of mountains like the Andes or the Rockies or unusual names like the Matterhorn

 names of continents (Asia, Europe)

 names of islands

(Easter Island, Maui, Key West) except with island chains like the Aleutians, the Hebrides, or the Canary Islands

E. Determiner & Quantifier 1. Determiner

Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. They may clarify:

 to define something or someone

 to state the amount of people, things or other nouns

 to state possessives

 to state something or someone is specific

 to state how things or people are distributed

 to state the difference between nouns

25 | P a g e

Determiner can be classified into:

 Definite and Indefinite articles the, a, an

 Demonstratives this, that, these, those

 Possessives

my, your, his, her, its, our, their

 Quantifiers

a few, a little, much, many, a lot of, most, some, any, enough, etc.

 Numbers

one, ten, thirty, etc.

 Distributives

all, both, half, either, neither, each, every

 Difference words other, another

 Question words Which, what, whose

 Defining words which, whose

2. Quantifier

Like articles, quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns. Quantifiers are words that are used to state quantity or amount of something without stating the actually number. Quantifiers answer the questions "How many?" and "How much?"

Quantifiers can be used with plural countable nouns and uncountable nouns. There are 3 main types of quantifiers.

 quantifiers that are used with countable nouns;

 quantifiers that are used with uncountable nouns;

26 | P a g e

Countable Uncountable Examples

Much

_X

I don't have much money.

Many

_X

_-

I don't have many apples.

Few

_X

_-

We know few people in the area. I would

like to get to know more.

A few

_X

_-

We know a few people in the area. I know

enough people to keep me happy.

Little

_-

_X

I know little English. I am going to have a

problem getting around England.

A little

_-

_X

I know a little English, at least enough to

get England.

Enough

_X

_X

I have enough money.

Plenty

_X

_X

I have plenty of money.

much, less, little, a little,

very little

some, any, most, more, all, a lot of, no, none of the

many, both, several, few/fewer/fewest, a few, one of the, a

couple of

each, every, any,

one

Count

singular

XX

Count

plural

XX

XX

Non-count

_XX

_XX

Table 7. Forms of Quantifier

27 | P a g e

F. Adjective Word Order

In forming a noun phrase, adjectives always go before nouns in English. There are rules about putting the right order of each different adjective before the noun. The orders are:

Several examples of adjective word order in sentences are as follow:

 The interesting, small, rectangular, blue car is parked in my space.

 My father lives in a lovely, gigantic, ancient, brick house.

 I have an annoying, small, circular, American, tin, alarm clock waking me up.

 They all received several dazzling, small, ancient, gold coins.

 She owns a stunning, large, old, brown dog named Boris.

G. Participial Adjective

The participial adjectives are a major subclass of adjectives. They can be distinguished by their endings, either –er or –ing. Some exceptions to the rules include misunderstood and unknown, which also function like these special adjectives even though they do not end in –ed. They are called participial adjectives because they have the same endings as verb participles.

1. Numbers one, two, first

2. Opinion/judgement

clever, beautiful, funny, lazy 3. Size/appearance/length

big, tall,short, long 4. Weight

slim, fat, skinny 5. Age

young, new, old 6. Temperature

hot, cold, warm

7. Humidity wet, dry 8. Shape

round, square, pointed 9. Colour

white, pink, blue 10. Nationality or origin

British, Sudanese, Egyptian 11. Material

synthetic, cotton, metal, paper 12. Purpose & defining adjectives

engagement ring, shopping trolley, gardening gloves, sunny day

28 | P a g e

These adjectives are really meant to function like any other adjective: they help to describe a noun. They might come from a verb form, or they might merely imitate the structure, but they always function as a descriptive adjective.

Several examples of participial adjectives are given below:

 The tempting cookie platter made my mouth salivate.

 The fascinating book was a thrilling read.

 The interesting story made a compelling point.

 Sally was bored by the conversation.

 I am tired today, and my work is really tiring.

 My frustrating experience at the restaurant made me angry.

 I have been agitated long enough.

H. Modals

A modal verb (also modal, modal auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary) is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality. They are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the verb to a certain context. Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are not used alone unless there is a clear connection to a main verb. Below are some common modals in English.



had better

advisability with threat of bad result



(be) supposed to

expectation unfulfilled expectation



must

strong necessity prohibition (negative) 95% certainty



have to

necessity

lack of necessity (negative)



may

polite request (only with I or we) formal permission

less than 50% certainty



might

less than 50% certainty polite request (rare)



should

advisability

90% certainty (expectation)



ought to

advisability 90% certainty

29 | P a g e





can

ability/possibility informal permission informal polite request impossibility (negative only)



used to

repeated action in the past

past situation that no longer exists



shall

polite question to make suggestion

future with I or we as Subject



(be) going to

100% certainty (prediction) definite plan (intention) unfulfilled intention



could

past ability polite request

suggestion (affirmative only) less than 50% certainty impossibility (negative only)



(be) able to

ability



would

preference

repeated action in the past

30 | P a g e

CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE Find and correct the mistake!

1. It was so difficult for American Indians to negotiate a peace treaty in their native

A B

language that they used a universal understood form of signs language. No error

C D E

2. The Professor was considering postponing the examination until the following

A B C

week because the students‘ confusion. No error.

D E

3. Mira accidentally cut her while she was chopping the vegetables the moment

A B C

you were not home. No error. D E

4.

Accountancy is a branch of mathematical science that is useful for

A

B

C

discovering the causes of success and failure in business. No error.

D E

5. The manager was frustrated when he learnt about the disappointed results of

A B C

the training course for the employees. No error.

D E

6. Bacterias are the smallest living things which are simple organism that

A B C

consist of one cell. No error. D E

7. Physiocrats, is a group of French thinkers and writers, developed the idea of

A B C

the economy as a circular flow of income and output. No error.

D E

8. Kalimongso Daily Digest is one of the most well known newspaper in town

A B

for it always serves the latest and most reliable news. No error.

C D E

9. We have only a little money left that we simply can‘t afford to buy anything for

A B C

our dinner tonight. No error.

D E

10. The properly role of government provides a starting point for the analysis of

A B C

public finance in a country. No error. D E

11. Eventhough his disabilities force him to be not as strong as common people,

A B C

the young man never gave up his spirit in learning. No error.

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TENSES

A. Present Tense

In general, Present Tense is used to express action at the present; a state of being; an occurrence in the (very) near future; or an action that occurred in the past and continues up to the present.

1.1. Present Simple

Present Simple is used to express permanent actions, actions that happen on a regular basis, general facts, statements that are always true, existence, feeling, static verbs, general actions.

Special Instructional Objectives :

Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Tenses in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

2

CHAPTER

32 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Simple Tense in sentences are given below:

 My brother always goes to scholl at 7 in the morning.

 _{She doesn‟t come to this group discu}ssion too often.

 Do they know that they are all grown ups who ought to behave politely?

 My grandfather is a patriot who once fight for this nation‟s independence.

 They are not the the students of this institution.

 What do I have to do to make up my mistakes to you?

 Why does she have to come to scholl on this holiday?

1.2. Present Progressive (Continous)

Present Progressive (Continous) is used to elaborate the idea of temporary actions, an action which is going to be happened in the near future, an action which is happening/in progress at the time of speaking/writing, a future action which is planned.

33 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Progressive Tense in sentences are given below:

 I am working on my Chemistry project right now.

 Anita and her friends are playing in the garden.

 They are not watching the program on the television.

 Why aren't you doing your homework?

 I surely need money now, would you please lend me some?

 This book belong to Rani; they are not mine.

 I remember the formula now; we have to provide extra salt on the recipe!

1.3. Present Perfect

Present Perfect is used to express an action which has connection with the past, the exact time of the action is not known, the action is not completed at the time of speaking/writing, the action happened before expected, the action has been repeated numerous time, and is expected to be repeated in the future.

34 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Perfect Tense in sentences are given below:

 They have moved into a new apartment.

 I have flown on an airplane many times.

 So far this week, I have had two tests and a quiz.

 I think I have met him once before.

 There have been many earthquakes in California.

 Have you read the book yet?

 Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.

1.4. Present Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous) is an absolute-relative tense that refers to a time located in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance.

35 | P a g e

Several examples of Present Perfect Tense in sentences are given below:

 I have been sitting here since seven o‟clock.

 It has been raining all day.

 She has been thinking about changing her major.

 My back hurts, so I have been sleeping on the floor lately.

 Andrew has been working at the same store for about ten years.

 They have been talking for the last hour.

 She has been working at that company for three years.

 What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?

 James has been teaching at the university since June.

B. Past Tense

In Past Tense, the verb is used to express action, activity, state or being in the past of the current moment (in an absolute tense system), or prior to some other event, whether that is past, present, or future (in a relative tense system).

2.1. Past Simple

Past Simple is used to express the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they do have one specific time in mind.

36 | P a g e

Several examples of Past Simple Tense in sentences are given below:

 I saw a movie yesterday.

 Last year, I didn't travel to Korea.

 Did you have dinner last night?

 I finished work, walked to the beach, and found a nice place to swim.

 He arrived from the airport at 8:00 and checked into the hotel at 9:00.

 Shauna studied Japanese for five years.

2.2. Past Progressive (Continous)

Past Progressive (Continuous) is used to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time.

Several examples of Past Progressive Tense in sentences are given below:

 I was watching TV when she called.

 When the phone rang, she was writing a letter.

 While we were having the picnic, it started to rain.

 What were you doing when the earthquake started?

 I was listening to my iPod, so I didn't hear the fire alarm.

 Last night at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

 I was studying while he was making dinner.

 Were you listening while he was talking?

 Thomas wasn't working, and I wasn't working either. Illustration 14. Past Progressive Tense Formula

37 | P a g e

2.3. Past Perfect

Past Perfect is used to express the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.

Several examples of Past Perfect Tense in sentences are given below:

 I had never seen such a beautiful beach before I went to Kauai.

 I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.

 Tony knew Istanbul so well because he had visited the city several times.

 We had had that car for ten years before it broke down.

 George had repaired many cars before he received his mechanic's license.

 She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved here. Illustration 15. Past Perfect Tense Formula

38 | P a g e

2.4. Past Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Past Perfect Progressive (Continuous) is used to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue until now, it stops before something else in the past.

Several examples of Past Perfect Tense in sentences are given below:

 They had been talking for over an hour before Tony arrived.

 She had been working at that company for 3 years when it went broke.

 How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?

 Mike wanted to sit down because he had been standing all day at work.

 Jason was tired because he had been jogging.

 Sam gained weight because he had been overeating.

 Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class.

 Chef Jones had been preparing the restaurant's fantastic dinners for two years before he moved to Paris.

 The restaurant's fantastic dinners had been being prepared by Chef Jones for two years before he moved to Paris.

C. Future Tense

Future Tense marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future (in an absolute tense system), or to happen subsequent to some other event, whether that is past, present, or future (in a relative tense system).

39 | P a g e

3.1. Future Simple

Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to."

Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. “Will” is also usually used in promises. "Be going to" expresses that something is a plan. It expresses the idea that a person intends to do something in the future. It does not matter whether the plan is realistic or not. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future and can express the idea of a general prediction about the future.

Several examples of Future Simple Tense in sentences are given below:

 I will send you the information when I get it.

 Will you help me move this heavy table?

 He is going to spend his vacation in Hawaii.

 Who are you going to invite to the party?

 The year 2222 is going to be a very interesting year.

 Are you ever going to meet Jane?

 She‟ll be the next best Indonesian Idol.

 Will you make dinner?

 I will call you when I arrive.

40 | P a g e  If I am elected President of the United States, I will make sure everyone has

access to inexpensive health insurance.

 I will be an artist when I am grown up.

3.2. Future Progressive (Continous)

Future Progressive is used to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future; and to express the idea that two actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Progressive forms are usually interchangeable.

Several examples of Future Progressive Tense in sentences are given below:

 When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer. They always do the same thing.

 While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.

 You are still going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives.

 I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.

 Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

3.3. Future Perfect

Future Perfect is used to express the idea that something will occur before another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future; and to show that something will continue up until another action in the future.

41 | P a g e

Several examples of Future Perfect Tense in sentences are given below:

 The project is going to have been completed before the deadline.

 By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week.

 How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50?

 By the time I finish this course, I will have taken ten tests.

 I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o'clock.

 By next November, I will have received my promotion.

3.4. Future Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Future Progressive is used to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the future. The tense is quite similar to Present Perfect Progressive and Past Perfect Progressive except that most part of the action is going to be done and finished in the future.

Several examples of Future Perfect Progressive Tense in sentences are given below:

 You will have been waiting for more than two hours when her plane finally arrives at the airport.

Illustration 19. Future Perfect Tense Formula

42 | P a g e  They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.

 How long will you have been studying when you graduate?

 Jason will be tired when he gets home because he will have been jogging for over an hour.

 The mural is going to have been being painted by the famous artist for over six months by the time it is finished.

D. Past-Future Tense

The forms of the past future tense are similar in structure and implication to those of the present or future tense, only the auxiliary verb ―will‖ or ―shall‖ appears in its past form ―would‖ or ―should‖. They find their basic use in indirect quotations, where they are really conversions from the corresponding present forms in direct quotations to suit the sequence of tense.

4.1. Past-Future Simple

Past-Future Simple basically expresses about a future plan in the past. The characteristic is the change of the modals will/shall into would/should.

Several examples of Past-Future Tense in sentences are given below:

 If I had more time, I would come and see her for the last time.

 On my last vacation, I had this lovely dream that I would visit Eiffel Tower, yet all was just a dream.

 Professor McGonagall should take the responsibilty when the trial was

conducted a year ago, but he didn‟t.

 _{I might find my way home if I didn‟t lose my} map.

 Were I to be elected the Chairman of the organization, I would elaborate my programs in re-structuring the management.

43 | P a g e

4.2. Past-Future Progressive (Continous)

Past-Future Progressive is used to state about a situation where an action was going to be done in the past time. In other words it can be described as a plan that was about to be happenning in the near future of the past.

Examples of Past-Future Progressive Tense in sentences are given below:

 This time last year, she would be studying Economics at the University of Toronto.

 When I arrived home last night, my daughter would be watching TV.

 While the president would be giving his speech last Monday, the audience would be listening to him carefully.

 I would not be discussing English with my classmates at 2 p.m. last Friday.

 Would she be copying the materials at 10 o‟clock this morning?

4.3. Past-Future Perfect

Past-Future Perfect generally expresses an idea that an action would be finished in the past. This kind of tenses is commonly used to express regret and wish for something in the past in case another activity didnot happened which interrupt the action or even caused the action not to be done at all. Past-Future Perfect is well known as the result clause for Past Conditional.

Illustration 22. Past-Future Progressive Tense Formula

44 | P a g e

Several examples of Past-Future Perfect Tense in sentences are given below:

 I predicted that by 3 p.m. yesterday, I would have finished reading this book.

 I thought Barcelona would have scored three goals when the first half was over. Because its opponent was tough, however, it didn‟t score even a single goal.

 They thought he would have already bought a gift before he went to his

girlfriend‟s birthday party last night.

 He wouldn‟t have got an accident, if he had not driven fast.

 She thought that she wouldn‟t have read the entire book before she went to campus yesterday afternoon.

 If I had asked come earlier, I would have bought the last copy of the book.

 If man had shown concern towards the Earth, it would not have been polluted to the present extent.

 John left for the front; by the time he should return, the field would have been burnt to stubble.

 We would have arrived on time If we walked faster

 I thought I would have already fallen asleep by the time Joni got home last

night. I don‟t know why I was still awake when he did.

 We expected that dad‟s plane wouldn‟t have arrived yet by the time we got to

the air port yesterday. But we were late because the traffic was so terrible.

 Because of an immigration documentation problem, my dad knew that he

wouldn‟t have been home when my mom gave birth last month.

 Did they think that he would have bought a gift before he went to his

girlfriend‟s birthday party last night?

4.4. Past-Future Perfect Progressive (Continous)

Past-Future Perfect Progressive is a time form which state about an action that would be started in the past, would be being done in a certain time of the past, and would be continued until some other time in the future of the past.

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Examples of Past-Future Perfect Progressive Tense in sentences are:

 It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he would have been working for this company for forty-five years.

 She never expected that she would have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night.

 I thought I would have been being at school only for 6 hours yesterday. In

fact, I had to wait for another hour because my dad‟s car broke down on the

way to the school.

 I was completely sure that on August 17, I would have been living in this house for 10 years sharp.

 I expected that I would have been sleeping for 8 hours last night but I was

awoken by my neighbor‟s long big fight at 1 a.m. It was very loud and I couldn‟t fall asleep till morning.

 If your neighbor hadn‟t had a long big fight last night, would you have been

sleeping for 4 hours last night?

 If Mr. Dodi were still strong, would he have been working for this company for more than fifty years?

 Did she expect that she would have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night?



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CHAPTER REVIEW EXERCISE

Change the verbs in the brackects into their correct forms!

1. Usually, I (work) as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I (study) French at a language school in Paris. That is why I am in Paris.

2. I'm sorry I can't hear what you (say) because everybody (talk) so loudly. 3. Justin (write, currently) a book about his adventures in Tibet. I hope he can

find a good publisher when he is finished.

4. The business cards (be, normally) printed by a company in New York. Their prices (be) inexpensive, yet the quality of their work is quite good.

5. Sebastian (arrive) at Susan's house a little before 9:00 PM, but she (be, not) there. She (study, at the library) for her final examination in French.

6. Sandy is in the living room watching television. At this time yesterday, she (watch, also) television. That's all she ever does!

7. When I (walk) into the busy office, the secretary (talk) on the phone with a customer, several clerks (work, busily) at their desks, and two managers (discuss, quietly) methods to improve customer service.

8. When I entered the bazaar, a couple of merchants (bargain, busily) and (try) to sell their goods to naive tourists who (hunt) for souvenirs. Some young boys (lead) their donkeys through the narrow streets on their way home. A couple of men (argue) over the price of a leather belt. I (walk) over to a man who (sell) fruit and (buy) a banana.

9. Since computers were first introduced to the public in the early 1980's, technology (change) a great deal. The first computers (be) simple machines designed for basic tasks. They (have, not) much memory and they (be, not) very powerful. Early computers were often quite expensive and customers often (pay) thousands of dollars for machines which actually (do) very little. Most computers (be) separate, individual machines used mostly as expensive typewriters or for playing games.

10. Did you hear that Ben was fired last month? He (work) for that import company for more than ten years and he (work) in almost every department. Nobody knew the company like he did.

47 | P a g e

11. Matt and Sarah (have) some difficulties in their relationship lately, so they (go) to a marriage counselor. I hope they work everything out.

12. John (work) for the government since he graduated from Harvard University. Until recently, he (enjoy) his work, but now he is talking about retiring.

13. I was really angry at John yesterday. By the time he finally arrived, I (wait) for over an hour. I almost left without him.

14. Times (change). Computers (become) powerful machines with very practical applications. Programmers (create) a large selection of useful programs which do everything from teaching foreign languages to bookkeeping. We are still playing video games, but today's games (become) faster, more exciting interactive adventures. Many computer users (get, also) on the Internet and (begin) communicating with other computer users around the world. We (start) to create international communities online. In short, the simple, individual machines of the past (evolve) into an international World Wide Web of knowledge.

15. When I (get) to the party, Sally and Doug (dance), John (make) drinks, Sue and Frank (discuss) something controversial, and Mary (complain) about something unimportant. They are always doing the same things. They are so predictable.

16. Thomas is an author. He (write) mystery novels and travel memoirs. He (write) since he was twenty-eight. Altogether, he (write) seven novels, three collections of short stories and a book of poetry.

17. We were late because we had some car problems. By the time we (get) to the train station, Susan (wait) for us for more than two hours.

18. Every day I (wake) up at 6 o'clock, (eat) breakfast at 7 o'clock and (leave) for work at 8 o'clock. However, this morning I (get) up at 6:30, (skip) breakfast and (leave) for work late because I (forget) to set my alarm. 19. By this time next summer, you (complete) your studies and (find) a job. I, on

the other hand, (accomplish, not) anything. I (study, still) and you (work) in some new high paying job.

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DEGREE OF COMPARISON

A. Introduction

The Degrees of Comparison in English grammar are made with the Adjective and Adverb words to show how big or small, high or low, more or less, many or few, etc., of the qualities, numbers and positions of the nouns (persons, things and places) in comparison to the others mentioned in the other part of a sentence or expression.

 She works as meticulously as you do.

 Antonio is not as clever as Andy.

 The challenge in my second year of the college is getting harder and harder.

 My bike is the same colour as yours.

 Anita is more diligent than Rita.

 Widya is absolutely the most beautiful girl I have ever known.

 The more we tried to conquer the ocean, the more it fought us back.

B. Positive/In-Line Comparison

The Positive/In-Line Comparison can be used to compare two people, places, or things that are equal or different in some way; and to compare two actions that are equal or different in some way. Sometimes, it is common not to mention both parts of the comparison since the meaning is quite clear from the context.

Special Instructional Objectives :

Students are expected to acknowledge, comprehend, and apply the basic and advance rules of Degree of Comparison in their daily oral and written english activities and be able to master all related exercises to measure their understanding about the materials.

3

CHAPTER

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Trade in

- Exchange something old as part of the price of something new

- Leave your wife or husband to marry someone younger

Trade off

- Bargain, make a deal or compromise - Accept something you don't really want to get something you do want

Turn away

- Not allow someone to enter a place

Turn down

- Reduce volume, temperature, etc. - Reject an offer, invitation, etc.

Turn in

- Go to bed

Turn into

- Become

Turn off

- Stop a machine

Turn on

- Cause someone to feel attraction or pleasure

- Start a machine - Attack

Turn out

- Produce

- Produce an unexpected result - Stop a light

- Attend

Turn over

- Give to the authorities

Turn to

- Try to get help - Take up a habit

Turn up

- Appear

- Increase volume, temperature, etc.

Type out

- Write a full or finished version of a text on a computer

Use up

- Finish or consume all of something

Vacuum up

- Consume

Venture forth

- Leave somewhere safe or comfortable

Wait around

- Wait somewhere doing nothing

Wait behind

- Stay somewhere after other people have left

Wait in

- Stay at home because someone is going to visit

Wait on

- Serve people in a restaurant - Sell goods in a shop

- Provide someone with everything they need or want

- Wait for a result before being able to make a decision

Wait out

- Wait till something has finished, usually something unpleasant

Wake up

- Stop sleeping

Walk away from

- Leave something you don't like

Walk away with

- Win easily

Walk out

- Leave work because of a dispute with the management

- Leave a place angrily or because you are not satisfied

Wash away

- When floods or waves completely remove a structure, building, etc.

Wash down

- Drink in order to swallow something solid

Wash out

- Rain so heavily that an event has to be cancelled

Wash over

- Suddenly experience a strong emotion

Wash up

- Clean everything used to prepare food and eat it

- Wash face and hands

Watch out

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Water down

- Make something weaker and less effective

Wean off

- Slowly stop a dependency on something

Wear away

- Erode, remove gradually

Wear down

- Make something weaker

Wear off

- Stop having an effect

Wear out

- Use something until it stops working

Weed out

- Remove, get rid of

Weigh in

- Have a certain weight (in sports like boxing)

- Enter an argument forcefully

Weigh up

- Assess

Well up

- Feel tears starting - Feel an emotion strongly

While away

- Spend time doing something

because you have nothing better to do

Whip into

- Enter rapidly (as for a brief errand)

Whip out

- Remove quickly

Whip out of

- Exit rapidly

Whip through

- Do something quickly

Whip up

- Make food quickly

- Mix liquid food quickly to make it thick and creamy

- Make people feel more strongly about something

Whisk away

- Take to another place quickly

White out

- Use correction fluid to cover a mistake in a written text

Work on

- Improve or develop

Work out

- End nicely

- Find the answer or solution

Wrap up

- Cover in paper - Dress warmly - Finish

Write down

- Make notes

Write in

- Send a letter to a TV station, etc.

Write up

- Make complete written version

Yack on

- Talk continuously, especially if it is an annoying way

Yammer on

- Talk continuously, especially if it is an annoying way

Yield to

- Surrender

Zip up

- Keep quiet

Zone out

- Not pay attention

- Dissociate yourself from a situation

Zonk out

- Fall asleep

Zoom in

- Focus more closely

Zoom in on

- Focus more closely

Zoom off

- Go somewhere quickly

Zoom out

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REFERENCES

Azar, Betty Schrampfer. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar, Third edition with Answer Key. New York: Pearson Education, Longman.

Azar, Betty Schrampfer. (2003). Fundamentals of English Grammar, Third edition

with Answer Key. New York: Pearson Education, Longman.

Brathwaite, Rudolph. (1995). Writing Through Grammar. McGraw-Hill.

Burnette, Dawn. (2003). Daily Grammar Practice. Peachtree City, GA: DGP Publishing.

Comrie, Bernard. (1985).Tense. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University.

Crystal, David. (1980). A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Boulder, CO: Westview.

Fuchs, Margaret, and Margareth Bonner. (2003). Grammar Express. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited.

Greenbaum, Sydney. (1996). Oxford English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Gucker, Philip. (1966). Essential English Grammar. New York: Dover Publishing, Inc. Hartmann, R.R.K., and F.C. Stork. (1972). Dictionary of Language and Linguistics.

London: Applied Science.

Hasibuan, Sofia Rangkuti. (2000). English Language Structure. Jakarta: Djambatan. Krohn, Robert. (1973). English Sentence Structure. Michigan: The University of

Michigan Press.

Lyons, John. (1977). Semantics. Volumes I, II. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Mish, Frederick. (1991). Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Murphy, Raymond. (1985). English Grammar In Use. Second Edition. England: Cambridge University Press.

162 | P a g e Oshima, Alice, and Ann Hogue. (1997). Introduction to Academic Writing: Second

Edition. New York: Longman. http://eslus.com

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu

http://perso.wanadoo.es/autoenglish/gr.comp.i.htm

http://specialchildren.about.com/od/learningissues/ht/paragraph.htm http://www.englishclub.com

http://www.howtowriteaparagraph.com/

http://www.nonstopenglish.com/allexercises/grammar/grammar-conditional.asp http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/phrasal-verbs/b.html

http://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Paragraph http://www.wikipedia.org

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THE AUTHOR

Nama : Muhammad Agung Darlianto

Alamat korespondensi : Serpong City Paradise

Blok G.12/5 Babakan – Tangerang Selatan 15315

Unit Instansi : Umum

Telp./Faks : 021-7566770 / 021-7566770

HP : 081513142211

E-mail : agung.darlianto@yahoo.com

abinada@thedarlianto.com

Website/Blog : www.thedarlianto.com

Author started his career in teaching since his high school time by being an English Instructor at well known public english course in his hometown, Bengkulu. Continuing his education at a popular state university in Padang, West Sumatera, he kept improving his career as a teacher at a national non-formal education center there. After finishing his bachelor degree and enrolling at post graduate course at a private university in Jakarta, he proceeded his work as an educator at the university where he achieved his Master's degree and at Sekolah Tiinggi Akuntansi Negara in which he found himself to be potential in writing.

At Sekolah Tinggi Akuntansi Negara, the author is given the responsibity for handling english subject teaching and materials designing. Beside the English Learning Module, the author has been working on some books related to English learning and teaching, training, motivation, and some true-story-based novels which are going to be published soon. The author has shown a restless dedication to the teaching, training, and education world that he is willing to abdicate his life to the better improvement of learning process at his institution.