Solar Peak Power Tracker.
i
SOLAR PEAK POWER TRACKER
MOHD FAHMI BIN IDRUS
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Bachelor of Electronic Engineering (Telecommunication Electronics) With Honours
Faculty of Electronic and Computer Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
30 April 2009
iii
“I hereby declare that this report is result of my own effort except for works that have
been cited clearly in the references”
Signature
: …………………………….
Name
: MOHD FAHMI BIN IDRUS
Date
:
April 2009
iv
“I hereby declare that I have read this report and in my opinion this report is sufficient in
term of the scope and quality for the purpose of award of the Degree in Bachelor of
Electronic Engineering (Telecommunication Electronics) With Honours”
Signature
: …………………………
Supervisor‟s name
: TAN KIM SEE
Date
:
April 2009
v
Specially…….
To my beloved parents
To my kind brothers and sister
And to all my friends
For their
Love, Encouragements, and Best Wishes
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to give Thanks to ALLAH SWT, for helping me
through all the obstacles that I encountered during the work of this project.
I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Tan Kim See,
for his encouragement, guidance and critics during the course of studies.
I would like to thank to my beloved family for their encouragement and never
ending support. Not forgetting to all my friends especially Ahmad Syafuan, Mohamad
Nasrul and others for their moral support helping me during the entire PSM session.
Hopefully ALLAH SWT will render their supports.
Last but not least, my gratitude also goes to all individual who give me a helping
hand in order to achieve this accomplishment and co-operation throughout the critical
period of completing this project. Thanks you all.
vii
ABSTRACT
This project is to study and come up with an alternative source of energy as the
concern on environment pollution and disruption caused by power generations from
fossil fuel is getting more critical as time goes by. This project focusses on the solar
energy source. The system will be divided into two sections which is tracking section
and energy conversion section. For the tracking section, the system consists of a solar
panel and tracking control mechanism. Meanwhile, the energy conversion system
consists of the charge controller and the storage battery. In the tracking section, the
controlling circuit uses the BiMOS II Unipolar Stepper-Motor Translator chipset which
is programmed to operate the stepper motor in order to track the maximum of solar
irradiance. For energy conversion section, the task for this system is to control the
amount of extracted energy from solar panel to prevent the battery from overcharging.
The output of this solar energy can be used in either DC application or AC application.
However, for the energy conversion section, it will not come out with the hardware but
the explanation about the system will be stated on certain chapter.
viii
ABSTRAK
Keseluruhan projek ini adalah berkaitan dengan penggunaan sumber tenaga solar
. Tenaga solar adalah salah satu daripada sumber tenaga alternatif apabila kita perihatin
tentang keadaan pencemaran dan kerosakan yang berlaku kepada alam sekitar. Sistem
didalam projek ini terbahagi kepada dua iaitu bahagian pencarian tenaga solar dan
bahagian pengubah tenaga solar kepada tenaga elektrik. Untuk bahagian pencarian
tenaga solar, ia mengandungi panel solar dan litar kawalan panel. Manakala untuk
bahagian pengubah tenaga solar, sistem yang terkandung adalah litar kawalan pengecas
dan bateri simpanan. Sistem litar kawalan panel solar akan menggunakan litar bersepadu
UCN5804B BiMOS II untuk mengawal motor yang terdapat pada panel solar supaya ia
berfungsi secara automatik. Projek ini bertujuan untuk menyerap tenaga solar yang
maksimum untuk tujuan digunakan didalam aplikasi arus terus dan arus ulang alik.
Untuk bahagian pengubah tenaga, ia tidak akan disertakan dengan litar bersepadu. Akan
tetapi, penerangan yang lebih jelas akan disertakan didalam tesis ini.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
PROJECT TITLE
REPORT STATUS FORM
STUDENT DECLARATION
SUPERVISOR DECLARATION
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF SHORT FORM
LIST OF APPENDIX
I
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background
2
1.2
Project Objectives
4
1.3
Problems Statement
5
x
II
1.4
Scope of Work
6
1.5
Methodology
7
LITERATURE REVIEW
8
2.1
Introduction
9
2.1.1
10
2.2
2.3
Types of Photovoltaic Arrays
Solar Power Fundamental
12
2.2.1
Theory of Thermal Energy
12
2.2.2
Why these inefficiency problems occur?
13
2.2.3
The effecting factors
15
2.2.4
Voltage-Current (V-I) characteristic
16
Tracking Section
18
2.3.1
Introduction to Stepper Motor
18
2.3.2
Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages
19
2.3.2.1 Advantages
19
2.3.2.2 Disadvantages
19
Types of Stepper Motor
20
2.3.3.1 Variable-Reluctance (VR)
20
2.3.3.2 Permanent Magnet (PM)
21
2.3.3.3 Hybrid (HB)
22
2.3.4
Principle of Operation
23
2.3.5
Control Circuit
24
2.3.5.1 Circuit Overview
24
2.3.3
xi
2.4
Charge Controllers
25
2.4.1
Types of Charge Controllers
25
2.4.1.1 Basic Charge Controllers
26
2.4.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated Charge Controllers 26
2.4.1.3 MPPT Charge Controllers
2.5
Storage Batteries
28
2.5.1
Types of Batteries
28
2.5.1.1 Alkaline Batteries
28
2.5.1.2 Lead-acid Batteries
29
Batteries Condition
30
2.5.2
2.6
Circuit Diagram
31
2.6.1
Voltage Regulator
31
2.6.1.1 Circuit analysis
31
Battery Charger Circuit
33
2.6.2.1 Circuit analysis
33
2.6.2
2.7
27
Related Component
35
2.7.1
BiMOS II Unipolar Stepper-Motor Translator
35
2.7.2
LM317T Voltage Regulator
36
2.7.3
LM555 Timer
37
xii
III
IV
V
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
38
3.1
Phase of Methodology
39
3.2
Project‟s Flow Chart
40
3.3
Project‟s flows
41
RESULTS
42
4.1
Circuit Diagram
43
4.2
Circuit Layout
43
4.3
Circuit Description
44
4.4
Circuit Overview
45
4.5
Data Analysis
46
CONCLUSION
49
5.1
Conclusion
49
5.2
Recommendations
50
REFERENCES
51
APPENDIX
52
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
NO
TITLE
PAGES
4.1
Extracted output voltage by hours (without tracking section)
46
4.2
Extracted output voltage by hours (with tracking section)
47
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
NO
TITLE
1.1
Application of Solar Energy
3
1.2
Project Overviews
4
2.1
Solar cell, module and arrays
9
2.2
Illustration of “Doping Process”
12
2.3
Anti-reflective coating in Solar Cell
13
2.4
Multiple Layers in Solar Cells
14
2.5
Characteristic of Solar Panel
16
2.6
Solar Irradiance
17
2.7
Stepper Motor
18
2.8
Variable Reluctance core
20
2.9
Permanent Magnet core
21
2.10
Hybrid core
22
2.11
Magnetic flux path through a two-pole stepper motor with a lag
between the rotor and stator
PAGES
23
xv
2.12
Control Circuit Block Diagram
24
2.13
Alkaline Battery
28
2.14
Lead-acid Battery
29
2.15
Voltage Regulator Circuit Diagram
31
2.16
Battery Charger Circuit Diagram
33
2.17
UCN5804B Pinout
35
2.18
UCN5804B Structure
36
2.19
UCN5804B Internal Block Diagram
36
2.20
LM555 Pinout
37
2.21
LM555 Internal Block Diagram
37
3.1
Components assembly process
41
3.2
Soldering process
41
3.3
Troubleshooting process
42
4.1
Controlling Circuit
46
4.2
Tracking Component
46
4.3
Overall System
47
4.4
Output Voltage versus Time 1
49
4.5
Output Voltage versus Time 2
50
xvi
LIST OF SHORT FORM
PV
-
Photovoltaic
DC
-
Direct Current
AC
-
Alternate Current
PPT
-
Peak Power Tracker
VR
-
Variable-Reluctance
PM
-
Permanent Magnet
HB
-
Hybrid
PWM -
Pulse Width Modulation
PIC
Peripheral Interface Controller
-
RAM -
Random Access Memory
LVD -
Low Voltage Disconnect
xvii
LIST OF APPENDIX
NO
TITLE
A
A New Peak Power Tracker for Cost-Effective Photovoltaic
PAGES
55
Power System
B
Combined Low-Cost, High-Efficient Inverter, Peak Power Tracker
and Regulator For PV Applications
61
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This consists of the introduction about the project, the background, project
objective, problems statement and the scope of work covered.
2
1.1
Background
In recent years, attention toward natural energy resources such as solar and wind
power has increased as concern about energy security as well as the environment
pollution and disruption is very much emphasized. Solar energy is inexhaustible, clean,
and easy to use, directing a lot of efforts on solar power generation as the most practical
and reliable source. But solar arrays are still very expensive and and take in a lot of
space. In the interest of efficiency, the energy from a solar array should be maximized
under all conditions.
In most photovoltaic applications, the solar panels are connected directly to the
battery for charging, but these results in certain inefficiencies. Solar panels used in 12volt applications, have very distinct power curves (volts x amps = watts). A graph of
voltage vs. current will range from maximum current at zero volts (no power) to
maximum volts at zero current (also no power). Somewhere in the middle there will be
the Maximum or Peak Power Point (MPP) where the maximum output wattage can be
extracted from the solar panel. Solar arrays are the most expensive components in
photovoltaic power systems. Thus solar array should be operated at the maximum power
point in order to reduce overall cost of the system
This project is basically to study the various solutions to solve the inefficiencies
that happens in most photovoltaic applications. The inefficiencies in this system arise
when the solar panel is connected directly to the battery. A new peak power tracker
(PPT) will be created without to change the load demand, insulation and temperature of
the sun. The benefits of the PPT are cost effectiveness, simplicity and flexibility.
3
Figure 1.1: Application of solar energy
4
1.2
Project Objectives
There are three main objectives that have set out to achieve at the end of this
project. They are:
a) To study the inefficiency problems encountered in most photovoltaic systems.
b) To design a solar peak power tracker (PPT) which can extract the maximum
power output from the solar arrays in order to solve the efficiency problems in
the circuit.
c) To study the charge controller circuit and its application
Figure 1.2: Project overviews
5
1.3
Problem Statement
In applications where photovoltaic arrays are used to provide energy, maximum
power trackers are used to correct for the variations in the current-voltage characteristics
of the solar cells. As shown in the typical silicon cell I-V curve, as the output potential
of the string rises, the string will produce significantly less current. The current-voltage
curve will move and deform depending upon temperature, illumination, and consistency
of cell quality in the string. For the array to be able to put out the maximum possible
amount of power, either the operating voltage or current needs to be carefully controlled.
This is called maximum power point which is located at the same voltage the
main system is operating at, and even if the two were equal initially, the power point
would quickly move as lighting conditions and temperature change. Hence, a device is
needed that finds the maximum power point and converts that voltage to a voltage equal
to the system voltage.
The system should be operating at high performance since the cost of solar arrays
is quite expensive. Instead, the problems occur when this system cannot exact the
maximum power from solar energy because of the lower efficiency operation from
circuit. The power output from the solar arrays depends on the load demand, insulation
and temperature of the sun. The 12-volt battery fixes the solar panel output voltage to its
own output voltage, usually 11.9V and 14.4V because of some power is lost, resulting
lower efficiencies.
6
1.4
Scope of Works
There are several areas that have to be identified or considered that need to be work out.
There are:
a) The tracking control system
The solar panel will be designed with tracking control system. A stepper motor is
the main part of this section and it will be driven by a programmed control circuit
using UCN5804B BiMOS chip.
b) Types of charge controllers
There are a few types of charge controllers for solar energy conversions. Because
of that, the controller should be the right one and it is suitable for the solar panel.
c) Application
In application of solar energy, the voltage output must be dividing into 2 types of
voltage which are DC and AC.
7
1.5
Methodology
There are 4 phases involved in order to achieve the objective of this project. There are:
a) Project Planning
b) Literature Review
c) Hardware Construction
d) Finishing
The detail explanations of these phases are contained in Chapter 3.
SOLAR PEAK POWER TRACKER
MOHD FAHMI BIN IDRUS
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Bachelor of Electronic Engineering (Telecommunication Electronics) With Honours
Faculty of Electronic and Computer Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
30 April 2009
iii
“I hereby declare that this report is result of my own effort except for works that have
been cited clearly in the references”
Signature
: …………………………….
Name
: MOHD FAHMI BIN IDRUS
Date
:
April 2009
iv
“I hereby declare that I have read this report and in my opinion this report is sufficient in
term of the scope and quality for the purpose of award of the Degree in Bachelor of
Electronic Engineering (Telecommunication Electronics) With Honours”
Signature
: …………………………
Supervisor‟s name
: TAN KIM SEE
Date
:
April 2009
v
Specially…….
To my beloved parents
To my kind brothers and sister
And to all my friends
For their
Love, Encouragements, and Best Wishes
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to give Thanks to ALLAH SWT, for helping me
through all the obstacles that I encountered during the work of this project.
I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Mr. Tan Kim See,
for his encouragement, guidance and critics during the course of studies.
I would like to thank to my beloved family for their encouragement and never
ending support. Not forgetting to all my friends especially Ahmad Syafuan, Mohamad
Nasrul and others for their moral support helping me during the entire PSM session.
Hopefully ALLAH SWT will render their supports.
Last but not least, my gratitude also goes to all individual who give me a helping
hand in order to achieve this accomplishment and co-operation throughout the critical
period of completing this project. Thanks you all.
vii
ABSTRACT
This project is to study and come up with an alternative source of energy as the
concern on environment pollution and disruption caused by power generations from
fossil fuel is getting more critical as time goes by. This project focusses on the solar
energy source. The system will be divided into two sections which is tracking section
and energy conversion section. For the tracking section, the system consists of a solar
panel and tracking control mechanism. Meanwhile, the energy conversion system
consists of the charge controller and the storage battery. In the tracking section, the
controlling circuit uses the BiMOS II Unipolar Stepper-Motor Translator chipset which
is programmed to operate the stepper motor in order to track the maximum of solar
irradiance. For energy conversion section, the task for this system is to control the
amount of extracted energy from solar panel to prevent the battery from overcharging.
The output of this solar energy can be used in either DC application or AC application.
However, for the energy conversion section, it will not come out with the hardware but
the explanation about the system will be stated on certain chapter.
viii
ABSTRAK
Keseluruhan projek ini adalah berkaitan dengan penggunaan sumber tenaga solar
. Tenaga solar adalah salah satu daripada sumber tenaga alternatif apabila kita perihatin
tentang keadaan pencemaran dan kerosakan yang berlaku kepada alam sekitar. Sistem
didalam projek ini terbahagi kepada dua iaitu bahagian pencarian tenaga solar dan
bahagian pengubah tenaga solar kepada tenaga elektrik. Untuk bahagian pencarian
tenaga solar, ia mengandungi panel solar dan litar kawalan panel. Manakala untuk
bahagian pengubah tenaga solar, sistem yang terkandung adalah litar kawalan pengecas
dan bateri simpanan. Sistem litar kawalan panel solar akan menggunakan litar bersepadu
UCN5804B BiMOS II untuk mengawal motor yang terdapat pada panel solar supaya ia
berfungsi secara automatik. Projek ini bertujuan untuk menyerap tenaga solar yang
maksimum untuk tujuan digunakan didalam aplikasi arus terus dan arus ulang alik.
Untuk bahagian pengubah tenaga, ia tidak akan disertakan dengan litar bersepadu. Akan
tetapi, penerangan yang lebih jelas akan disertakan didalam tesis ini.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
PROJECT TITLE
REPORT STATUS FORM
STUDENT DECLARATION
SUPERVISOR DECLARATION
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF SHORT FORM
LIST OF APPENDIX
I
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background
2
1.2
Project Objectives
4
1.3
Problems Statement
5
x
II
1.4
Scope of Work
6
1.5
Methodology
7
LITERATURE REVIEW
8
2.1
Introduction
9
2.1.1
10
2.2
2.3
Types of Photovoltaic Arrays
Solar Power Fundamental
12
2.2.1
Theory of Thermal Energy
12
2.2.2
Why these inefficiency problems occur?
13
2.2.3
The effecting factors
15
2.2.4
Voltage-Current (V-I) characteristic
16
Tracking Section
18
2.3.1
Introduction to Stepper Motor
18
2.3.2
Stepper Motor Advantages and Disadvantages
19
2.3.2.1 Advantages
19
2.3.2.2 Disadvantages
19
Types of Stepper Motor
20
2.3.3.1 Variable-Reluctance (VR)
20
2.3.3.2 Permanent Magnet (PM)
21
2.3.3.3 Hybrid (HB)
22
2.3.4
Principle of Operation
23
2.3.5
Control Circuit
24
2.3.5.1 Circuit Overview
24
2.3.3
xi
2.4
Charge Controllers
25
2.4.1
Types of Charge Controllers
25
2.4.1.1 Basic Charge Controllers
26
2.4.1.2 Pulse Width Modulated Charge Controllers 26
2.4.1.3 MPPT Charge Controllers
2.5
Storage Batteries
28
2.5.1
Types of Batteries
28
2.5.1.1 Alkaline Batteries
28
2.5.1.2 Lead-acid Batteries
29
Batteries Condition
30
2.5.2
2.6
Circuit Diagram
31
2.6.1
Voltage Regulator
31
2.6.1.1 Circuit analysis
31
Battery Charger Circuit
33
2.6.2.1 Circuit analysis
33
2.6.2
2.7
27
Related Component
35
2.7.1
BiMOS II Unipolar Stepper-Motor Translator
35
2.7.2
LM317T Voltage Regulator
36
2.7.3
LM555 Timer
37
xii
III
IV
V
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
38
3.1
Phase of Methodology
39
3.2
Project‟s Flow Chart
40
3.3
Project‟s flows
41
RESULTS
42
4.1
Circuit Diagram
43
4.2
Circuit Layout
43
4.3
Circuit Description
44
4.4
Circuit Overview
45
4.5
Data Analysis
46
CONCLUSION
49
5.1
Conclusion
49
5.2
Recommendations
50
REFERENCES
51
APPENDIX
52
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
NO
TITLE
PAGES
4.1
Extracted output voltage by hours (without tracking section)
46
4.2
Extracted output voltage by hours (with tracking section)
47
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
NO
TITLE
1.1
Application of Solar Energy
3
1.2
Project Overviews
4
2.1
Solar cell, module and arrays
9
2.2
Illustration of “Doping Process”
12
2.3
Anti-reflective coating in Solar Cell
13
2.4
Multiple Layers in Solar Cells
14
2.5
Characteristic of Solar Panel
16
2.6
Solar Irradiance
17
2.7
Stepper Motor
18
2.8
Variable Reluctance core
20
2.9
Permanent Magnet core
21
2.10
Hybrid core
22
2.11
Magnetic flux path through a two-pole stepper motor with a lag
between the rotor and stator
PAGES
23
xv
2.12
Control Circuit Block Diagram
24
2.13
Alkaline Battery
28
2.14
Lead-acid Battery
29
2.15
Voltage Regulator Circuit Diagram
31
2.16
Battery Charger Circuit Diagram
33
2.17
UCN5804B Pinout
35
2.18
UCN5804B Structure
36
2.19
UCN5804B Internal Block Diagram
36
2.20
LM555 Pinout
37
2.21
LM555 Internal Block Diagram
37
3.1
Components assembly process
41
3.2
Soldering process
41
3.3
Troubleshooting process
42
4.1
Controlling Circuit
46
4.2
Tracking Component
46
4.3
Overall System
47
4.4
Output Voltage versus Time 1
49
4.5
Output Voltage versus Time 2
50
xvi
LIST OF SHORT FORM
PV
-
Photovoltaic
DC
-
Direct Current
AC
-
Alternate Current
PPT
-
Peak Power Tracker
VR
-
Variable-Reluctance
PM
-
Permanent Magnet
HB
-
Hybrid
PWM -
Pulse Width Modulation
PIC
Peripheral Interface Controller
-
RAM -
Random Access Memory
LVD -
Low Voltage Disconnect
xvii
LIST OF APPENDIX
NO
TITLE
A
A New Peak Power Tracker for Cost-Effective Photovoltaic
PAGES
55
Power System
B
Combined Low-Cost, High-Efficient Inverter, Peak Power Tracker
and Regulator For PV Applications
61
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This consists of the introduction about the project, the background, project
objective, problems statement and the scope of work covered.
2
1.1
Background
In recent years, attention toward natural energy resources such as solar and wind
power has increased as concern about energy security as well as the environment
pollution and disruption is very much emphasized. Solar energy is inexhaustible, clean,
and easy to use, directing a lot of efforts on solar power generation as the most practical
and reliable source. But solar arrays are still very expensive and and take in a lot of
space. In the interest of efficiency, the energy from a solar array should be maximized
under all conditions.
In most photovoltaic applications, the solar panels are connected directly to the
battery for charging, but these results in certain inefficiencies. Solar panels used in 12volt applications, have very distinct power curves (volts x amps = watts). A graph of
voltage vs. current will range from maximum current at zero volts (no power) to
maximum volts at zero current (also no power). Somewhere in the middle there will be
the Maximum or Peak Power Point (MPP) where the maximum output wattage can be
extracted from the solar panel. Solar arrays are the most expensive components in
photovoltaic power systems. Thus solar array should be operated at the maximum power
point in order to reduce overall cost of the system
This project is basically to study the various solutions to solve the inefficiencies
that happens in most photovoltaic applications. The inefficiencies in this system arise
when the solar panel is connected directly to the battery. A new peak power tracker
(PPT) will be created without to change the load demand, insulation and temperature of
the sun. The benefits of the PPT are cost effectiveness, simplicity and flexibility.
3
Figure 1.1: Application of solar energy
4
1.2
Project Objectives
There are three main objectives that have set out to achieve at the end of this
project. They are:
a) To study the inefficiency problems encountered in most photovoltaic systems.
b) To design a solar peak power tracker (PPT) which can extract the maximum
power output from the solar arrays in order to solve the efficiency problems in
the circuit.
c) To study the charge controller circuit and its application
Figure 1.2: Project overviews
5
1.3
Problem Statement
In applications where photovoltaic arrays are used to provide energy, maximum
power trackers are used to correct for the variations in the current-voltage characteristics
of the solar cells. As shown in the typical silicon cell I-V curve, as the output potential
of the string rises, the string will produce significantly less current. The current-voltage
curve will move and deform depending upon temperature, illumination, and consistency
of cell quality in the string. For the array to be able to put out the maximum possible
amount of power, either the operating voltage or current needs to be carefully controlled.
This is called maximum power point which is located at the same voltage the
main system is operating at, and even if the two were equal initially, the power point
would quickly move as lighting conditions and temperature change. Hence, a device is
needed that finds the maximum power point and converts that voltage to a voltage equal
to the system voltage.
The system should be operating at high performance since the cost of solar arrays
is quite expensive. Instead, the problems occur when this system cannot exact the
maximum power from solar energy because of the lower efficiency operation from
circuit. The power output from the solar arrays depends on the load demand, insulation
and temperature of the sun. The 12-volt battery fixes the solar panel output voltage to its
own output voltage, usually 11.9V and 14.4V because of some power is lost, resulting
lower efficiencies.
6
1.4
Scope of Works
There are several areas that have to be identified or considered that need to be work out.
There are:
a) The tracking control system
The solar panel will be designed with tracking control system. A stepper motor is
the main part of this section and it will be driven by a programmed control circuit
using UCN5804B BiMOS chip.
b) Types of charge controllers
There are a few types of charge controllers for solar energy conversions. Because
of that, the controller should be the right one and it is suitable for the solar panel.
c) Application
In application of solar energy, the voltage output must be dividing into 2 types of
voltage which are DC and AC.
7
1.5
Methodology
There are 4 phases involved in order to achieve the objective of this project. There are:
a) Project Planning
b) Literature Review
c) Hardware Construction
d) Finishing
The detail explanations of these phases are contained in Chapter 3.