The Effect Of Coupling Agent Addition To The Mechanical Properties Of Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) Made Of Recycled High Density Polyethylene (RHDPE) And Recycled Wood Flour (RWF).

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THE EFFECT OF COUPLING AGENT ADDITION TO

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD PLASTIC

COMPOSITE (WPC) MADE OF

RECYCLED HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (RHDPE)

AND RECYCLED WOOD FLOUR (RWF)

NG GUAN YAO

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UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

THE EFFECT OF COUPLING AGENT ADDITION TO THE

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD PLASTIC

COMPOSITE (WPC) MADE OF

RECYCLED HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (RHDPE) AND

RECYCLED WOOD FLOUR (RWF)

This report submitted in accordance with requirement of the Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) for the Bachelor Degree of Manufacturing Engineering

(Engineering Materials) with Honours.

NG GUAN YAO

FACULTY OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING 2010

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UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

BORANG PENGESAHAN STATUS LAPORAN PROJEK SARJANA MUDA

TAJUK: The Effect of Coupling Agent Addition to the Mechanical Properties of Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) Made of Recycled High Density Polyethylene (RHDPE) and Recycled Wood Flour (RWF)

SESI PENGAJIAN: 2009/10 Semester 2

Saya NG GUAN YAO

mengaku membenarkan Laporan PSM ini disimpan di Perpustakaan Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM) dengan syarat-syarat kegunaan seperti berikut: 1. Laporan PSM adalah hak milik Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka dan penulis. 2. Perpustakaan Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka dibenarkan membuat salinan

untuk tujuan pengajian sahaja dengan izin penulis.

3. Perpustakaan dibenarkan membuat salinan laporan PSM ini sebagai bahan pertukaran antara institusi pengajian tinggi.

4. **Sila tandakan (√)

SULIT

TERHAD

TIDAK TERHAD

(Mengandungi maklumat yang berdarjah keselamatan atau kepentingan Malaysia yang termaktub di dalam AKTA RAHSIA RASMI 1972)

(Mengandungi maklumat TERHAD yang telah ditentukan oleh organisasi/badan di mana penyelidikan dijalankan)

Alamat Tetap:

169, LEBUH PENGKALAN BARAT 12, TAMAN PENGKALAN BARU,

31650 IPOH, PERAK

Tarikh: 25th MAY 2010

Disahkan oleh:

Cop Rasmi:

Tarikh: _______________________

** Jika Laporan PSM ini SULIT atau TERHAD, sila lampirkan surat daripada pihak berkuasa/organisasi berkenaan dengan menyatakan sekali sebab dan tempoh laporan PSM ini perlu dikelaskan sebagai SULIT atau TERHAD.

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DECLARATION

I hereby, declared this report entitled “The Effect of Coupling Agent Addition to the Mechanical Properties of Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) Made of Recycled High Density Polyethylene (RHDPE) and Recycled Wood Flour (RWF)” is the results of

my own research except as cited in references.

Signature : ………..

Author’s Name : NG GUAN YAO

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APPROVAL

This report is submitted to the Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering of UTeM as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor Degree of Manufacturing Engineering (Engineering Materials) with Honours. The member of the supervisory committee is as follow:

………. (MR. JEEFFERIE BIN ABD RAZAK)

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ABSTRACT

The main focus in this research is to investigate the effect of coupling agent addition in various percentages (0%, 3%, and 6% of total weight) to the mechanical properties of wood plastic composite (WPC). 3-Aminopropyl Triethoxysilane is chosen as the coupling agent in this research. Besides, WPC is fabricated by virgin HDPE as matrix phase, recycled plastic packaging bag (PPB) as additional matrix and reinforcement, and wood flour as reinforcement. By the way, the ratios of HDPE to wood flour are 9:1, 8:2, 7:3, and 6:4. There are three different group of WPC fabrication; that are normal WPC, WPC with coupling agent (CA) addition, and WPC with CA and PPB addition. Single way and two ways process method were used in this research where two ways method includes the pre-mixing process by using extruder whereas single way method does not. Next, the composite pallet was formed into composite plate through hot press process. After that, the composites are mechanically tested with flexural test, impact test, and tensile test. Finally, the fracture surface of tensile specimens was analyzed by observing through the Optical Microscopy (OM) observation.

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ABSTRAK

Fokus utama dalam kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji kesan penambahan agen pengkupel dalam pelbagai peratusan (0%, 3%, dan 6% daripada berat keseluruhan) ke atas ciri-ciri mekanikal komposit kayu plastic (WPC). “3-Aminopropyl triethoxysilane” telah dipilih sebagai agen pengkupel dalam kajian ini. Selain itu, WPC adalah diperbuat daripada HDPE dara sebagai matriks, plastik bag kitar semula sebagai matriks dan tetulang berlebihan, dan serbuk kayu sebagai bahan tetulang. Di samping itu, nisbah HDPE dan serbuk kayu adalah 9:1, 8:2, 7:3, and 6:4. Tiga kumpulan akan dikenalkan, iaitu komposit kayu plastik yang biasa, komposit kayu plastic yang ditambah dengan agen pengkupel, dan komposit kayu plastic yang ditambah dengan agen pengkupel dan plastik bag kitar. Proses pembuatan komposit kayu plastic dibahagikan kepada kaedah satu arah dan kaedah dua arah di mana kaedah dua arah mempunyai proses pemcampuran yang menggunakan ekstruder tetapi kaedah satu arah tidak ada. Selepas itu, pelet komposit akan dijadikan plat komposit melalui proses tekanan panas. Kemudian, komposit ini diuji secara mekanikal dengan ujian pelenturan, ujian hentaman, dan ujian lenturan. Akhirnya, permukaan bahagian patah daripada ujian lenturan telah dikaji dengan menggunakan pemerhatian mikroskop optikal (OM).

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DEDICATION

To my beloved aunty, your love and support are my greatest inspiration. Without your love and support, I could never go so far until now.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the Faculty of Manufacturing of Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka that gives me an opportunity to undertaking manufacturing course.

Besides, I would like to express my warmest thanks to my lecturer, Madam Intan Sharhida binti Othman, who is my ex PSM supervisor. She has done a great job in guiding me during the starting of this research.

Also, I would like to thank Mr. Jeefferie bin Abd Razak who is my current PSM supervisor. He is willing to guide and give me full support on my research. Without his effort and support, my research wills not success.

Meanwhile, I would like to thank Mr. Mohamad Haidir bin Maslan who marks my PSM report as my first panel. He is willing to give tolerance during my hardest time. Moreover, I would like to thank Dr. Mohd Warikh bin Abd Rashid who is my second panel as well as my academic supervisor. He has done a great job in guiding me during my degree study.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Abstract i

Abstrak ii

Dedication iii

Acknowledgement iv

Table of Content v

List of Tables ix

List of Figures x

List of Abbreviations xiv

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2

1.3 Objectives 3

1.4 Scope 3

1.5 Benefits of Study 4

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) 5

2.1.1 History 5

2.1.2 Manufacturing Process 7

2.1.3 Mechanical Properties of WPC 8

2.1.3.1 Effect of Moisture Content in Wood Flour 9

2.1.3.2 Effect of the Types of Polymer 10

2.1.3.3 Effect of Coupling Agent 11

2.1.3.4 Effect of the Percentage of Wood Flour 12

2.1.3.5 Effect of Wood Flour Size 13

2.2 Coupling Agents 14

2.2.1 Silane Crosslinking Mechanism 15

2.3 Natural Fiber (Wood Flour) 16

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2.4.1 Recycled Versus Virgin HDPE 18

2.5 Recycle Issues 19

2.6 Mechanical Testing 20

3. METHODOLOGY 21

3.1 Introduction 21

3.2 Materials 22

3.2.1 Recycled Plastic Packaging bag 22

3.2.2 Wood Flour 23

3.2.3 Coupling Agent 23

3.2.4 Virgin High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Resin 23

3.3 Sequence of Research 24

3.3.1 Material Characterization 25

3.3.1.1 Characterization of Plastic Packaging Bag 25

3.3.1.2 Characterization of Wood Flour 27

3.3.2 Raw Material Preparation 27

3.3.2.1 Wood Flour 28

3.3.2.2 Plastic Packaging Bag 28

3.3.3 Matrix and Reinforcement Composition Preparation 29

3.3.4 Extrusion (Pre-Mixing) 31

3.3.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures for Extrusion Process 31

3.3.5 Pallet Preparation 32

3.3.6 Forming 32

3.3.6.1 Standard Operating Procedures for Hot Press Process 33

3.3.7 Mechanical Testing 33

3.3.7.1 Flexural Test 34

3.3.7.2 Impact Test 37

3.3.7.3 Tensile Test 39

3.3.8 Fracture Surface Analysis 41

3.3.8.1 Standard Operating Procedures for Optical Microscope 42

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4. RESULT 41

4.1 Introduction 41

4.2 Material Characterization 41

4.2.1 Wood Flour 41

4.2.2 Plastic Packaging Bag’s Polymer Layer Material 44

4.3 Tensile Test 46

4.3.1 Fracture Surface Morphology Analysis 51

4.4 Impact Test 55

4.5 Flexural Test 58

5. DISCUSSION 62

5.1 Introduction 62

5.2 Effects of Process Methods 62

5.2.1 Microscopic Observation 63

5.2.2 Surface Wetting Observation 65

5.3 Effects of Coupling Agent Addition 67

5.3.1 Fracture Surface Morphology Analysis 68

5.4 Effects of Plastic Packaging Bag Addition 70 5.5 Effects of Various Percentages of Wood Flour Additions 71

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 72

6.1 Conclusion 72

6.2 Recommendation 73

REFERENCES 74

APPENDICES

A Gantt Chart of Work

B Flexural Specimen Drawing Sheet C Impact Specimen Drawing Sheet D Tensile Specimen Drawing Sheet E PSM II Gantt Chart of Work

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F External Polymer Layer Spectrum G Internal Polymer Layer Spectrum

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LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Mechanical Properties of Some Common Polymers in Room Temperature (Harper, 2003).

3.1 Raw material composition for WPC fabrication 30 4.1 Tensile Properties of pure HDPE and WPCs with the

absence and present of CA and PPB fabricated by single way and two ways methods

4.2 Impact strength of pure HDPE and WPC with the absence and present of CA and PPB fabricated by single way and two ways method

4.3 Flexural strength of pure HDPE and WPC with the absence and present of CA and PPB fabricated by single way and two ways method

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LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 The Degree of Crosslinking for X-Dry (Crosslinking, Dry) and X-Wet (Crosslinking, Wet) Composites After Various Storage Times in SA (Sauna) and Rt (Room Temperature) (Grubbström and Okman, 2009).

2.2 Stress–Strain Curves for All Crosslinked Composites as well as the Non-Crosslinked Control Material (Grubbström and Okman, 2009).

2.3 Average Values of the Relative Tensile Strength as a Function of Wood Content. (Bengtsson et al., 2005)

12 2.4 Effect of Mixing Temperature and Powder Size on Tensile

Strength of WPC (Miki et al., 2009).

13 2.5 The Suggested Reaction Mechanism During: (a) Peroxide

Induced Melt Grafting of Vinyltrimethoxy Silane onto Polyethylene, (b) Radical Induced Crosslinking of Polyethylene (Bengtsson et al., 2005)

2.6 The Hydrolysis Step (1) and Condensation Step (2) During Silane Crosslinking (Bengtsson et al., 2005).

16 2.7 Chain Configuration of HDPE, LDPE, and LLDPE

(Harper, 2003).

3.1 Layout of the PPB 22

3.2 Flow Chart 24

3.3 FT/IR-6100 (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, JAS.CO)

25 3.4 ATR PRO450-S/470-H Single reflection ATR accessories 26 3.5 Single screw extruder (Polylab Extruder, HAAKE

Rheomix OS)

3.6 Hot Press Machine (GT 7014-A) 32

3.7 Universal Testing Machine (UTM, Shimadzu) 34

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3.9 Flexural Test Specimen 35

3.10 Impact Tester (MH 365) 37

3.11 Impact Test Specimen 38

3.12 Universal Testing Machine with tensile Test Equipment Setup (UTM, Shimadzu)

3.13 Tensile Test Specimen 40

3.14 Optical microscope (Optical Microscope, Zeiss) 41 4.1 Wood flour image under 1X of Magnification 43 4.2 First wood flour sample image under 1X of magnification 43 4.3 Spectrum search result for the external polymer layer 45 4.4 Spectrum search result for the internal polymer layer 46 4.5 Effect of CA and PPB addition and various process

methods to the tensile strength (MPa) of WPCs with varied percentages of wood flour loading where (a) is the

fabricated samples from single way method and (b) is the fabricated samples from two ways method

4.6 Effect of CA and PPB addition and various process methods to the tensile modulus (MPa) of WPCs with varied percentages of wood flour loading where (a) is the fabricated samples from single way method and (b) is the fabricated samples from two ways method

4.7 Fracture surface morphology of the WPC sample (1A1~1A4) from single way process method at 10X of magnification

4.8 Fracture surface morphology of the sample (1B1~1B4) with 5% CA from single way process method at 10X of magnification

4.9 Fracture surface morphology of the sample (1C1~1C4) with 5% CA, and 5% PPB from single way process method at 10X of magnification

4.10 Fracture surface morphology of the sample (2A1~2A4) from two ways process method at 10X of magnification

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4.11 Fracture surface morphology of the sample (2B1~2B4) with 5% CA from two ways process method at 10X of magnification

4.12 Fracture surface morphology of the sample (2C1~2C4) with 5% CA, and 5% PPB from two ways process method at 10X of magnification

4.13 Effect of CA and PPB addition and various process

methods to the impact strength (Nm) of WPCs with varied percentages of wood flour loading where (a) is the

fabricated samples from single way method and (b) is the fabricated samples from two ways method

4.14 Flexural test with three points bending test setup 58 4.15 Effect of CA and PPB addition and various process

methods to the flexural strength (MPa) of WPCs with varied percentages of wood flour loading where (a) is the fabricated samples from single way method and (b) is the fabricated samples from two ways method

5.1 Non-homogenous dispersion of the matrix and filler at 10X of magnification (side surface of the sample 1B1) at 10X of magnification

5.2 Homogenous dispersion of the matrix and filler at 10X of magnification (side surface of the sample 2A4) at 10X of magnification

5.3 Poor surface wetting quality due to the improper mixing process from the sample fabricated by single way method (1B1 Fracture Surface) at 10X of magnification

5.4 Good surface wetting quality due to extrusion process from the sample fabricated by two ways method (2A2 Fracture Surface) at 10X of magnification

5.5 Possible covalent and/or hydrogen bonding between wood and vinyltrimethoxy silane-grafted-HDPE (Bengtsson et al. 2005)

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5.6 Plastically deformed polymer matrix of sample with CA addition at the fractured surface (sample 2B3) at 10X of magnification

5.7 Matrix deformation pattern surrounding the filler when subjected to tensile loading (Callister 2005)

69 5.8 Fracture surface of the sample with PPB addition (sample

2C1) at 10X of magnification

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Al - Aluminum

CA - Coupling agent

DSC - Differential Scanning Calorimeter FTIR - Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy HDPE - High Density Polyethylene

LPA - Laser Particle Analyzer LDPE - Low Density Polyethylene

LLDPE - Linear Low Density Polyethylene MA - Maleic Anhydride

MA-PE - Maleated Polyethylene MAPP - Maleated Polypropylene MDPE - Medium Density Polyethylene

MPa - Mega Pascal

N - Newton

PE - Polyethylene

PET - Polyethylene Terepthalate

PMPPIC - Polymethylene-Polyphenyl-Isocyanate

PP - Polypropylene

PPB - Plastic packaging bag

rHDPE - Recycled High Density Polyethylene RPP - Recycled Polypropylene

RT - Room Temperature

SA - Sauna

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope

TM - Tensile modulus

TS - Tensile strength

UTM - Universal Testing Machine

WF - Wood flour

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X-dry - Crosslinking-Dry X-wet - Crosslinking-Wet

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Wood plastic composite (WPC), the combination of wood fiber and polymer has been a growing interest in the development of construction and automotive industrial over the past decade. Recently, WPC applications have been extended other than automotive industry such as siding, fencing, window frames and decking. The reasons behind are that the WPC are low density, high stiffness and strength, low price, environmental friendly, less-abrasive to processing equipment, renewable, recyclable, and biodegradable. Other than that, the industries were forced by the environment awareness of people nowadays to choose natural materials as substitutes for non-renewable materials.

The main drawback in WPC production are difficult to achieve strong interfacial adhesion between wood fiber and polymer since they are hydrophilic and hydrophobic material just like water and oil which cannot be mixed together. This will leads to composites with poor durability and mechanical properties. Meanwhile, there has been a lot of researchers come across this problem by introducing coupling agent into the WPC production. From their study, they found out that the coupling agent addition will strengthen the material in terms of mechanical, surface, water absorption, etc. (Bengtsson and Oksman, 2006), (Felix and Gatenholm, 1991), (Kazayawoko et al., 1999), (Kokta et al., 1989), (Maldas and Kokta, 1994), and (Raj,

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In the processing of WPC, there are two important topics shall be clearly identified as basic approach toward WPC design value determination. The first topic is the processing method which includes compounding and forming, whereby the second topic is the specific formulation of WPC parameter such as the composition of wood fiber and coupling agent. These two approaches can help to optimize the WPC mechanical properties to suit the particular application.

1.2 Problem Statement

Mankind, the unique race that exists in the earth has been a large leap in development. Due to the rapid development, million tones of waste per annum are produced from household, commercial, and industrial. Polymer waste such as polyethylene (PE) is the most likely material to be found in dumpling area. Furthermore, this material takes thousand years for degradation in the dumpling area. This was lead to the problem of insufficient dumpling area, and thus, more landfills have to be created to meet the requirement year to year. Consequently, it will cause bad scenery to the environment and ecosystem, contribute to various diseases, and also contribute to global warming.

According to the research of US Environmental Protection Agency (2006), it claims that the worldwide production of plastics is approximately 100 million tones per annum. Attempts have been taken to recycle the post consumer thermoplastic material in order to reduce the impact to the environment and also to reduce the uses of virgin polymer. In the previous research of Nantha (2008), the recycled high density polyethylene (rHDPE) from post consumer milk bottles were successfully recycled to produce wood plastic composite (WPC). It is because the properties of this rHDPE are not significantly different from those virgin resins, and therefore, it could be used for various applications. However, the complicated post consumer product such as plastic packaging bags are not easy to be recycled because it has combined the plastics and metal (typically aluminum foil) material. In order to separate the plastic from metal, various processes have to be implemented, and hence, it leads to high cost. In short, separating the polymer material from the metal layer in plastic packaging bags is impossible.

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In regard to the above problem, an alternative way to recycle the plastic packaging bags should be taken. Since the separation of polymer and metal layers in plastic packaging bags are impossible, the alternative way is to recycle and use both materials in one application. This could be done by mixing the plastic packaging bags material into the WPC parameter where the polymer layer will become the matrix and metal layer will act as additional filler which may further strengthen the mechanical properties of WPC.

1.3 Objectives

(a) To investigate the effects of coupling agent in various percentage addition to the mechanical properties of wood plastic composite (WPC).

(b) To study the effects of recycled woof flour percentage and recycled plastic packaging bag material percentage addition in WPC to the mechanical properties of WPC.

1.4 Scope

This research will include the processing of WPC through single way method and two ways method where two ways method involves the pre-mixing process by using extruder whereas the single way method does not. Meanwhile, the material characterization process is conducted to analyze the wood flour size, wood flour density, and plastic packaging bag (PPB).

Meanwhile, flexural test (ASTM D790-03), impact test (ASTM D 6110 – 04), and tensile test (ASTM 3039/D3039M-00) will be conducted to analyze the mechanical properties of produced WPC. After that, fracture surface morphology analysis will be taken on the failure specimens from tensile test by using optical microscope.

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Besides, the materials involved are recycled PPB, wood flour, Silane, and virgin HDPE granules. The specific formulation of WPC will only focus on the absence and presence of coupling agent (CA), and the presence of PPB with CA. Besides, the HDPE to WF ratios are set to 9:1, 8:2, 7:3, and 6:4. The detail formulations will be discussed in methodology section.

By the way, water absorption test, thickness swelling test, degree of crosslinking test will not be included in this research. The main focus will be on the mechanical properties of WPC fabricated by 25 specific formulations.

1.5 Benefits of Study

From the analysis in this research, a lot of benefits and information could be acquired for example:

(a) Silane percentage addition in optimizing the mechanical properties of WPC. (b) Wood flour percentage addition effect to mechanical properties of WPC. (c) Alternative way to recycled complicated polymer material such as plastic

packaging bags.

(d) Recycled plastic packaging bag material usage in WPC and its effect to mechanical properties of WPC.

(e) WPC processing methods, steps, and parameter setup.

The future researchers can refer to this research work as a guideline in their WPC research field or alternative way to recycled plastic waste.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Al - Aluminum

CA - Coupling agent

DSC - Differential Scanning Calorimeter FTIR - Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy HDPE - High Density Polyethylene

LPA - Laser Particle Analyzer LDPE - Low Density Polyethylene

LLDPE - Linear Low Density Polyethylene

MA - Maleic Anhydride

MA-PE - Maleated Polyethylene MAPP - Maleated Polypropylene MDPE - Medium Density Polyethylene

MPa - Mega Pascal

N - Newton

PE - Polyethylene

PET - Polyethylene Terepthalate

PMPPIC - Polymethylene-Polyphenyl-Isocyanate

PP - Polypropylene

PPB - Plastic packaging bag

rHDPE - Recycled High Density Polyethylene RPP - Recycled Polypropylene

RT - Room Temperature

SA - Sauna

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope

TM - Tensile modulus

TS - Tensile strength

UTM - Universal Testing Machine

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X-dry - Crosslinking-Dry X-wet - Crosslinking-Wet

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

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1.2 Problem Statement

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1.3 Objectives

(a) To investigate the effects of coupling agent in various percentage addition to the mechanical properties of wood plastic composite (WPC).

(b) To study the effects of recycled woof flour percentage and recycled plastic packaging bag material percentage addition in WPC to the mechanical properties of WPC.

1.4 Scope

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1.5 Benefits of Study

From the analysis in this research, a lot of benefits and information could be acquired for example:

packaging bags.

(d) Recycled plastic packaging bag material usage in WPC and its effect to mechanical properties of WPC.

(e) WPC processing methods, steps, and parameter setup.

The future researchers can refer to this research work as a guideline in their WPC research field or alternative way to recycled plastic waste.

The Effect Of Coupling Agent Addition To The Mechanical Properties Of Wood Plastic Composite (WPC) Made Of Recycled High Density Polyethylene (RHDPE) And Recycled Wood Flour (RWF).

THE EFFECT OF COUPLING AGENT ADDITION TO

THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD PLASTIC

COMPOSITE (WPC) MADE OF

RECYCLED HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (RHDPE)

AND RECYCLED WOOD FLOUR (RWF)

NG GUAN YAO

UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

THE EFFECT OF COUPLING AGENT ADDITION TO THE

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD PLASTIC

COMPOSITE (WPC) MADE OF

RECYCLED HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE (RHDPE) AND

RECYCLED WOOD FLOUR (RWF)

UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA

DECLARATION

APPROVAL

ABSTRACT

ABSTRAK

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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