Impact of the Creative Parenting Parenti
166
Canadi an Jour nal of Counsel l i ng Revue Canadi enne de Counsel i ng 1989, Vol . 23:2
I mp a c t o f t h e Cr e a t i v e P a r e n t i n g P r o g r a m
Ha r ol d C. Ra t z l a f f , J ohn D. Fr i e s e n, Gor don Ne uf e l d
Uni ver s i t y of Br i t i s h Col umbi a
Ga e l M. P a d d o c k
Vancouver , Br i t i s h Col umbi a
Abst r act
Sevent y parent s vol unt eer ed t o par t i ci pat e i n a pr ogr amcal l ed Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng. A Sol omon
f our - gr oup desi gn was used t o regi st er change on measur es r el at ed t o pr ogr am cont ent . Two
of t he fi ve measur es r esul t ed i n st at i st i cal l y si gni f i cant gai ns. The resul t s suppor t ed t he
pr oposi t i on t hat t he Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng pr ogr am was effect i ve i n changi ng par ent al behavi our s
on t wo di mensi ons. Par ent s became mor e accept i ng of t hei r chi l dr en and r el i ed less on par ent al
aut hor i t y i n t hei r r el at i onshi p wi t h t hei r chi l dr en.
Ré s umé
Soi xant e- di x par ent s se sont port é vol ont ai r es pour par t i ci per à un pr ogr amme appel é
Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng. Le Modèl e de gr oupe de quat r e de Sol omon a été utilisé pour cumul er les
mesur es reliées au cont enu du pr ogr amme. Deux des ci nq mesures ont mont r é des gai ns
st at i st i quement si gni fi cat i fs. Les résultats ont support é l ' hypot hèse sel on l aquel l e l e pr ogr amme Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng était effi cace pour appor t er des changement s compor t ement aux
chez les par ent s sur deux pl ans. Les par ent s se sont mont r é pl us réceptifs enver s l eur enf ant et
fai sai ent moi ns usage de l eur autorité par ent al e dans l eur r el at i on avec l eur enfant .
Pa r e n t i n g has ne ve r be e n e a s y at t he bes t of t i mes . To d a y , wh e n
s i gni f i c a nt l i f e s t yl e c ha nge s ha ve oc c ur r e d a nd ne w f a mi l y s t r uc t ur e s
ha ve e vol ve d, p a r e n t i n g c ont i nue s t o be a c ha l l e nge . Nu me r o u s pr ogr a ms ha ve be e n de ve l ope d i n r e s pons e t o p a r e n t i n g ne e ds a n d s t r uggl e s
( Cr o a k e & Gl ove r , 1977; Fi n e , 1976; Ha r ma n & Br i m, 1980) . Re c e n t
l i t e r a t ur e i nc l ude s r e f e r e nc e s t o di ve r s e pr ogr a ms t o as s i s t pa r e nt s
( Ho l l a n d & Ha l l e r s l e y, 1980; Sc huma ke r , 1980) . An g l i n ( 1984) has
de s c r i be d t he wi d e v a r i e t y of p a r e n t i n g pr ogr a ms as a " f i e l d wi t h a
t hous a nd f l owe r s b l o o mi n g ( p. 3) .
Wh i l e s ome pr ogr a ms a r e de s i gne d f r o m one t he or e t i c a l f r a me wor k,
s uc h as Gor don' s ( 1975) Pa r e n t Ef f e c t i ve ne s s Tr a i n i n g ( P. E. T. ) a nd
Di n k me y e r & Mc Ka y ' s ( 1976) Sys t e ma t i c Tr a i n i n g f or Ef f e c t i ve Pa r e nt i ng ( S. T. E. P. ) , ot he r s , l i ke Gr e e n' s ( 1975) Pos i t i ve Pa r e nt i ng, i nt e gr a t e s e ve r a l t he or i e s . Th e l i t e r a t ur e i de nt i f i e s f our ma j o r or i e nt a t i ons
f r o m wh i c h p a r e n t i n g p r o g r a ms ha ve de ve l ope d. Th e s e a r e b e h a v i o u r
mo d i f i c a t i o n pr ogr a ms , c o mmu n i c a t i o n or i e nt e d pr ogr a ms , Al d e r i a n
pr ogr a ms a n d h u ma n de ve l opme nt pr ogr a ms .
Pa r e n t e duc a t i on pr ogr a ms l i ke P. E. T. he l p pa r e nt s be c ome be t t e r
f a c i l i t a t or s of t he i r c hi l dr e n' s e mot i ona l g r o wt h ( Su mme r l i n & Wa r d ,
1981; Th e r r i e n , 1979; Pa i n , 1984) . Th e r e s u l t s f r o mt h e s e s t u d i e s s h o we d
Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng
167
s i gni f i c a nt pos i t i ve c ha nge i n pa r e nt s ' a t t i t ude s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t he
di me ns i ons of i nde pe nde nc e , t r us t a n d c o mmu n i c a t i o n .
A n u mb e r of ot he r r e s e a r c he r s ha ve e va l ua t e d t he e f f e c t i ve ne s s of
S. T. E. P. , a n Ad l e r n i a n ba s e d s ki l l t r a i n i n g pr ogr a m. Fi n d i n g s f r o m
s t udi e s by St e e d ( 1971) , Be r r e t ( 1975) , Ki e r a n s ( 1976) a n d No r d a l
( 1976) r e por t e d no e vi de nc e of s i gni f i c a nt c ha nge i n p a r e n t a l a t t i t ude s
c o n c e r n i n g t he pa r e nt - c hi l d r e l a t i ons hi p us i ng t he S. T. E. P. pr ogr a m.
Le v a n t a n d Do y l e ( 1983) , e mp l o y i n g Por t e r ' s Ac c e p t a n c e Sc a l e
( 1954) , f oc us e d o n t he ef f ect i venes s of t he Sys t e ma t i c Co mmu n i c a t i o n
Ski l l s pr ogr a m. Th e i r s t udy i n v o l v e d f a t he r s of s c hool a ge c h i l d r e n a n d
f o u n d no s i gni f i c a nt c ha nge as a r e s ul t of t r e a t me nt .
Cr e a t i v e Pa r e n t i n g ( Ne uf e l d, 1983) , a r e l a t i ve l y ne w pa r e nt e duc a t i on pr ogr a m, of f er s a pe r s pe c t i ve a n d a p p r o a c h t ha t di f f er s f r o m t hes e
be t t e r k n o wn pr ogr a ms . Th e t he or e t i c a l pe r s pe c t i ve t ha t Cr e a t i v e
Pa r e n t i n g of f er s i s ba s e d o n t he ps yc hol ogy of h u ma n de ve l opme nt .
Hi s t o r i c a l l y , t hi s pe r s pe c t i ve f i nds i t s r oot s i n t he wr i t i n g of J e a n J a c q u e s
Rous s e a u ( 1712- 1778) . Rous s e a u ( 1962) pr opos e d t ha t h u ma n de ve l opme nt pr oc e e ds a c c o r d i n g t o a n i nne r , pe r s ona l t i me t a bl e wh i c h
unf ol ds i n a s er i es of d e v e l o p me n t a l s t ages . Du r i n g t h e s e s t ages , c h i l d r e n
e xpe r i e nc e t he wo r l d i n di f f e r e nt wa ys a n d ma k e de c i s i ons f or t he ms el ves ba s e d o n t he i r o wn e xpe r i e nc e s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( Cr a i n , 1980) .
J o h n Bowl by' s ( 1969) t he or y of a t t a c hme nt be ha vi our s , J e a n Pi a ge t ' s
( 1964) t he or y of c ogni t i ve de ve l opme nt a n d Er i k Er i ks on' s ( 1950) s t ages
of i de nt i t y de ve l opme nt s e x p a n d Rous s e a u' s ke y c onc e pt s a n d t oge t he r
T ABL E 1
Ske l e t on Out l i ne of t he Pr ogr a m*
Ti t l e / Topi cfs)
Part
I
II
III
Session
Pa r e nt i ng i n Per s pect i ve: i nt r oduc t i on & pr ogr a m ove r vi e w
1
Bui l di ng a Founda t i on of Tr us t : f act or s i n devel opment of t r us t 2
A Chi l d' s Sens e of Sel f :
a) s t age of a ut onomy
b) s t age of i ni t i at i ve
3
4
I V A Chi l d' s Sel f - Bel i ef s :
a) sel f - bel i ef s
b) s el f - conf i dence
5
6
V Emot i ona l De ve l opme nt :
a) r es pect f or t he c hi l d
b) ef f ect i ve ways of c a r i ng
7
8
VI Appr oaches t o Di s ci pl i ne:
a) pur pos e of di s ci pl i ne
b) st y l es / model s of di s ci pl i ne
9
10
* For pr ogr amdet ai l s wr i t e: Dr . Gor don Neuf el d, Depar t ment of Psychol ogy, Uni ver si t y
of Br i t i sh Col umbi a, Vancouver , B. C. V6T 1Z6.
168
Har ol d C. Rat zl afF, John D. Fri esen, Gor don Neuf el d, Gael M. Paddock
Gr oup J a nua r y Ma r c hi Apr i l J une
0
1
2
3
( 4)
0 ( 13) *
0( 14)
X
X
0 ( 13)
0( 14)
0( 11)
0- ( 32) - 0 ( 18) X
^ - 0 ( 14) X
0 ( 11)
0( 9)
*0 = observat i on(s); X = t r eat ment ; n i n br acket s.
FI GURE 1
De s i gn e mpl oye d f or t he s t udy
f or m t he ba s i s f or t he t opi c s a nd c onc e pt s pr e s e nt e d i n t he Cr e a t i ve
Pa r e n t i n g pr ogr a m.
Th e c our s e c ont e nt i nvol ve s t he a p p l i c a t i o n t o p a r e n t i n g of pr i nc i pl e s
t a ke n di r e c t l y f r o m t he ps yc hol ogy o f h u ma n de ve l opme nt . Cr e a t i v e
Pa r e n t i n g e me r ge s f r om i ns i ght a n d unde r s t a ndi ng, not t e c hnol ogy a n d
s ki l l . Pr e s c r i p t i o n a n d a dvi c e a r e a v o i d e d s i nc e t he y f oc us o n t r a i ni ng,
not e duc a t i on. Th e obj e c t i s t o r e l e a s e t he i n d i v i d u a l de ve l opme nt a l
pr oc e s s wi t h i n t he c h i l d .
Ta b l e 1 pr ovi de s a br i e f s u mma r y o f t he pr ogr a m' s c ont e nt . An
e v a l u a t i o n o f t he ef f ect i venes s o f t hi s t en- s es s i on, t we nt y- hour p r o g r a m
wa s t he f oc us o f t hi s s t udy.
METHOD
The Cr e a t i ve Pa r e nt i ng pr ogr a m wa s a dve r t i s e d i n t he Va nc ouve r ,
Br i t i s h Co l u mb i a a r e a u s i n g br oc hur e s a n d not i c e s di s t r i but e d t o
c o mmu n i t y , d a y c a r e a n d f a mi l y dr op- i n cent r es . Pe opl e r e gi s t e r e d f or
e i t he r t he J a n u a r y - Ma r c h o r Ap r i l - J u n e cl as s es by c o mp l e t i n g a n d
ma i l i n g a t t a c he d r e gi s t r a t i on f or ms . Th e y c o u l d al s o r e gi s t e r by t e l e p h o n i n g t he i ns t r uc t or .
Fo l l o wi n g r e gi s t r a t i on, pa r t i c i pa nt s we r e c ont a c t e d, f i r s t by l e t t e r a n d
t he n by a f ol l ow- up t e l e phone c a l l , t o a s c e r t a i n t he i r wi l l i ngne s s t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n a r e s e a r c h- ba s e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t he pr ogr a m. Wi l l i n g
pa r t i c i pa nt s we r e a s s i gne d t o gr oups a c c o r d i n g t o a So l o mo n f our - gr oup
e x p e r i me n t a l de s i gn. Th i s de s i gn wa s c hos e n be c a us e of t he pos s i bi l i t y
of pr e t e s t - t r e a t me nt i nt e r a c t i on e s pe c i a l l y wh e n a t t i t u d i n a l me a s ur e s
a r e us e d ( Bo r g & Ga l l , p. 641) .
Th o s e pa r t i c i pa nt s c hoos i ng t he J a n u a r y - Ma r c h cl as s es be c a me exp e r i me n t a l gr oups 1 a n d 2 ( Fi g u r e 1) . On e of t hes e gr oups ( 1) wa s
r a n d o ml y a s s i gne d a pr et es t . Th o s e wi l l i n g pa r t i c i pa nt s wh o r e que s t e d
t he Ap r i l - J u n e cl as s es we r e r a n d o ml y a s s i gne d a n d us e d as t he t wo no
t r e a t me nt gr oups ( 0 a n d 3) r e q u i r e d by t he So l o mo n de s i gn. Ag a i n one
g r o u p ( Gr o u p 0) wa s a s s i gne d a pr et es t .
Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng
169
Gr o u p 3 pos t t es t s cor es f u n c t i o n e d as pr et es t s as we l l s i nc e t he i r Ap r i l J u n e t r e a t me nt f ol l owe d i mme di a t e l y. Fo l l o wi n g t he i n i t i a l pos t t e s t i ng
a nd be f or e t he Ap r i l - J u n e t r e a t me nt , Gr o u p 3 was s e pa r a t e d i nt o t wo
gr oups ( 3, 4) ( see Fi g u r e 1. )
I ns t r ume nt s us e d we r e t he Po r t e r Ac c e p t a n c e Sc a l e ( 1954) , t he
Sc h l u d e r ma n Re p o r t of Pa r e n t Be h a v i o r I nve nt or y ( 1979) a nd t he
Ol s o n Fa mi l y Ad a p t a b i l i t y a nd Co h e s i o n Sc a l e ( 1979) . Th e f i r s t of t hes e
has a pa ge us e d f or c ol l e c t i ng d e mo g r a p h i c da t a f r om e a c h pa r t i c i pa nt .
Al l me mbe r s of t he f i r s t t r e a t me nt gr oup ( Gr o u p 1) r e c e i ve d c opi e s of
t he t hr e e i ns t r ume nt s at t he f i r s t s es s i on i n J a n u a r y wi t h t he r e que s t t o
c ompl e t e t he m i nde pe nde nt l y a nd r e t u r n t h e m at t he s e c ond s es s i on a
we e k l a t e r . Me mb e r s of t he pr e t e s t e d c ont r ol gr oup ( Gr o u p 0) ha d t he
i ns t r ume nt s de l i ve r e d i n J a n u a r y a n d we r e c ol l e c t e d a we e k l a t e r . The s e
s a me pr oc e dur e s we r e r e pe a t e d i n Ma r c h d u r i n g s es s i on ni ne of t he
p r o g r a m a t wh i c h t i me t he i ns t r ume nt s we r e a p p l i e d as pos t t es t s t o a l l
gr oups ( Gr oups 0, 1, 2, 3) . Th e i nde pe nde nt c o mp l e t i o n of a l l i ns t r ume nt s wa s a ga i n e mpha s i z e d.
RESULTS
An i mpor t ant cons i der at i on f or t he pur pos e of gener al i zi ng t he r es ul t s of
t hi s s t udy was wh e t h e r t he vol unt e e r s a mpl e of 70 pa r e nt s ( 55 f e ma l e , 15
ma l e ) wa s r e pr e s e nt a t i ve of s ome de f i ne d popul a t i on. Th e d e mo g r a p h i c
da t a r e ve a l e d t ha t mos t pa r e nt s ( 84%) we r e i n t he 25- 35 ye a r age r a nge ;
t ha t mos t ( 83%) we r e ma r r i e d a nd l i v i n g wi t h a s pous e; t ha t 8 2 % ha d
be e n ma r r i e d f i ve ye a r s or mor e ; t ha t 8 4 % ha d one or mo r e ye a r s of pos t s e c onda r y e duc a t i on a nd t ha t 8 5 % ha d e i t he r one or t wo c hi l dr e n. As a
r es ul t , t he t a r ge t p o p u l a t i o n wa s de f i ne d as pa r e nt s who ( i ) a r e ma r r i e d,
( i i ) a r e r e l a t i ve l y young, ( i i i ) ha ve one or t wo c hi l dr e n, a nd ( i v) ha ve one
or mo r e ye a r s of pos t - s e c onda r y e duc a t i on. Ge n e r a l l y , pa r e nt s v o l u n t e e r i ng f or t he p r o g r a m t e nde d t o c ome f r o m t he mi d d l e t o uppe r mi d d l e s oc i o- e c onomi c p o p u l a t i o n .
Eq u i v a l e n c y of t he r a n d o ml y a s s i gne d gr oups was a l s o a c onc e r n. A
one - wa y a na l ys i s of v a r i a n c e ( ANOVA) F- t es t a p p l i e d t o t he pr et es t s
r e ve a l e d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i gni f i c a nt di f f e r e nc e s a mo n g me a ns a t t he . 05
l e ve l ( Ta b l e 2) . A t h i r d c o n c e r n i n v o l v e d a t hr e a t t o i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y ,
na me l y, t he pos s i bi l i t y of pr e t e s t - t r e a t me nt i nt e r a c t i on. A t wo- wa y
ANOVA F- t es t r e ve a l e d no s i gni f i c a nt pos t t es t me a n di f f e r e nc e s bet we e n t hos e t a k i n g a nd t hos e not t a k i n g t he pr et es t s . ( F- r a t i o p r o b a b i l i t i es r a nge d f r o m . 084 t o . 782. )
Pos t t e s t r es ul t s a r e pr e s e nt e d i n Ta b l e 2. No s i gni f i c a nt me a n di f f e r e nc e s a p p e a r e d f or t he t wo Ol s o n s ubt es t s ( Cohe s i on, Ad a p t a b i l i t y ) nor
t he " f a mi l y d i s h a r mo n y " s ubt e s t of t he Sc h l u d e r ma n s cal e. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i gni f i c a nt me a n di f f e r e nc e wa s r e ve a l e d f or t he Po r t e r Ac c e p t a n c e
Sc a l e a nd t he " a u t h o r i t y " s ubs c a l e of t he Sc h l u d e r ma n .
Har ol d C Rat zl af t John D. Fri esen, Gor don Neuf el d, Gael M. Paddock
170
A mul t i pl e - c ompa r i s ons pr oc e dur e r e ve a l e d t ha t t hr e e gr oups ( 1, 3, 4)
h a d me a n s cor es t ha t we r e s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f e r e nt f r o m t he c ont r ol gr oup.
No n e of t he e x p e r i me n t a l gr oup me a ns we r e s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f e r e nt f r o m
e a c h ot he r .
De s pi t e t he c onc l us i on r e a c he d e a r l i e r t ha t t he r e wa s no s i gni f i c a nt
pr e t e s t - t r e a t me nt i nt e r a c t i on ef f ect , i t wa s of i nt e r e s t t o not e t ha t t he
Gr o u p 2 ( no pr et es t ) me a n s c or e wa s not s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f e r e nt f r o mt he
c ont r ol g r o u p ( 0) me a n wh i l e Gr o u p s 1, 3 a n d 4 ( pr e t e s t e d) we r e .
T ABL E 2
Pr e t e s t a nd Pos t t e s t Me a ns , St a nda r d De vi a t i ons ( S. D. )
a nd F- r at i os f o r One- way AJ VOVA Acr os s Al l Gr oups
Group
Por t e r
( Accept ance)
Ol s on
( Cohes i on)
Ol s on
( Ada pt a bi l i t y)
Sc hl ude r ma n
( Aut hor i t y)
Sc hl ude r ma n
( Fa mi l y
di s ha r mony)
* p£. 05
** p
Canadi an Jour nal of Counsel l i ng Revue Canadi enne de Counsel i ng 1989, Vol . 23:2
I mp a c t o f t h e Cr e a t i v e P a r e n t i n g P r o g r a m
Ha r ol d C. Ra t z l a f f , J ohn D. Fr i e s e n, Gor don Ne uf e l d
Uni ver s i t y of Br i t i s h Col umbi a
Ga e l M. P a d d o c k
Vancouver , Br i t i s h Col umbi a
Abst r act
Sevent y parent s vol unt eer ed t o par t i ci pat e i n a pr ogr amcal l ed Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng. A Sol omon
f our - gr oup desi gn was used t o regi st er change on measur es r el at ed t o pr ogr am cont ent . Two
of t he fi ve measur es r esul t ed i n st at i st i cal l y si gni f i cant gai ns. The resul t s suppor t ed t he
pr oposi t i on t hat t he Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng pr ogr am was effect i ve i n changi ng par ent al behavi our s
on t wo di mensi ons. Par ent s became mor e accept i ng of t hei r chi l dr en and r el i ed less on par ent al
aut hor i t y i n t hei r r el at i onshi p wi t h t hei r chi l dr en.
Ré s umé
Soi xant e- di x par ent s se sont port é vol ont ai r es pour par t i ci per à un pr ogr amme appel é
Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng. Le Modèl e de gr oupe de quat r e de Sol omon a été utilisé pour cumul er les
mesur es reliées au cont enu du pr ogr amme. Deux des ci nq mesures ont mont r é des gai ns
st at i st i quement si gni fi cat i fs. Les résultats ont support é l ' hypot hèse sel on l aquel l e l e pr ogr amme Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng était effi cace pour appor t er des changement s compor t ement aux
chez les par ent s sur deux pl ans. Les par ent s se sont mont r é pl us réceptifs enver s l eur enf ant et
fai sai ent moi ns usage de l eur autorité par ent al e dans l eur r el at i on avec l eur enfant .
Pa r e n t i n g has ne ve r be e n e a s y at t he bes t of t i mes . To d a y , wh e n
s i gni f i c a nt l i f e s t yl e c ha nge s ha ve oc c ur r e d a nd ne w f a mi l y s t r uc t ur e s
ha ve e vol ve d, p a r e n t i n g c ont i nue s t o be a c ha l l e nge . Nu me r o u s pr ogr a ms ha ve be e n de ve l ope d i n r e s pons e t o p a r e n t i n g ne e ds a n d s t r uggl e s
( Cr o a k e & Gl ove r , 1977; Fi n e , 1976; Ha r ma n & Br i m, 1980) . Re c e n t
l i t e r a t ur e i nc l ude s r e f e r e nc e s t o di ve r s e pr ogr a ms t o as s i s t pa r e nt s
( Ho l l a n d & Ha l l e r s l e y, 1980; Sc huma ke r , 1980) . An g l i n ( 1984) has
de s c r i be d t he wi d e v a r i e t y of p a r e n t i n g pr ogr a ms as a " f i e l d wi t h a
t hous a nd f l owe r s b l o o mi n g ( p. 3) .
Wh i l e s ome pr ogr a ms a r e de s i gne d f r o m one t he or e t i c a l f r a me wor k,
s uc h as Gor don' s ( 1975) Pa r e n t Ef f e c t i ve ne s s Tr a i n i n g ( P. E. T. ) a nd
Di n k me y e r & Mc Ka y ' s ( 1976) Sys t e ma t i c Tr a i n i n g f or Ef f e c t i ve Pa r e nt i ng ( S. T. E. P. ) , ot he r s , l i ke Gr e e n' s ( 1975) Pos i t i ve Pa r e nt i ng, i nt e gr a t e s e ve r a l t he or i e s . Th e l i t e r a t ur e i de nt i f i e s f our ma j o r or i e nt a t i ons
f r o m wh i c h p a r e n t i n g p r o g r a ms ha ve de ve l ope d. Th e s e a r e b e h a v i o u r
mo d i f i c a t i o n pr ogr a ms , c o mmu n i c a t i o n or i e nt e d pr ogr a ms , Al d e r i a n
pr ogr a ms a n d h u ma n de ve l opme nt pr ogr a ms .
Pa r e n t e duc a t i on pr ogr a ms l i ke P. E. T. he l p pa r e nt s be c ome be t t e r
f a c i l i t a t or s of t he i r c hi l dr e n' s e mot i ona l g r o wt h ( Su mme r l i n & Wa r d ,
1981; Th e r r i e n , 1979; Pa i n , 1984) . Th e r e s u l t s f r o mt h e s e s t u d i e s s h o we d
Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng
167
s i gni f i c a nt pos i t i ve c ha nge i n pa r e nt s ' a t t i t ude s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t he
di me ns i ons of i nde pe nde nc e , t r us t a n d c o mmu n i c a t i o n .
A n u mb e r of ot he r r e s e a r c he r s ha ve e va l ua t e d t he e f f e c t i ve ne s s of
S. T. E. P. , a n Ad l e r n i a n ba s e d s ki l l t r a i n i n g pr ogr a m. Fi n d i n g s f r o m
s t udi e s by St e e d ( 1971) , Be r r e t ( 1975) , Ki e r a n s ( 1976) a n d No r d a l
( 1976) r e por t e d no e vi de nc e of s i gni f i c a nt c ha nge i n p a r e n t a l a t t i t ude s
c o n c e r n i n g t he pa r e nt - c hi l d r e l a t i ons hi p us i ng t he S. T. E. P. pr ogr a m.
Le v a n t a n d Do y l e ( 1983) , e mp l o y i n g Por t e r ' s Ac c e p t a n c e Sc a l e
( 1954) , f oc us e d o n t he ef f ect i venes s of t he Sys t e ma t i c Co mmu n i c a t i o n
Ski l l s pr ogr a m. Th e i r s t udy i n v o l v e d f a t he r s of s c hool a ge c h i l d r e n a n d
f o u n d no s i gni f i c a nt c ha nge as a r e s ul t of t r e a t me nt .
Cr e a t i v e Pa r e n t i n g ( Ne uf e l d, 1983) , a r e l a t i ve l y ne w pa r e nt e duc a t i on pr ogr a m, of f er s a pe r s pe c t i ve a n d a p p r o a c h t ha t di f f er s f r o m t hes e
be t t e r k n o wn pr ogr a ms . Th e t he or e t i c a l pe r s pe c t i ve t ha t Cr e a t i v e
Pa r e n t i n g of f er s i s ba s e d o n t he ps yc hol ogy of h u ma n de ve l opme nt .
Hi s t o r i c a l l y , t hi s pe r s pe c t i ve f i nds i t s r oot s i n t he wr i t i n g of J e a n J a c q u e s
Rous s e a u ( 1712- 1778) . Rous s e a u ( 1962) pr opos e d t ha t h u ma n de ve l opme nt pr oc e e ds a c c o r d i n g t o a n i nne r , pe r s ona l t i me t a bl e wh i c h
unf ol ds i n a s er i es of d e v e l o p me n t a l s t ages . Du r i n g t h e s e s t ages , c h i l d r e n
e xpe r i e nc e t he wo r l d i n di f f e r e nt wa ys a n d ma k e de c i s i ons f or t he ms el ves ba s e d o n t he i r o wn e xpe r i e nc e s a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( Cr a i n , 1980) .
J o h n Bowl by' s ( 1969) t he or y of a t t a c hme nt be ha vi our s , J e a n Pi a ge t ' s
( 1964) t he or y of c ogni t i ve de ve l opme nt a n d Er i k Er i ks on' s ( 1950) s t ages
of i de nt i t y de ve l opme nt s e x p a n d Rous s e a u' s ke y c onc e pt s a n d t oge t he r
T ABL E 1
Ske l e t on Out l i ne of t he Pr ogr a m*
Ti t l e / Topi cfs)
Part
I
II
III
Session
Pa r e nt i ng i n Per s pect i ve: i nt r oduc t i on & pr ogr a m ove r vi e w
1
Bui l di ng a Founda t i on of Tr us t : f act or s i n devel opment of t r us t 2
A Chi l d' s Sens e of Sel f :
a) s t age of a ut onomy
b) s t age of i ni t i at i ve
3
4
I V A Chi l d' s Sel f - Bel i ef s :
a) sel f - bel i ef s
b) s el f - conf i dence
5
6
V Emot i ona l De ve l opme nt :
a) r es pect f or t he c hi l d
b) ef f ect i ve ways of c a r i ng
7
8
VI Appr oaches t o Di s ci pl i ne:
a) pur pos e of di s ci pl i ne
b) st y l es / model s of di s ci pl i ne
9
10
* For pr ogr amdet ai l s wr i t e: Dr . Gor don Neuf el d, Depar t ment of Psychol ogy, Uni ver si t y
of Br i t i sh Col umbi a, Vancouver , B. C. V6T 1Z6.
168
Har ol d C. Rat zl afF, John D. Fri esen, Gor don Neuf el d, Gael M. Paddock
Gr oup J a nua r y Ma r c hi Apr i l J une
0
1
2
3
( 4)
0 ( 13) *
0( 14)
X
X
0 ( 13)
0( 14)
0( 11)
0- ( 32) - 0 ( 18) X
^ - 0 ( 14) X
0 ( 11)
0( 9)
*0 = observat i on(s); X = t r eat ment ; n i n br acket s.
FI GURE 1
De s i gn e mpl oye d f or t he s t udy
f or m t he ba s i s f or t he t opi c s a nd c onc e pt s pr e s e nt e d i n t he Cr e a t i ve
Pa r e n t i n g pr ogr a m.
Th e c our s e c ont e nt i nvol ve s t he a p p l i c a t i o n t o p a r e n t i n g of pr i nc i pl e s
t a ke n di r e c t l y f r o m t he ps yc hol ogy o f h u ma n de ve l opme nt . Cr e a t i v e
Pa r e n t i n g e me r ge s f r om i ns i ght a n d unde r s t a ndi ng, not t e c hnol ogy a n d
s ki l l . Pr e s c r i p t i o n a n d a dvi c e a r e a v o i d e d s i nc e t he y f oc us o n t r a i ni ng,
not e duc a t i on. Th e obj e c t i s t o r e l e a s e t he i n d i v i d u a l de ve l opme nt a l
pr oc e s s wi t h i n t he c h i l d .
Ta b l e 1 pr ovi de s a br i e f s u mma r y o f t he pr ogr a m' s c ont e nt . An
e v a l u a t i o n o f t he ef f ect i venes s o f t hi s t en- s es s i on, t we nt y- hour p r o g r a m
wa s t he f oc us o f t hi s s t udy.
METHOD
The Cr e a t i ve Pa r e nt i ng pr ogr a m wa s a dve r t i s e d i n t he Va nc ouve r ,
Br i t i s h Co l u mb i a a r e a u s i n g br oc hur e s a n d not i c e s di s t r i but e d t o
c o mmu n i t y , d a y c a r e a n d f a mi l y dr op- i n cent r es . Pe opl e r e gi s t e r e d f or
e i t he r t he J a n u a r y - Ma r c h o r Ap r i l - J u n e cl as s es by c o mp l e t i n g a n d
ma i l i n g a t t a c he d r e gi s t r a t i on f or ms . Th e y c o u l d al s o r e gi s t e r by t e l e p h o n i n g t he i ns t r uc t or .
Fo l l o wi n g r e gi s t r a t i on, pa r t i c i pa nt s we r e c ont a c t e d, f i r s t by l e t t e r a n d
t he n by a f ol l ow- up t e l e phone c a l l , t o a s c e r t a i n t he i r wi l l i ngne s s t o
p a r t i c i p a t e i n a r e s e a r c h- ba s e d e v a l u a t i o n o f t he pr ogr a m. Wi l l i n g
pa r t i c i pa nt s we r e a s s i gne d t o gr oups a c c o r d i n g t o a So l o mo n f our - gr oup
e x p e r i me n t a l de s i gn. Th i s de s i gn wa s c hos e n be c a us e of t he pos s i bi l i t y
of pr e t e s t - t r e a t me nt i nt e r a c t i on e s pe c i a l l y wh e n a t t i t u d i n a l me a s ur e s
a r e us e d ( Bo r g & Ga l l , p. 641) .
Th o s e pa r t i c i pa nt s c hoos i ng t he J a n u a r y - Ma r c h cl as s es be c a me exp e r i me n t a l gr oups 1 a n d 2 ( Fi g u r e 1) . On e of t hes e gr oups ( 1) wa s
r a n d o ml y a s s i gne d a pr et es t . Th o s e wi l l i n g pa r t i c i pa nt s wh o r e que s t e d
t he Ap r i l - J u n e cl as s es we r e r a n d o ml y a s s i gne d a n d us e d as t he t wo no
t r e a t me nt gr oups ( 0 a n d 3) r e q u i r e d by t he So l o mo n de s i gn. Ag a i n one
g r o u p ( Gr o u p 0) wa s a s s i gne d a pr et es t .
Cr eat i ve Par ent i ng
169
Gr o u p 3 pos t t es t s cor es f u n c t i o n e d as pr et es t s as we l l s i nc e t he i r Ap r i l J u n e t r e a t me nt f ol l owe d i mme di a t e l y. Fo l l o wi n g t he i n i t i a l pos t t e s t i ng
a nd be f or e t he Ap r i l - J u n e t r e a t me nt , Gr o u p 3 was s e pa r a t e d i nt o t wo
gr oups ( 3, 4) ( see Fi g u r e 1. )
I ns t r ume nt s us e d we r e t he Po r t e r Ac c e p t a n c e Sc a l e ( 1954) , t he
Sc h l u d e r ma n Re p o r t of Pa r e n t Be h a v i o r I nve nt or y ( 1979) a nd t he
Ol s o n Fa mi l y Ad a p t a b i l i t y a nd Co h e s i o n Sc a l e ( 1979) . Th e f i r s t of t hes e
has a pa ge us e d f or c ol l e c t i ng d e mo g r a p h i c da t a f r om e a c h pa r t i c i pa nt .
Al l me mbe r s of t he f i r s t t r e a t me nt gr oup ( Gr o u p 1) r e c e i ve d c opi e s of
t he t hr e e i ns t r ume nt s at t he f i r s t s es s i on i n J a n u a r y wi t h t he r e que s t t o
c ompl e t e t he m i nde pe nde nt l y a nd r e t u r n t h e m at t he s e c ond s es s i on a
we e k l a t e r . Me mb e r s of t he pr e t e s t e d c ont r ol gr oup ( Gr o u p 0) ha d t he
i ns t r ume nt s de l i ve r e d i n J a n u a r y a n d we r e c ol l e c t e d a we e k l a t e r . The s e
s a me pr oc e dur e s we r e r e pe a t e d i n Ma r c h d u r i n g s es s i on ni ne of t he
p r o g r a m a t wh i c h t i me t he i ns t r ume nt s we r e a p p l i e d as pos t t es t s t o a l l
gr oups ( Gr oups 0, 1, 2, 3) . Th e i nde pe nde nt c o mp l e t i o n of a l l i ns t r ume nt s wa s a ga i n e mpha s i z e d.
RESULTS
An i mpor t ant cons i der at i on f or t he pur pos e of gener al i zi ng t he r es ul t s of
t hi s s t udy was wh e t h e r t he vol unt e e r s a mpl e of 70 pa r e nt s ( 55 f e ma l e , 15
ma l e ) wa s r e pr e s e nt a t i ve of s ome de f i ne d popul a t i on. Th e d e mo g r a p h i c
da t a r e ve a l e d t ha t mos t pa r e nt s ( 84%) we r e i n t he 25- 35 ye a r age r a nge ;
t ha t mos t ( 83%) we r e ma r r i e d a nd l i v i n g wi t h a s pous e; t ha t 8 2 % ha d
be e n ma r r i e d f i ve ye a r s or mor e ; t ha t 8 4 % ha d one or mo r e ye a r s of pos t s e c onda r y e duc a t i on a nd t ha t 8 5 % ha d e i t he r one or t wo c hi l dr e n. As a
r es ul t , t he t a r ge t p o p u l a t i o n wa s de f i ne d as pa r e nt s who ( i ) a r e ma r r i e d,
( i i ) a r e r e l a t i ve l y young, ( i i i ) ha ve one or t wo c hi l dr e n, a nd ( i v) ha ve one
or mo r e ye a r s of pos t - s e c onda r y e duc a t i on. Ge n e r a l l y , pa r e nt s v o l u n t e e r i ng f or t he p r o g r a m t e nde d t o c ome f r o m t he mi d d l e t o uppe r mi d d l e s oc i o- e c onomi c p o p u l a t i o n .
Eq u i v a l e n c y of t he r a n d o ml y a s s i gne d gr oups was a l s o a c onc e r n. A
one - wa y a na l ys i s of v a r i a n c e ( ANOVA) F- t es t a p p l i e d t o t he pr et es t s
r e ve a l e d no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i gni f i c a nt di f f e r e nc e s a mo n g me a ns a t t he . 05
l e ve l ( Ta b l e 2) . A t h i r d c o n c e r n i n v o l v e d a t hr e a t t o i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y ,
na me l y, t he pos s i bi l i t y of pr e t e s t - t r e a t me nt i nt e r a c t i on. A t wo- wa y
ANOVA F- t es t r e ve a l e d no s i gni f i c a nt pos t t es t me a n di f f e r e nc e s bet we e n t hos e t a k i n g a nd t hos e not t a k i n g t he pr et es t s . ( F- r a t i o p r o b a b i l i t i es r a nge d f r o m . 084 t o . 782. )
Pos t t e s t r es ul t s a r e pr e s e nt e d i n Ta b l e 2. No s i gni f i c a nt me a n di f f e r e nc e s a p p e a r e d f or t he t wo Ol s o n s ubt es t s ( Cohe s i on, Ad a p t a b i l i t y ) nor
t he " f a mi l y d i s h a r mo n y " s ubt e s t of t he Sc h l u d e r ma n s cal e. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i gni f i c a nt me a n di f f e r e nc e wa s r e ve a l e d f or t he Po r t e r Ac c e p t a n c e
Sc a l e a nd t he " a u t h o r i t y " s ubs c a l e of t he Sc h l u d e r ma n .
Har ol d C Rat zl af t John D. Fri esen, Gor don Neuf el d, Gael M. Paddock
170
A mul t i pl e - c ompa r i s ons pr oc e dur e r e ve a l e d t ha t t hr e e gr oups ( 1, 3, 4)
h a d me a n s cor es t ha t we r e s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f e r e nt f r o m t he c ont r ol gr oup.
No n e of t he e x p e r i me n t a l gr oup me a ns we r e s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f e r e nt f r o m
e a c h ot he r .
De s pi t e t he c onc l us i on r e a c he d e a r l i e r t ha t t he r e wa s no s i gni f i c a nt
pr e t e s t - t r e a t me nt i nt e r a c t i on ef f ect , i t wa s of i nt e r e s t t o not e t ha t t he
Gr o u p 2 ( no pr et es t ) me a n s c or e wa s not s i gni f i c a nt l y di f f e r e nt f r o mt he
c ont r ol g r o u p ( 0) me a n wh i l e Gr o u p s 1, 3 a n d 4 ( pr e t e s t e d) we r e .
T ABL E 2
Pr e t e s t a nd Pos t t e s t Me a ns , St a nda r d De vi a t i ons ( S. D. )
a nd F- r at i os f o r One- way AJ VOVA Acr os s Al l Gr oups
Group
Por t e r
( Accept ance)
Ol s on
( Cohes i on)
Ol s on
( Ada pt a bi l i t y)
Sc hl ude r ma n
( Aut hor i t y)
Sc hl ude r ma n
( Fa mi l y
di s ha r mony)
* p£. 05
** p