A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE NOMINALIZATION USING THE SUFFIX {-AGE} AND {-MENT}

  

A MORPHOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE NOMINALIZATION

USING THE SUFFIX {-AGE} AND {-MENT}

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

  By

R. S. KRISTIAN GUNTUR PRASETYA

  Student Number: 064214046

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

  “Losing a Battle to Win the War”

  Dedicated to: My Beloved Parents, My Beloved Sisters, My Beloved Luciana,

  And for my soul

  

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  First of all, I would like to say my deepest thanks to Jesus Christ because without His blessing and His help, I would not be able to finish this writing of undergraduate thesis.

  I also would like to say my gratitude to Dr. Fr. Borgias Alip, M,Pd., M.A. for being the advisor who has guided this writing very patiently and also for his free time for the discussion with me in order to solve the problems during the writing process. I also would like to thank Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M.S for being co-advisor of this writing who has read and given a lot of correction and suggestion so this thesis was well improved.

  I also would like to thank Anna Fitriati, S.Pd., M.Hum. as my academic advisor who has guided me as the student patiently and also for Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, S.S., M.Hum who continue for being my academic advisor.

  I thank to my lovely parents, Velesiaa Mulyastari and Petrus Caelestinus Sriyanto, who have given the biggest support in my study, starting from the very beginning I decided to be in this English Letters Department until I finally finished my study for this bachelor degree. I also thank to my lovely sister, Elizabeth Dewi who has given a lot of support for me until I finish my study. I also would like to thank my little sister, Elizabeth Tiffany T, for the cheerful moment during my writing.

  Last but not least, I also would like to thank Luciana Shinta who always gives unbelievable support, motivation, and love of my life, so I could finish my study and

  TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………….. i

APPROVAL PAGE …………………………………………………… ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ……………………………………………….. iii LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PUBLIKASI ….………………………... iv MOTTO PAGE ………………………………………………………... v DEDICATION PAGE ………………………………………………… vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS …………………………………………….. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………... viii ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………… xi ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………... xii

  CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study ……………………………………………. 1 B. Problem Formulation ………………………………………………... 3 C. Objectives Study …………………………………………………….. 4 D. Definition of Terms …………………………………………………. 5 CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review on Related Study …………………………………………… 7 1. Review of the Suffixes Study ………………………………..

  7

  2. Review of the Meaning of the Suffix Study ………………... 8 B. Review Related Theory ……………………………………………...

  10 1. Theory of Lexical Categories ………………………………...

  10 2. Theory of Morpheme ………………………………………..

  12 3. Theory of Word-Formation ………………………………….

  14 4. Theory of Derivational Process ……………………………..

  15 5. Theory of Noun Categories ………………………………….

  15 6. Theory of Verb Categories …………………………………..

  16

  7. Theory of Word Meaning ……………………………………

  18

  8. Theory of Phonetic Features …………………………………

  19

  9. Theory of Borrowing Word …………………………………

  23

  CHAPTER III : METHODOLOGY A. Object of the Study ………………………………………………… 26 B. Method of the Study ……………………………………………….. 26 1. Data Collection ……………………………………………...

  a. Meaning of the Suffix {-age} Found in Literary Theory……………………………………. 47 b. Meaning Found in the Data…………………………...

  64 d. The variation on Meaning of the Suffix {-ment}…….

  61 c. The General Meaning of the Suffix {-ment}………….

  a. Meaning of the Suffix {-ment} Found in Literary Theory ………………………………………. 60 b. Meaning Found in the Data ………………………….

  59 2, The Meaning of the Suffix {-ment} ………………………….. 60

  e. The Analysis on Meaning of the Adverb Stem ………

  55

  d. The Analysis on Meaning of the Verb Stem …………

  c, The Analysis on Meaning of the Noun Stem ………… 50

  48

  1. The Meaning of the Suffix {-age} ……………………………. 47

  27 2. Data Analysis ………………………………………………..

  46

  43 B. The Analysis of the Meaning of the Suffix {-age} and {-ment} ……

  42 a. Verb Stem of the Suffix {-ment} …………………….

  42 2. The Stem Attached by the Suffix {-ment} …………………..

  c. Adverb Stem of the Suffix {-age} ……………………

  b. Verb Stem of the Suffix {-age} ……………………… 37

  34

  33 a. Noun Stem of the Suffix {-age} ……………………...

  A. Lexical Category of the Stem Attach to the Suffixes ………………. 33 1. The Stem Attached by the Suffix {-age}……………………..

  28 CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

  67 C. The Differences of the Suffix {-age} and {ment}……………………

  73

  1. The Differences based on Stem’s Characteristics……………

  73

  2. The Differences based on Function and Meaning……………

  77 CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION…………………………………….. 83

  BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………… 85 APPENDICES

  A. Data Collection of the Suffix {-age} ……………………………..

  87 B. Data Collection of the Suffix {-ment} …………………………….. 89

  ABSTRACT

  R. S. KRISTIAN GUNTUR PRASETYA (2012). A Morphological Study of the

  Nominalization Using the Suffix {-age} and {-ment}. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.

  .

  English, as a universal language, has complex linguistic systems Morphology is a kind of branch in English linguistic system that has important contribution in word-formation. Mainly, morphology is a study about the structure of words. There are many language processes in morphology, and the most common used is affixation.

  This study will focus on the suffixation by using the suffix {-age} and {-ment}. These two suffixes are commonly used as nominalizer tool for the word- formation. To limit the scope, this study has three main problems for this topic as followed: 1. What are the characteristics of stem words that can be attached by the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment}? 2. What are the meanings of the suffix {-age} and suffix {-ment}? 3. How the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} are different one from the other?

  The data of this study are morpheme and suffix. The data of this study was taken from Merriam-Webster’s Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary (year 2008) as the primary data source. All the complex words which are attached by the suffix {-age} or {-ment} from this dictionary are collected to be analyzed in order to answer the problems on this study.

  At the result, this study concludes that the suffix {-age} and {-ment} are derivational suffixes of nominalizer. The suffix {-age} can be attached to certain noun, verb and adverb stems, while the suffix {-ment} can only be attached to verb stems. The analysis result of the suffix {-age} can be seen that the general meaning of this suffix support the previous literary theories concerning with meaning. Besides, there are three new findings related to the meaning of the suffix {-age}. For the suffix {-ment}, the result of the analysis also supports the literary theories. There are also six new findings related to the meaning of the suffix {-ment}. At last, the comparison characteristics and function related to the meaning between the suffix {-age} and {-ment} are concluded in the last part of this study.

  ABSTRAK

  R. S. KRISTIAN GUNTUR PRASETYA (2012). A Morphological Study of the

  Nominalization Using the Suffix {-age} and {-ment}. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.

  Bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa internasional memiliki sistem tata bahasa yang kompleks. Morfologi adalah salah satu cabang ilmu dalam Bahasa Ingris yang memiliki peran penting dalam pembentukan sebuah kata. Secara umum, morfologi adalah kajian yang mempelajari struktur dalam sebuah kata. Dalam morfologi terdapat banyak proses ketatabahasaan dan yang paling sering digunakan adalah penggunaan imbuhan.

  Obyek utama dalam penelitian ini adalah akhiran {-age} dan akhiran {-ment}. Kedua akhiran tersebut biasanya digunakan untuk membentuk kata benda dalam proses pembetukan kata. Dalam penelitian ini ada tiga rumusan masalah yang digunakan untuk pembahasan supaya lebih fokus, yaitu: 1. Apa saja karakteristik dari kata dasar dari akhiran {-age} dan akhiran {-ment}? 2. Apa saja arti dari akhiran {-age} dan akhiran {-ment}? 3. Apa perbedaan dari akhiran {-age} dan akhiran {-ment}?

  Data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah morfem dan akhiran. Data dalam penelitian ini diambil dari kamus Merriam-Webster’s Advanced Learner’s

  English Dictionary terbitan tahun 2008 yang sekaligus merupakan sumber data

  primer. Semua kata yang berakhiran {-age} dan yang berakhiran {-ment} dari kamus tersebut dikumpulkan untuk dianalisis guna menjawab rumusan masalah adalah penelitian ini.

  Peneilitian ini mendapatkan kesimpulan bahwa akhiran {-age} dan akhiran {-ment} adalah adalah akhiran yang dapat merubah arti dari kata dasarnya dan juga merubah bentuk menjadi kata benda dari bentuk kata dasarnya. Akhiran {-age}dapat dipasang pada kata dasar yg berbentuk kata benda, kata kerja, dan kata keterangan. Sedangkan akhiran {-ment} hanya dapat dipasang pada kata dasar yang berbentuk kata kerja. Dalam hasil analisis juga dapat dilihat bahwa arti utama dari akhiran {-age} ini sesuai dengan arti dari teori terdahulu tentang akhiran tersebut. Di samping itu juga ditemukan tiga arti baru dari akhiran {-age} dalam penelitian ini.

  Untuk akhiran {-ment}, hasil analisa juga sesuai dengan arti utama dari teori terdahulu. Selain itu juga ditemukan enam arti baru dari akhiran {-ment} dalam penelitian ini. Pada bagian paling akhir, dapat pula dilihat perbandingan antara akhiran {-age} dan akhiran {-ment} yang berkaitan dengan karakteristik dan fungsi yang berkaitan dengan arti dari kedua akhiran tersebut.

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study English, as a universal language, has complex linguistic systems. Phonetic,

  phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and stylistics are the examples of the English linguistic systems. Just like in most languages, each of the linguistic systems has their own role toward the use of language itself.

  Morphology is a kind of branch in English linguistic system that has important contribution in word-formation. Mainly, morphology is a study about the structure of words. In a linguistic system, lexical category is one of the most fundamental units in the linguistic system (Akmajian, 2001: 11). Just like in the other linguistic systems, morphology also has many word formation processes, especially in the structure of word. For example, there is a compounding, reduplication, incorporation, clipping, blending, acronymization, affixation, and there are still many other morphological processes in morphology.

  Affixation is a morphological process which combines two kinds of morpheme (free morpheme and bound morpheme) in order to produce the new word.

  Bodgan Szymanek writes:

  Mainly, there are three kinds of affixes in English. These are prefixes, suffixes, and infixes. This study focuses on the study of suffix. More specific, this study only discusses about the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment}. As we know, the suffix is a bound morpheme which is attached in front of stem in order to produce new word. The process of suffixation can be seen in the use of language in our daily life whether written or spoken language. In word achievement for example, we have a suffixation process stem {achieve} + bound morpheme {-ment} = achievement. Suffix {-ment} here has the function as an abstract noun former. The other example is the word coverage. In the word coverage, we can also see about the suffixation process of the stem {cover} + bound morpheme {-age} = coverage. The suffix {-age} here has the function as an abstract noun former. The suffix {-age} here change the part of speech verb from the stem word into the noun in the new form.

  The choice of the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} as a main discussion in this study because these suffixes play important role in the language especially to produce the variation of the word. By adding the word with the suffix {-age} or suffix {-ment}, the word will have more variations in the form of part of speech such as: verb, noun, adjective, and adverb. Parts of speech of the language, especially in English, are very important because each has their own characteristic in how to apply in the linguistic rules. As the result, when the word has certain part of speech, the in term of part of the speech can also impact the use of word itself in the other linguistic system just like in syntax.

  The other reason why a suffix needs to be observed more because there is still some misunderstanding in use or attachment of the suffix, especially for the suffix {-

  

age } and {-ment}. People may think why there is a word coverage (cover + age), but

  we cannot have word *walkage (walk + age)? Why there is word establishment (establish + ment), but we cannot have word *walkment (walk + ment)? This question can be a problem especially for a linguistic study in order to get true understanding in application of the suffix {-age} and suffix {-ment}.

  In other words, this study would try to analyze deeper about the use of the suffix {-age} and suffix {-ment} in English language. The analysis here has the purpose to dig more information about the characteristics, the morphological process, and the functions of the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} in the terms of linguistic study.

B. Problem Formulation

  For the sake of a deeper analysis of this study, there are three main problems which are formulated in the questions below:

  1. What are the characteristics of stem words that can be attached by the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment}?

  2. What are the meanings of the suffix {-age} and suffix {-ment}?

  3. How the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} are different one from the other?

C. Objectives of the Study

  Based on the problem formulation in this study, there are also three objectives that need to be achieved in this study. The first objective is to analyze the characteristics of the words that can be attached by the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-

  

ment }. It is important to distinguish why this word can be a stem for the suffix {-age}

  and the suffix {-ment}, while the other words cannot. For example, the word cover can be attached by the suffix {-age} to be coverage, while word walk cannot be attached by the suffix {-age} (cannot be *walkage)

  The second objective of this study is to find out the function of the suffix {-

  

age } and the suffix {-ment} when they are attached in the certain word. It is very

  useful to apply the new word (after being attached by the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment}) in the composition of the sentence.

  The third or last objective of this study is to compare and examine how the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} are different one from the other. From this objective we can see that even though both of them are the nominalizer suffix, they still have their own differences.

D. Definition of Terms

  This study also has a definition of terms in order to avoid the different perception about the concepts and terminologies which is used in this study. The definition of terms in this study are:

  1. Definition of Morpheme A morpheme is a smallest unit of language that carries an information and meaning. The word “smallest” here means that morpheme cannot be separated further. (O’ Graddy, 2010: 117).

  2. Definition of Stem A stem is the most important elements of the word when we need to analyze how that word is formed by combining another morpheme (usually bound morpheme). In the book entitled “English Word-formation”, Laurie Bauer defined “A stem is the part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed” (Bauer, 1984: 112).

  3. Definition of Lexical Categories or Part of Speech In every language, almost all of lexical items or words are divided into the small classes. Lexical categories or part of speech is the word classes which has particular characteristics in the term of grammatical usage (Radford, 1999: 147)

  4. Definition of Morphophonemic Process A morphophonemic process is “the describable morphological and phonological changes of the stem and root under certain condition” (O’Grady et al.,

  2005:116). From this statement, we can say that morphophonemic process shows us the process of phonological changing in the stem when it is attached by any affixes.

  5. Definition of Derivational Suffix A derivational suffix is a bound morpheme that can create a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from the base of word (stem). (O’Graddy, 2010:

  122)

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review on Related Study This part contains some explanation, discussion, and analysis from the

  previous study which have relevancy and similar topic. The review on the related study provides several studies that have been conducted by the students or the expert.

1. Review of The Suffixes Study

  Suffix is a bound morpheme that can create a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from the base of word (stem). (O’Graddy, 2010: 122). Suffix is one type of affixes. In the study entitled “Are Affixes Signs? The semantic relationships of

  

English derivational affixes”, Adrienne Lehrer states that affixes just like an ordinary

  lexemes but they are bound (Lehrer, 2000: 143). We can know that affix is a bound or cannot stand independently. It means that as a kind of affixes, suffix also will have dependence toward the free morpheme in order to create meaningful complex word.

  Edward Sapir, in his study about the study of speech argues that suffixes do more of the formative work toward the language aspects rather than other of combination method (Sapir, 1921: 67). Here, we can see that suffix is more productive rather than other method of word-formation in the term of morphological process.

  Generally, there are two major types of suffixation processes. The two major types here are inflectional suffix and derivational suffix. This study mainly discuss about the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment}. The suffix {-age} and the suffix {-

  

ment } are the kinds of derivational suffixes. Derivational suffixes productively create

a derived lexical category of the new word after be attached by the suffix itself.

  The difference of this study with those two studies above (Lehrer and Sapir) is laid on the particularity of the suffix itself. This study will only discuss on the nominalization by using the certain suffixes. More specific, this study will focus on the nominalization using the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} as the tools of the word formation,

2. Review of The Meaning of the Suffix Studies

  Suffix, as a bound morpheme, always has its own certain meaning when it is attached to the stem word. The meaning of the suffix (either inflectional or derivational) would be different one from the other. The differences here are caused by some particular characteristics in each suffix itself.

  In the study about suffix {-age}, Rochelle Lieber states that suffix {-age} is a kind of affixes which makes a specific semantic contribution to the stem. The suffix {-age} has several sense of the word created such as collectiveness, behavior characteristic, and place noun (Lieber, 2004: 148). The examples of these senses which are produced by attaching the suffix {-age} are:

  Collectiveness baggage, wreckage, plumage, poundage, spillage Behavior characteristic brigandage Place noun orphanage, parsonage, hermitage, anchorage In simple words, the suffix {-age} derives nouns that express an activity (or its result), and nouns denoting a collective entity or quantity. The meaning can be extended to include locations, as in orphanage (Plag, 2003: 87)

  The suffix {-ment} is also a derivational suffix. Ingo Plag in his book entitled “Cambridge Textbook in Linguistics: Word-Formation in English” stated that suffix {-ment} derives action nouns denoting processes or results from (mainly) verbs, with a strong preference for monosyllables or disyllabic base words with stress on the last syllable (Plag, 2003: 92)

  Therefore, this study will also discuss deeper about the using of the suffix {-age} and the suffix {-ment} in terms of meaning development. It means that this attached to the certain stem. In order to support the analysis, this study employs a certain dictionary which is used as the primary data source for analysis process. This study chooses Merriam-Webster’s Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary as the object of the study.

B. Review on Related Theory

  This part contains several theories which are useful to analyze the main problems in this study. The review on this related theories are only the theories which are relevant to the topic of this study.

1. Theory of Lexical Categories

  A word is the most fundamental element of language. Akmajian in his book entitled “Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication” states that: “Words play an integral role in the human ability to use language creatively. Far from being a static repository of memorized information, a human vocabulary is a dynamic system. We can add word at will” ( 2001: 11)

  From the quotes above, we can see that word has important contribution of the use in language. The development of word can be formed by adding another component towards the word itself.

  A word in its role as an important part of language development has several explained that the lexical categories here are categorized based on their own function in the use of language itself. In English there are five kinds of word classes, these are:

  noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition .

  The first word class is a noun. A noun often refers to types of concentrates object in the world (e.g. book, tree, stone, river, etc). Noun also will often be found preceded by definite article (the) and indefinite article (a/an). This is kind of the distinctive feature between the lexical categories noun and other lexical categories verb. When we have lexical categories verb, we cannot add article in front (*the

  

applauds/ *the applauded ). Each of lexical categories, especially in English, has their

own function in the sentence development (Radford, 1999: 147-149).

  The second word class category is a verb. A verb usually refers to activities (e.g. run, walk, study, build, snore, etc). Verb as a word class also has a large number of forms (Radford, 1999: 147). The variation forms of verb here depend on the action that held in the sentence itself. For example, the verb see will have variation form

saw, seen. The variation here is caused by the differences of the tense that is used.

  The other example is the word walk and walks. The variation forms on the word walk here depend on the subject on the sentence itself.

  The third word class category is an adjective. An adjective typically refers to properties which people or things possess. An adjective is used to modify the noun, e.

  

nice are the examples of adjective which have the function as the modifier properties

of the noun. Like noun and verbs, adjective as a word class also has variation form.

  The variation of adjective occurs when adjective is used to show degree of comparative and superlative (Radford, 1999: 148). For example, the word fast will have variation faster (degree of comparative) and fastest (degree of superlative).

  The next category is an adverb. Just like an adjective, an adverb also typically modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. An adverb is usually used to indicate how, when, or why something happened (Radford, 1999: 148). In sentence He make

  

very big house , the word very modifies the word house as an adjective and explains

  how the size of the house. While in sentence Johnny will play football tomorrow, the word tomorrow is used as an adverb to indicate when the action happens. An adverb can also be formed by adding suffix {-ly} on the adjective. The examples of adverbs that are formed by adding the suffix {-ly} are happily, loudly, quickly, etc (Radford, 1999: 149).

  The last word class category is a preposition. A preposition typically serves to relate objects, people, or events in space or time, though often the relationship is more abstract. The examples of preposition are under, above, on, in, about, at, and so on.

2. Theory of Morpheme

  A morpheme is the basic term of word. O’Graddy states that a morpheme is a

  “smallest” here means that morpheme cannot be separated further. (O’ Graddy, 2010: 117).

  In English, there are two kinds of morpheme, these are: free morpheme and

  

bound morpheme . Free morpheme is defined as a morpheme that can stand alone and

  has certain lexical meaning. For example in words: tree, door, book, and glass. While

  

bound morpheme is defined as a morpheme which cannot occur in an isolation

  (cannot stand independently) and must be attached to certain free morpheme in order to create lexical meaning (1989: 14). The examples of bound morpheme are affixes

  

(prefixes, suffixes, and infixes). When we have word trees, the word trees consist of

  free morpheme (tree) + bound morpheme (-s). The function of bound morpheme -s in the word trees is a plural former of noun tree. The detail about morpheme can be seen in the diagram of morpheme’s classification below:

  MORPHEME FREE BOUND

  INDEPENDENT AFFIXES BOUND CONTRACTED BASES BASES FORMS PREFIXES SUFFIXES

3. Theory of Word-Formation

  A word formation is a morphological process of creating a new word. There are several kinds of word formation in terms of morphology. Some linguists also call this term as word-manufacturing. Bodgan Szymanek explains about several kinds of word formation. Compounding, affixation, reduplication, clipping, blending, and acronymization are kinds of word formation.

  A compound is combining two or more free morphemes such as blackboard from black + board. The new word usually has different meaning from its component; blackboard has different meaning from black and board. Affixation is the process of combination between bound morpheme (inflectional and derivational) and free morpheme (root or stem). The process of affixation is divided into three main kinds, these are: prefixation, suffixation, and infixation. Reduplication is kind of morphological process in which it involves reiteration of the whole base elements or just a part of it. This process is also called as repetition. Clipping is a morphological process whereby the polysyllabic is shortened. The example, when we have words

  

photograph, telephone, influenza . After we have clipping process, we can write these

  words into photo, phone, and flu. Blending is process of word-coinage whereby phonetic fragments of two (or more) basic words are put together to create a single lexeme (a word). The example of blending is in the word slanguage. The blending here consists of the word slang and the word language. And the last kind is acronymization. An acronymization is a morphological process of creating a new word from the initial or part of several words such as NASA and radar.

  4. Theory of Derivational Process

  Derivation process in English can be defined as creating the major lexical categories (noun, verb, adjective) from any other (Spencer: 41). Suffix, as a kind of affixes, also has two major types. The types of suffixes are inflectional and derivational. Inflectional suffix is a bound morpheme which is attached to the free morpheme and does not change the lexical category and meaning of thee stem. The derivational may change the lexical category and meaning of the stem.

  Suffix {-age} and suffix {-ment} are the example of derivational suffix. Derivational suffix is a bound morpheme that can create a word with a meaning and/ or category distinct from the base of word or stem (O’Graddy, 2010: 122). Besides that, derivational suffix also may change the lexical category of the stem and the new word after attached by the derivational suffix. When we have word establishment, there is a change of the lexical category. The stem of the word establishment is

  

establish which is as verb. After the word establish is attached with suffix {-ment},

the new word created would be establishment (noun).

  5. Theory of Noun Categories

  Generally, noun is categorized into two main distinctions. These two broadly tangible, while abstract noun is a noun which broadly immaterial (Quirk et al., 1980: 60).

  There are other two noun categories; these are countable noun and uncountable noun. The main difference between countable and uncountable noun can be seen in term of using quantifier. There are several quantifiers in English word such as little, some, many, each, and so on. In a book entitled Understanding and Using

  

English Grammar , Azar explains deeply about uncountable and countable nouns. For

  example, quantifiers a little and much can only be used for uncountable noun while

  

many, each, and several can only be used for countable noun. Azar also gives more

  examples about common nouns which are usually used for uncountable noun such as solids (stone, wood, brick), fluids (oil, water, syrup), gases (oxygen, helium,

  

nitrogen ), languages (French, English, Dutch), general activities (studying, lecture,

discussion ),

6. Theory of Verb Categories

  Traditionally, verb is also categorized into two distinctions. The first category is a verb that does not need any object in their usage as a sentence component. A verb that does not need any object is usually called as intransitive or intensive verb. The second category is a verb that needs any object in their usage as a sentence’s component. The kind of verb which needs any object is called as transitive or

  

crying here is an example of intransitive/intensive verb because the verb does not

  need any object. While in the sentence They have many idea on that problem, the word have here is a transitive/extensive verb because need an object following the verb itself.

  Quirk et al also state that there are two other categories on verb. The first category is finite while the second one is non-finite. Randolph Quirk writes: “A finite verb is a verb that shows the tense, mood, aspect, and voice, while nonfinite verb is a verb which does not show the tense, mood, aspect, and voice” (Quirk et al., 1980: 17) Based on statement above, we can see that the significant differences between a finite verb and non-finite verb lay on the tenses, mood, aspect, and voice. Tenses here means the verb is influenced by the action on the sentence itself, so the sentence should pay the attention based on the right tenses (i.e.: verb-ing, verb-ed, verb-s, or perfect verb). Finite verb is also influenced by the mood or related the condition on the sentence itself such as necessity or possibility. In this term, the use of modal (will, shall, may, can, etc) also belong to finite verb.

  In the contrary, non-finite verb is not influenced by the tenses, mood, aspect, and voice. In simple words, the usage of non-finite verbs does not pay the attention on the time of action on the sentence itself. In the sentence I looked him crying, the word crying here is an example of non-finite verb because it does not show about the

7. Theory of Word Meaning

  A word, as a basic unit of the language, plays important role toward the development of any linguistic field. Rochelle Lieber defined a word as a sequence of one or more morphemes that can stand alone in a language (Lieber, 2009: 12). Meaning to say, a word is a fundamental element in the term of the use of language.

  In the book entitled An Introduction to English Morphology Words and Their

  Structure , Carstairs states that:

  ”a word is not just a building-block of sentences: it is a building-block with a meaning that is unpredictable or at least sufficiently unpredictable that learners of English, and even sometimes native speakers, may need to consult a dictionary in order to discover it.” (Carstairs: 2002: 5)

  From the statement above, we can see that the word always has its own meaning when it is used in certain sentence or any linguistic term.

  Consulting the dictionary can be a way to find out the meaning of the certain words but we just can find the meaning of a word as a single unit. Actually, there are three main types of the word’s meaning. The three types of the word’s meaning are:

  

lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, and also pragmatic meaning. Lexical

  meaning is the meaning of words which are found in the dictionary. Grammatical meaning is the meaning related to syntactic arrangement and grammar. Pragmatic meanings are the meanings that are associated with the use of language varieties in

8. Theory of Phonetic Features

  Victoria Fromkin et. al. defines a phoneme as the smallest unit of language that distinct the meaning of words. A phoneme may create the different words and also will produce the different meaning. For example in words bill and pill, they have different meaning because they consist of different phonemes. The word bill consists of phonemes /b/, /I/, /l/. While in the word pill consists of phonemes /p/, /I/, /l/. From the example above we can see that phoneme /b/ and /p/ are the distinctive sounds or phonemes that distinct between the word bill and pill.

  Traditionally, the sound in languages is divided into two general classes. The first class is a consonant while the second category is a vowel.

  Consonant is still divided into two sub-classes based on places of articulation and manner of articulation. Places of articulation is a category of consonant based on where the vocal tract the airflow restrictions occurs. The features that include based on the places of articulation are bilabial, labiodental, interdental, alveolar, palatal,

  

velar, and glottal. Bilabial is a feature when we articulate by bringing both lips

  together (e. g: /p/, /b/, /m/). Labiodental is a feature when we articulate the sound by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth (e. g: /f/, /v/). Interdental is a feature when we articulate the sound by inserting the tongue between the upper and lower teeth (e.

  g: /ɵ/, /ð/). Alveolar is a feature when we articulate the sound by raising the front part feature when we articulate the sound by raising the front part of the tongue to the point on the hard palate behind the alveolar ridge (e. g: /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/). Velar is a feature when we articulate the sound by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum (e. g: /k/, /ɡ/, /

  ŋ/). Glottal is a feature when we articulate the sound with the airstream passes through the open glottis (e. g: /h/). These are the consonant features which are included in the places of articulation. While for manner of articulation, there are nine features of consonant: voiced and voiceless, nasals and

  

orals, stops, fricatives, affricates, laterals, and glides. A voiced is a feature when we

  articulate a sound the vocal cords are together and let the air force its way through so it causes to vibrate (e. g: /b/, /d/, /g/, /z/). While a voiceless is a feature when we articulate a sound the vocal cords are apart and the airstream is pushed from lung so it passes freely (e. g: /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/). Nasal sound is a feature when we articulate a sound the air escapes from mouth and nose because the velum is down (e. g: /m/, /n/, /

  ŋ/). An oral sound is a feature when we articulate a sound the air escapes only from mouth because the velum is up (e. g: /p/, /t/). A stop sound is a feature when we articulate a sound, the sound is stopped completely in the oral cavity for a brief period (e. g: /p/, /m/, /t/, /d/, /n/, /k/, /ɡ/, /

  ŋ/). A fricative is when the passage in the mouth through which the air must pass is very narrow so it causes a friction or turbulence (e.

  g: /s/, /z/, /f/, /v/, /ɵ/, /ð/,/ʃ/, /ʒ/). While an affricative is a feature when the sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a slow release of the closure articulate a sound the front part of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, but the sides of the tongue are down, permitting the air to escape laterally over the sides of the tongue (e. g: /l/). A glide is sometimes called a semivowel because the blade of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate in a position almost identical to that in pronouncing the vowel sounds. The examples of glide are /j/, /w/, /r/, and /h/ (Fromkin et al., 2003: 244 – 250).

  For the clearer categorization of the English consonant features, Fromkin et. al. also provide the table of phonetic features below:

  Bilabial Labio- Inter- Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental dental Stop

• voiced b d g
• voiceless p t k Nasal (stop) m n

  ŋ Fricative

• voiced v ð s

  ʒ

• voiceless f z h

  ɵ ʃ

  Affricative

• voiced

  dʒ

• voiceless

  tʃ Glide

• voiced w j w
• voiceless

  h Liquid l / r

  Table 1. Phonetic Features for Consonants (Fromkin et al., 2003: 251, Table 6. 4) The second general class of sound is a vowel. Vowel also has six features which are based on the position of the tongue. The six features of the vowel are high,

  

mid, low, front, central, back, rounded, and tense vowels. A high vowel is produced