EMOTION REGULATION PAST PRESENT FUTURE
C O G N IT I O N A N D E M O T I O N , 1999, 13 (5), 551±573
Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
Ja m es J. G ross
Stanford University, California, USA
M o d er n em o t io n th eo r ies em p h a sise t h e a d ap t ive va lu e o f em o t io n s. E m o tio n s a r e by n o m ean s always h elp fu l, h owever. T h ey o ften m u st b e r egu lat ed .
T h e stu d y o f em o t io n regu la tio n h a s its o r igin s in t h e psych oa n a lytic a n d
str ess a n d co p in g tr a d itio n s. R ecen t ly, in crea sed in t erest in em o t io n regu la tio n h a s led t o cru cia l b o u n d a r y a m b igu ities t h at n ow t h reat en p rogress in
th is d o m a in . I t is a rgu ed t h at d ist in ct io n s n eed t o b e m ad e b et ween
(1) r egu lat io n of em o t io n a n d regu la tio n by em o t io n ; (2) em o t io n r egu lat io n
in self a n d em o t io n regu la tio n in o th er s; a n d (3) co n scio u s a n d n o n co nscio u s
em o t io n regu la t io n . U sin g a p ro cess m o d el o f em o t io n gen er at io n , th is review
co n sid er s p ro m isin g r esea r ch o n b a sic p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in
em o t io n r egu lat io n a n d p o ses ®ve t heo r etica l ch a llen ges.
INTRODUCTION
C o n t em p o r a ry co n cep t io n s o f em o t io n em p h a sise em o t io n s’ p o sitive ro le in
a d a p t a t io n (e.g. L a za ru s, 1991 ; To o b y & C o sm id es, 19 90). E m o t io n s a re
sa id t o t a ilo r cogn itive style t o sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s (C lo re, 1994), t o fa cilit a te d ecisio n -m a k in g (O a t ley & Jo h n so n -L a ird , 1987), t o p rep a re t h e
in d ivid u a l fo r ra p id m o t o r resp o n ses (F r ijd a , 19 86), a n d t o p ro m o t e lea r n in g (C a h ill, P rin s, Web er, & M cG a u gh , 1994). I n a d d itio n t o t h ese in t r a o rga n ism ic fu nct io n s, em o t io n s a lso a re t h o u gh t t o h ave im p o r t a n t so cia l
fu n ct io n s. F o r exa m p le, em o t io n s a re h eld t o p ro vid e in fo r m a t io n ab o u t
b eh avio u ra l in t en t io n s (E k m a n , F riesen , & E llswo rt h , 1972; F r id lu n d ,
1994), t o give clu es a s t o wh et h er so m et h in g is go o d o r b a d (Wa ld en ,
1991), a n d t o ¯exib ly scr ip t co m p lex so cia l b eh avio u r (Averill, 1980).
A t t en t io n t o t h e fu n ct io n s em o t io n s ser ve h a s p rovid ed a fo rcefu l a n d
m u ch -n eed ed co u n t erp o in t t o t h e lo n g-st a n d in g view o f em o t io n s a s
R eq uest s fo r rep r in ts sh ou ld b e sen t to D r. Ja m es J. G ro ss, D ep ar tm ent o f P sych o logy,
St an fo r d U n iver sity, St an fo r d, C A 94305-2130; E -m a il: ja m es@ p sych .st an fo r d.ed u .
P r ep ar atio n o f t his a r t icle wa s su pp o rt ed by G r a n t M H 53859 fro m th e N atio na l I n st itu te o f
M ent al H ealth . T h e a ut ho r wo u ld like t o th a nk Br a m F r idh a n d ler, Ju d y M o skowitz, Jer r y
P a r ro t t, two an o nym ou s r eviewer s, a n d m em bers o f th e St a n fo r d P sych op hysio logy L ab o r a to r y fo r help fu l co m m en ts o n an ea r lier d r a ft of this a r ticle.
q 1999 P sych olo gy P ress L td
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d ysfu n ct io n a l a n d d isru p t ive (Yo u n g, 1943). I n d eed , t h e t ren d t owa rd
fu n ct io n a l a p p ro a ch es h a s ga t h ered su ch m o m en t u m t h a t it n ow m u st b e
a sked : A re em o t io n s ever t o b e regu la t ed ?
In t h e p a st t wo d eca d es, a n ew resea rch d o m a in h a s em erged t h a t is
co n cern ed with ju st t h is q u est io n . T h e co re co n st ru ct in t h is d o m a in Ð
em o t io n regu la tio n Ð ®r st ca m e in t o u se in t h e d evelo p m en t a l lit era tu re
in t h e ea r ly 1980s (C a m p o s, B a rret t , L a m b, G o ld sm ith , & St en b erg,
19 83; G a en sb a u er, 1982 ). Sin ce t h is t im e, em o t io n regu la t o ry p ro cesses
h ave en joyed in crea sin g a t t en t io n in b o t h d evelo p m en t a l (C a m p o s,
C a m p o s, & Ba r ret t , 1989 ) a n d a d u lt (G ro ss, 1998b ) lit er a tu res, a s
resea rch ers fro m a va riet y o f t r a d itio n s h ave exa m in ed h ow in d ivid u a ls
in ¯u en ce wh ich em o t io n s t h ey h ave, wh en t h ey h ave t h em , a n d h o w t h ey
exp er ien ce a n d exp ress t h ese em o t io n s. In t h is a rt icle, I ®rst d escrib e t wo
m a jo r p recu rso rs t o t h e stu dy o f em o t io n regu la tio n : T h e p sych o a n a lyt ic
t r a d it io n a n d t h e st ress a n d co p in g t ra d it io n . I t h en u se a p ro cess m o d el
o f em o t io n gen era t io n t o p rov id e a fra m ewo rk fo r stu d yin g em o t io n
regu la t io n , a n d co n sid er severa l b o u n d a ry issu es. To illu st ra te co n t em p o r a ry resea rch in t h is a rea , I review p ro m isin g wo rk o n b a sic p ro cesses
a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in a d u lt em o t io n regu lat io n . I co n clu d e b y
co n sid erin g sever a l t h eo ret ica l ch a llen ges a nd d irectio n s fo r fu t u re
resea rch .
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS
R esea rch sp eci®ca lly co n cern ed with em o t io n regu lat io n is a rela t ively
recen t in n ova t io n , b u t a n in t erest in h ow em o t ion s ca n a n d sh o u ld b e
regu la t ed is a nyt h in g bu t n ew (Averill, 1982). P h ilo so p h ers fro m So cra tes
o n h ave gra p p led w it h t he ro le em o t io n sh o u ld p lay in ever yd ay a ffa irs, a n d
t o t h is d ay o n e o f t h e co re t h em es in West er n p h ilo so p hy is t h e co n t est
b etween rea so n a n d t h e p a ssio n s (So lo m o n , 1976). In t h e p a st cen t u ry, t h is
lo n g-st a n d in g in t erest in em o t io n regu la t io n h a s b een p layed o u t in t wo
p rin cip a l a ren a s. To get h er, t h ese h ave set t h e sta ge fo r co n t em p o r a ry
resea rch o n em o t io n regu lat io n .
The Psychoanalytic Tradition
O n e im p o rt a n t p recu r so r t o t h e co n t em p o ra r y st u d y o f em o t io n regu la t io n
is t h e p sych o a n a lyt ic t ra d itio n . T h is t ra d itio n em p h a sises t h e co n ¯ict
b etween b io lo gica lly b a sed im p u lses a n d in t ern a l a n d ext er n a l rest ra in in g
fa cto rs. H owever, t h e a sso cia t io n b et ween p sych o a n a lyt ic ap p ro a ch es a n d
em o t io n regu la t io n is m o re in t im a t e t h a n a sh a red co n cern w it h im p u lse
regu la t io n . I n d eed , b y t h e en d o f F reu d ’s ca reer, p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo risin g
relied h eavily o n t h e n o t io n o f a n xiet y regu la t io n (F reu d , 1926/1959).
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F reu d u sed a n xiet y a s a ca t ch -a ll t er m fo r n ega t ive em o t io n s (E rd elyi,
1993), a n d a d iscu ssio n o f h is views o n a n xiet y regu lat io n id ea lly wo u ld
b e co u ch ed in a gen era l p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo ry o f a ffect. U n fo rt u n a t ely, a s
o n e co m m en t at o r p u t it , a ny at t em p t a t fo r m u la tin g su ch a co m p reh en sive
p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y is ``ill-a dvised , if n o t im p o ssib le’’ d u e t o t h e co m p lex
a n d co n ¯ict in g d iscu ssio n s o f a ffect in F reu d ’s wr it in gs (R a p a p o rt , 1953, p.
193). O f co u r se, t h is h a s n o t p reven t ed a nu m b er o f at t em p t s a t d evisin g
su ch a p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y o f a ffect (e.g. Ba sch , 1976 ; Bren n er, 1982;
K ryst a l, 19 77; Sch wa r t z, 19 87; Sp ezza n o, 1993). G iven t h e cu r ren t la ck o f
a gr eem en t , I fo cu s o n a n xiet y.
In itia lly, F reu d b elieved t h a t a n xiet y resu lt ed wh en lib id in a l im p u lses
were d en ied exp ressio n (F reu d , 1900/1950; 1915/1976). H e saw a n xiet y a s
ep ip h en o m en a l, like st ea m escap in g fro m a st u ck t u rb in e. W ith t h e d evelo p m en t o f t h e st r u ct u r a l m o d el o f p erso n a lit y, F reu d d evelo p ed a very
d ifferen t co n cep t io n o f a n xiet y (F reu d , 19 26/19 59). F reu d (1933/1964)
a rgu ed t h at t h e ego a lo n e ca n p ro d u ce a n d exp erien ce a n xiet y, a n d t h at
rea list ic, n eu ro t ic, a n d m o r a l a n xiet y d erived fro m t h e ego ’s relat io n s with
rea lit y, t h e id , a n d t h e su p erego , resp ect ively. R ea lit y-b a sed a n xiet y wa s
t h o u gh t t o resu lt wh en t h e ego wa s over wh elm ed b y sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s.
In t h is ca se, a n xiet y regu la t io n t o o k t h e fo r m o f avo id in g su ch sit u a tio n s in
t h e fu t u re, even if t h is m ea n t severe cu rt a ilm en t o f b eh avio u r, a s in
a go ra p h o b ia . By co n t r a st , F reu d h eld t h a t id - a n d su p erego -b a sed a n xiet y
resu lted wh en im p u lses p ressed fo r a ctio n a n d t h e ego a n t icip at ed h o w it
wo u ld feel if su ch im p u lses were exp ressed . If t h e ego ’s im a gin a l ru n t h ro u gh led t o h igh levels o f a n xiet y, su f®cien t u n p lea su re wa s gen er at ed
t o su p p ress t h e im p u lse (F reu d , 1926 /1959). I n t h is ca se, a n xiet y regu la t io n
t o o k t h e fo r m o f cu rt a ilin g im p u lses t h at were ju d ged likely t o crea t e fu t u re
a n xiet y.
A s t h is su m m a r y su ggest s, a n xiet y regula t io n p lays a cen t ra l ro le in
p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r isin g. T h is is p a r t icu la r ly t r u e in t h e st ru ctu ra l
m o d el, wh ere ego d efen ces m ay b e seen a s p ro cesses t h a t regu la t e a n xiet y
(F reu d , 1926/19 59). T h ese p ro cesses t yp ica lly a re n o t co n scio u sÐ b u t t h ey
m ay b eÐ a n d t h ey invo lve d ifferin g levels o f rea lit y d ist o r t io n , b eh avio u ra l
im p a ir m en t , en ergy co n su m p t io n , a n d u n n ecessa r y n o n gra t i®ca t io n o f
im p u lses (F en ich el, 1945; A . F reu d , 1946; H a a n , 1977, Va illa n t , 1977).
M a la d a p t ive d efen ces a re t h o u gh t t o d evelo p a s ch ild ren a sso ciat e sit u at io n s o r im p u lses with h igh levels o f a n xiet y, a n d lea rn t o regu la te t h is
a n xiet y t h ro u gh id io syn cra t ic a n d p ro b lem at ic fo r m s o f a n xiet y regu la t io n
(Sch wa r t z, 1987). F o r exa m p le, in t h e fa ce o f wild ly in co n sist en t p a ren t in g,
ch ild ren lea r n t o sh ield t h em selves fro m in t o ler ab le a n xiet y a n d p ro t ect
t h eir vit a l lin k s wit h ca regiver s (H o fer, 1994). In so d o in g, t h ey m ay
d evelo p avo id a n t st ra t egies t h a t h ave lifelo n g ra m i®cat io n s fo r so cia l
a d ju st m en t . Tr ea tm en t co n sist s o f lea rn in g n ew ways t o regu lat e a n xiet y,
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in p a rt t h ro u gh a ``co rrect ive em o t io n a l exp erien ce’’ (A lexa n d er, 1950 ) in
wh ich d rea d ed co n seq u en ces o f im p u lse exp ressio n fa il t o m at eria lise
(B a sch , 1976).
Continuities and Discontinuities. C o n t em p o ra r y em o t io n regu la t io n
resea rch rem a in s co n cer n ed with red u cin g n egat ive em o t io n exp er ien ce
t h ro u gh b eh avio u r a l o r m en t a l co n t ro l. T h e ®eld o f st u d y h a s b ro a d en ed ,
h owever, t o in clu d e t h e wa ys in wh ich in d ivid u a ls in crea se a n d d ecrea se
t h e exp erien ce a n d exp ressio n o f a r a n ge o f n ega t ive a n d p o sit ive em o t io n s (P a rro t t , 1993). T h ere a lso is a grow in g awa ren ess o f t h e d ifferen ces
b etween co n scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n regu la t o r y p ro cesses
(M ayer & Sa lovey, 1995 ). E m o t io n regu lat o ry styles still a re seen a s
cen t r a l t o p sych o p a t h o lo gy (C icch et t i, A cker m a n , & Iza rd , 1995 ; G ro ss
& M u n o z, 19 95), b u t t h ere n ow is grea t er in t erest in d irectly a ssessin g t h e
fu ll r a n ge o f n o r m a l fu n ct ion in g a s well (e.g. C a t a n za ro, 19 96). P erh a p s
t h e m o st str ik ing d isco n t inu ity, h o wever, is co n t em p o r a r y resea rch ers’
relia n ce o n co rrelat io n a l a n d exp er im en t a l m et h o d s r at h er t h a n clin ica l
rep o r t s.
The Stress and Coping Tradition
T h e seco n d im p o rt a n t p recu rso r t o co n t em p o r a r y em o t io n regu la t io n
resea rch is t h e stress a n d co p in g t ra d itio n . T h is t ra d itio n o r igin a t ed in
t h e wo rk o f C a n n o n (1914), a lth o u gh it wa s Selye wh o p o p u la rised t h e
n o t io n t h a t o rga n ism s p ro du ce sim ila r ``st ress’’ resp o n ses t o d iver se ch a llen ges (Selye, 19 56, 1974). T h is view d raws u p o n a n a n a lo gy t o p hysica l
lo a d s t h at exer t a fo rce o n n a tu ra l o r m a n -m a d e st ru ct u res, resu ltin g in a
st ra in , o r d efo r m a t io n o f t h e st ru ct u re d u e t o t h e st ress (H in k le, 1974).
I m p o r t in g t h ese n o t io n s t o t h e b io logica l rea lm , Selye a rgu ed t h a t st resso rs
im p in ge u p o n t h e o rga n ism , wh ich resp o n d s by p ro d u cin g a st ereo t yp ed
st ress resp o n se, wh o se p ro ®le va ries a cco rd in g t o wh eth er t h e st resso r is o f
sh o rt d u r a tio n (a la r m ), m o d era t e d u ra t io n (resist a n ce), o r lo n g d u ra t io n
(exh a u st io n ).
In t erest in st ress resea rch gr ew d u rin g Wo r ld Wa r II , a s resea rch ers
exp lo red t h e co n seq u en ces o f wa r o n ®gh t in g m en (e.g. G r in ker &
Sp iegel, 1945), a n d co n t inu ed t o ga in m o m en t u m a ft er t h e wa r a s a t t en t io n sh ift ed t o t h e st resses o f p ea cetim e. A lth o u gh ea r ly stress resea rch
fo cu sed o n resp o n ses t o physical ch a llen ges su ch a s crowd in g a n d co ld ,
resea rch ers so o n b ega n t o exp lo re resp o n ses t o psychological stresso r s a s
well. T h e stu dy o f p sych o logica l st ress led t o a n em p h a sis o n t h e cogn itive
p ro cesses req u ired t o t r a n sfo r m a n ext ern a l even t in t o so m et h in g with
a d a p t ive sign i®ca n ce fo r t h e in d ivid u a l (L a za r u s, 1966). T h is led t o d ist in ctio n s a m o n g: (a ) h ow t h e sit u a t io n wa s eva lu a t ed (p r im a r y a p p ra isa l);
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(b ) h ow t h e o rga n ism viewed it s o wn ca p a cities t o resp o n d (seco n d a ry
a p p ra isa l); a n d (c) h o w t h e o rga n ism a t t em p t ed t o m a n a ge t h e t ro u bled
o rga n ism -enviro n m en t rela t io n t h a t o cca sio n ed t h e st ress (co p in g). St ress
wa s d e®n ed a s ``a rela t io n sh ip b et ween t h e p er so n a n d t h e enviro n m en t
t h a t is ap p ra ised b y t h e p erso n a s releva n t t o h is o r h er well-b ein g a n d in
wh ich t h e p er so n ’s reso u rces a re t a xed o r exceed ed ’’, a n d co p in g wa s
d e®n ed a s ``co gn itive a n d b eh avio r a l effo r t s t o m a n a ge (m a st er, red u ce,
o r t o lera t e) a t ro u b led p er so n -enviro n m en t relat io n sh ip ’’ (F o lk m a n &
L a za ru s, 1985, p. 152).
In itia lly, co m m o n a lties were em p h a sised a cro ss sit u at io n s r a n gin g fro m
t h e o rd in a r y, su ch a s t a k in g a n exa m (M ech a n ic, 1962 ) t o t h e ext r a o rd in a r y, su ch a s b ein g t ra p p ed in a co a l m in e (L u ca s, 1969). W ith t im e,
resea rch er s b ega n t o d ist in gu ish a m o n g st resso rs. L a za r u s (1966 ) d e®n ed
har m a s a fo r m o f st ress a sso cia t ed w ith d a m a ge t h at h a s b een d o n e,
threat a s a fo r m o f st ress a sso cia t ed with fu t u re h a r m , a n d challenge a s a
fo r m o f st ress a sso cia ted with p o sit ive resp on d in g. L ikew ise, Selye (1974)
d ist in gu ish ed b etween eustressÐ a fo r m o f st ress a sso cia t io n with go o d
feelin gs, a n d distressÐ a fo rm o f stress a sso cia t ed with b a d feelin gs.
D ist in ct io n s a lso were m a d e a m o n g co p in g resp o n ses, su ch a s L a za ru s
a n d co llea gu es’ d ist in ctio n b et ween problem-focused coping, wh ich wa s
a im ed at ®xin g t h e p ro b lem , a n d em otion-focused coping, which wa s
a im ed a t lessen in g n ega t ive em o t io n exp erien ce. I t wa s t h is la st co n st ru ct , in p a rt icu la r, t h a t la id t h e gro u n dwo rk fo r t h e st u d y o f em o t io n
regu la tio n .
Continuities and D iscontinuities. R esea rch er s lo n g h ave b em o a n ed t h e
co n cep t u a l co n fu sio n a sso cia t ed with t h e t er m st ress (e.g. H a a n , 1993;
H o b fo ll, 1989). T h e p ro b lem is t h a t ``st ress’’ cover s su ch a n ext r a o rd in a ry r a n ge o f p h en o m en a t h at m a ny h ave co n clu d ed t h a t ``t h e t er m is
m ea n in gless’’ (L evin e & U rsin , 19 91, p. 3). L ikewise, co p in g n o w seem s
t o in clu d e t h e fu ll r a n ge o f b eh avio u r em itt ed b y a n in d ivid u a l in t a xin g
circu m sta n ces (C o st a , So m er®eld , & M cC ra e, 1996). E m o t io n regu la t ion
resea rch er s h ave so u gh t ®n er-gra in ed d ist in ct io n s a m o n g enviro n m en t o rga n ism in t er a ct io n s t h a n a re p o ssible u n d er t h e b ro a d ru b ric o f st ress,
u sin g eith er d im en sio n a l (D avid so n , 1992 ; L a n g, 1995) o r d iscrete
(E k m a n , 1992) a p p ro a ch es. O n t h e co p in g sid e, t o o, em o t io n regu la t ion
resea rch er s a re fo cu sin g in crea sin gly o n sp eci®c em o t io n regu la t o ry
p ro cesses su ch a s r u m in a t io n (N o len -H o ek sem a , 19 93), su p p ressio n
(G ro ss, 1998 a ), a n d d own wa rd so cia l co m p a r iso n (A sp in wa ll & Ta ylo r,
1993). O f t h e t wo t er m sÐ co p in g a n d em o t io n regu la t io n Ð co p in g is t h e
b ro a d er cat ego r y, a s it in clu d es n o n em o t io n a l a ct io n s t a ken t o a ch ieve
n o n em o t io n a l go a ls (Sch eier, Wein b t r a u b , & C a r ver, 1986), su ch a s
bu yin g a m a p in o rd er t o n avigat e a n ew city. C o p in g a lso d iffer s
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fro m em o t io n regu la tio n in t h a t t h e u n it o f a n a lysis is t yp ica lly lo n ger Ð
ext en d ed per io d s o f h o u rs, d ays, o r m o n t h s r at h er t h a n seco n d s o r
m inu t es. T h u s, fo r exa m p le, o n e m igh t sp ea k o f co p in g with a d ju st m en t
t o fresh m a n yea r o f co llege, o r co p in g with t h e lo ss o f o n e’s sp o u se.
H owever, co p in g d o es n o t en t irely su b su m e em o t io n regu la t io n : E m o t io n
regu la t io n in clu d es p ro cesses n o t t yp ica lly co n sid ered in t h e co p in g
lit er a t u re, su ch a s regu la t in g exp ressive o r p hysio logica l a sp ect s o f em o t io n , o r in ¯u en cin g p o sitively va len ced em o t io n s.
CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
W it h p sych o a n a lyt ic a n d st ress a n d co p in g t r a d it io n s a s a b a ck d ro p,
em o t io n regu la t io n resea rch h a s em erged a s a rela t ively d ist in ct d o m a in
over t h e p a st t wo d eca d es (G ro ss, 1998b ). P a r a m ou n t co n cern s in clu d e
d e®n in g em o t io n a n d em o t io n regu la t io n , a n d d elin ea t in g in d ivid u a ls’
em o t io n regu la t o r y go a ls a n d str a tegies.
De®ning Emotion
F ro m a n evolu t io n a ry p ersp ect ive, em o t io n sÐ lik e m a ny o f o u r p hysica l
a t t r ib u t es a n d p sych o logica l p ro cessesÐ rep resent t im e-tested so lu t io n s t o
a d a p t ive p ro b lem s (To o b y & C o sm id es, 1990). In p a rt icu la r, em o t io n s a re
t h o u gh t t o h ave a risen b eca u se t h ey ef®cien t ly co -o rd in at e d iver se resp o n se
syst em s, t h ereb y h elp in g u s resp o n d t o im p o r t a n t ch a llen ges o r o p p o r t u n it ies (L even so n , 1994). Ta ke fea r, fo r exa m p le. W h en we a re a fra id , o u r
sen ses a re sh a r p en ed , o u r m u scles a re p rim ed t o m ove u s q u ick ly o u t o f
h a r m ’s way, a n d o u r ca rd io va scu la r syst em is t u n ed t o p rovid e in crea sed
o xygen a n d en ergy t o la rge m u scle gro u p s t h a t will b e ca lled u p o n wh en we
¯ee. T h ese em o t io n a l rea ct io n s t yp ica lly a re sh o rt -lived , a n d invo lve
ch a nges in su b jective exp erien ce, exp ressive b eh avio u r, a n d cen t ra l, a u t o n o m ic a n d en d o cr in e resp o n se syst em s (L a n g, 1995). D ifferen t em o t io n s
a re t h o u gh t t o a d d ress d ifferen t a d a p t ive p ro b lem s (e.g. E k m a n , 1992;
I za rd , 1977; P lu t ch ik , 1980), a lt h o u gh t h ere is cu rren t ly lively d eb a t e
ab o u t t h e ext en t t o wh ich ea ch em o t io n ca lls fo r t h d ist in gu ish ab le, cro sssit u at io n a lly co n sist en t p hysio lo gica l (C a cio p p o, K lein , Ber n t so n , & H at ®eld , 1993; L even so n , 19 92; Z a jo n c & M cI n t o sh , 19 92) a n d b eh avio u r a l
(E k m a n , 1994 ; F rijd a , 1986; R u ssell, 1994) resp o n ses. If ``a ffect ’’ is u sed t o
refer t o va len ced (``go o d -b a d ’’) rea ct io n s t o st im u li o r situ a t io n s t ha t a re
m ea n in gfu l t o t h e in d ivid u a l (Sch erer, 1984), em o t io n s a re p a r t o f t h e
la rger a ffect ive fa m ily t h a t a lso in clu d es: (a ) stress responses t o t a xin g
circu m st a n ces; (b ) em otion episodes su ch a s a b a r-ro o m b rawl a n d d eliverin g b a d n ews t o a clo se fr ien d; a n d (c) mood s su ch a s d ep ressio n a n d
eu p h o r ia .
EMOTION REGULATION
557
De®ning Emotion Regulation
T h e p h ra se ``em o t io n regu lat io n ’’ is a m b igu o u s, a s it m igh t refer eq u a lly
well t o h o w em o t io n s regu la t e so m et h in g elseÐ su ch a s t h o u gh t s o r b eh avio u r Ð o r t o h ow em ot io n s a re t h em selves regu la t ed (D o d ge & G a r b er,
1991). H o wever, if a p rim a ry fu n ct io n o f em o t io n is t o co -o rd in a t e d iverse
resp o n se syst em s (C a m p o s et a l., 19 83), t h e ®rst sen se o f em o t io n regu lat io n is la rgely red u n d a n t with em o t io n . F o r t h is rea so n , I b elieve t h a t t h e
seco n d u sa ge is p referab le, in wh ich em o t io n regu la t io n refer s t o t h e
h et erogen eo u s set o f p ro cesses b y wh ich em o t io n s a re t h em selves regu la t ed . B eca u se virt u a lly a ll go a l-d irect ed b eh avio u r ca n b e co n st ru ed a s
m a xim isin g p lea su re o r m in im isin g p a in Ð a n d t h u s a ffect regu lat o ry in
so m e b ro a d sen seÐ it is im p o rt a n t t o p reven t over-in clu sivit y b y n a rro win g t h e fo cu s t o p ro cesses wh o se p roxim a l fu n ctio n is t o regu la t e em o t io n .
A seco n d im p o rt a n t d ist in ct io n is su ggested b y resea rch ers’ u se o f
em o t io n regu la t io n t o refer b o t h t o h o w in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce t h eir ow n
em o t io n s a n d t o h o w t h ey in ¯u en ce o t h er p eo p le’s em o t io n s. T h is p ra ct ice
lea d s t o d iscu ssio n s in wh ich st i¯in g o n e’s o wn t ea rs a n d t ellin g so m eo n e
else t o st o p a ct in g like a cryb ab y a re b o t h co n sid ered in sta n ces o f em o t ion
regu la tio n . T h is u sa ge is p a rt icu la rly co m m o n in t h e d evelo p m en t a l lit er at u re (e.g. M a sters, 19 91; T h o m p so n , 1994), bu t it is a lso evid en t in t h e
a d u lt lit era t u re (G ro ss & L even so n , 1993; Sa lovey, H see, & M ayer, 1993). I
n o w b elieve t h is d o u b le u sa ge is u n fo rt u n a t e, a s it m ixes t wo p o t en t ia lly
q u it e d ifferen t set s o f m o t ives, go a ls, a n d st ra t egies. Bo t h k in d s o f em o t ion
regu la tio n m u st b e exa m in ed , b u t in d o in g so , t h e t wo sh o u ld b e clea rly
d ist in gu ish ed . I n t h e fo llo win g, I fo cu s o n em o t io n regu la t io n in t h e self, b y
wh ich I m ea n t h e ways in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce wh ich em o t io n s t h ey h ave,
wh en t h ey h ave t h em , a n d h o w t h ey exp erien ce a n d exp ress t h ese em o t io n s.
In co llo q u ia l u sage, em o t io n is o ft en u sed in t erch a n geab ly with t h e su b ject ive exp er ien ce o f em o t io n , a n d em o t io n regu lat io n t h u s m igh t b e
t h o u gh t t o n ecessa r ily invo lve ch a n ges in su b jective exp er ien ce. H o wever,
t h ere is gen er a l co n sen su s a m o n g em o t io n resea rch er s t h a t em o t io n s a re
m u ltico m p o n en t ia lÐ sp a n n in g exp er ien t ia l, b eh avio u ra l, a n d p hysio lo gica l
d o m a in s. E m o t io n regu la t io n t h u s invo lves ch a n ges in o n e o r m o re o f t h ese
resp o n ses syst em s a n d n eed n o t (bu t cer t a in ly ca n ) invo lve a t t em p t s t o
ch a n ge t h e su b jective exp er ien ce o f em o t io n .
A t h ird d ist in ct io n co n cer n s wh et h er em o t io n regu la t io n is co n scio u s o r
n o n co n scio u s (M a st er s, 1991; M ayer & Sa lovey, 1995). P ro t o t yp ic exa m p les
o f em o t io n regu lat io n a re co n scio u s, su ch a s d ecid in g t o ch a n ge a n u p set t in g t o p ic, o r sq u elch in g la u gh t er a t a ch ild’s in ap p ro p riat e a n t ics. O n e
m igh t im a gin e, h owever, em o t io n regu lat o ry a ct ivit y o ccu rr in g wit h o u t
co n scio u s awa ren ess, su ch a s wh en well-p r a ct ised ro u t in es b eco m e a u t o m at ised . E xa m p les in clu d e h id in g o n e’s d isa p p o in t m en t a t a n u n a t t ra ct ive
558
GROSS
p resen t (C o le, 1986), ligh t in g a ciga rett e wh en a n xio u s (Bra n d o n , 1994), o r
even cra ck in g a jo ke t o relieve t en sio n (F red r ick so n & L even so n , 1998).
P revio u s d iscu ssio n s h ave favo u red a ca tego rica l d ist in ct io n b et ween co n scio u s a n d u n co n scio u s p ro cesses, bu t it p ro b ably is m o re u sefu l t o t h in k o f
a co n t inu u m o f p ro cesses t h a t va r y in t h e d egr ee t o wh ich t h ey a re
co n t ro lled , effo r t fu l, a n d co n scio u s ver su s a u t o m a t ic, effo rt less, a n d
u n co n scio u s. C la rity ab o u t t h e n a t u re o f p ro cesses u n d er invest iga t io n is
essen t ia l b eca u se t h ere m ay b e im p o rt a n t d ifferen ces in t h e a n t eced en t s a n d
co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n regu lat o ry p ro cesses ch a r a ct er ised b y d ifferin g
levels o f co n scio u sn ess (Wegn er & Ba rgh , 19 98).
Emotion Regulatory Goals
A n evo lu t io n a ry p er sp ect ive h o ld s t h a t em o t io n s en co d e sit u a t io n -resp o n se
d ep en d en cies t h a t h ave p roven va lu ab le over t h e sweep o f m illen n ia (To o by
& C o sm id es, 19 90). T h is in n o wa y im p les, h owever, t h a t em o t io n resp o n se
t en d en cies a re a lwaysÐ o r even u su a llyÐ a p p ro p r iat e t o t h e sit u a t io n s we
n ow fa ce. P hysica l a n d so cia l enviro n m en t s h ave ch a n ged o u t o f a ll recogn it io n fro m t h o se t h a t sh a p ed o u r em o t io n s, a n d t ech n o logica l a d va n ces
h ave d ra m a tica lly m a gn i®ed t h e co n seq u en ces t h at o u r em o t io n a l
resp o n ses m ay h ave fo r o u r selves a n d o t h ers. A n irritab le sw ip e t h a t o n ce
sca rcely ra ised a welt, is n o w t r a n slat ed w it h t h e grea t est ea se in t o a fa t a l
ca r a ccid en t o r gu n -rela t ed h o m icid e.
H owever rea l t h e m a ny b en e®t s o f em o t io n , t h en , it is im p o rt a n t n o t t o
overst a te t h e a dva n t a ges o f a ct in g in a cco rd w it h u n t ra m m eled em o t io n a l
im p u lses (P a rro t t , 1995). In d eed , wh en o n e su rveys t h e ca u ses o f h u m a n
d ysfu n ct io n a n d su ffer in g, o n e is str u ck b y t h e d egr ee t o wh ich em o t io n s
lea d u s t o d o t h in gs t h at ca u se su ffer in g t o o u rselves a n d t h o se a ro u n d u s,
wh et h er t h ro u gh im p u lsive agg ressive a ct io n , h a st y b u sin ess d ecisio n s, o r
d eceit fu l sexu a l lia iso n s. P a r t icu la rly wh en em o t io n s a re viewed a s a risin g
a t m o m en t s o f ch a llen ge o r o p p o rt u n ity, t h e im p o rt a n ce o f p ro p er regu la t io n is u n m ist a k able.
We k n ow relat ively lit t le ab o u t in d ivid u a ls’ em o t io n regu la t o ry go a ls,
b u t it seem s in crea sin gly clea r t h a t em o t io n regu la t io n in vo lves b o t h
d ecrea sin g a n d in crea sin g n egat ive a n d p o sitive em o t io n s (L a n gst o n ,
19 94; M a sters, 1991; P a rro t t , 1993). E m o t io n regu la t io n t h a t invo lves
decreasing em o t io n s m ay o ccu r wh en : (a ) em o t io n s p rom p t b eh avio u r a l
resp o n ses t h at a re n o lo n ger u sefu l, su ch a s p hysica lly a tt a ck in g a n irr it at in g su b o rd in at e; (b ) em o t io n s a r ise fro m a n overly sim p le a p p r a isa l o f t h e
sit u at io n , su ch a s m ist a k in g a st ick fo r a sn a ke; o r (c) em o t io n resp o n se
t en d en cies co n ¯ict with o t h er im p o rt a n t go a ls, su ch a s savin g o n e’s sk in by
¯eein g a ®gh t ver su s savin g fa ce b y st a n d in g o n e’s gr o u n d . E m o t io n
regu la t io n t h at in vo lves initiating or increasing em o t io n s m ay o ccu r
EMOTION REGULATION
559
wh en : (a ) em o t io n resp o n se t en d en cies a re la ck in g b eca u se o n e’s m in d is
elsewh ere, b u t o n e wish es t o m u st er a n a p p ro p ria t ely en t h u sia st ic resp o n se
t o a n o t h er ’s go o d n ew s; o r (b ) o n e d esires t o rep la ce o n e em o t io n with
a n o t h er, su ch a s wh en o n e is feelin g d ow n , a n d o n e wa n t s t o su m m o n a
m o re p o sitive em o t io n a l st a te b efo re ca llin g o n frien d s. O n e resea rch
p r io rity is t o d evelo p a b et t er u n d er st a n d in g o f wh at in d ivid u a ls a re t r yin g
t o a cco m p lish wh en t h ey regu la t e t h eir em o t io n s, keep in g in m in d t h at
em o t io n regu lat o r y go a ls m ay b e n o n co n scio u s, a n d t h a t t h ey a re likely t o
b e h igh ly co n t ext -sen sit iveÐ su ch a s m a t ch in g t h e em o t io n a l sta t e o f a n
a n t icip a t ed in t er a ct io n p a rt n er (E r b er, Wegn er, & T h err ia u lt , 1996).
Emotion Regulatory Processes
W h a t in d ivid u a ls wa n t t o a ch ieve a s t h ey in ¯u en ce t h eir em o t io n sÐ t h eir
em o t io n regu la t o ry go a lsÐ m ust b e d ist in gu ish ed fro m t h e p ro cesses t h ey
in vo ke in o rd er t o a ch ieve t h ese go a ls. O n e way t o o rga n ise t h ese em o t io n
regu la to ry p ro cesses is b y d r awin g o n a co n sen su a l p ro cess m o d el o f
em o t io n gen era t io n . T h is m o d el is a d ist illa t io n o f m a jo r p oin t s o f co nvergen ce a m o n g em o t io n resea rch ers wh o em p h a sise b io lo gica l b a ses o f
em o t io n (m a jo r co n t r ibu t o r s t o t h is t r a d it io n in clu d e: A r n o ld , 1960; Bu ck ,
1985; E k m a n , 1972; F r ijd a , 19 86; Iza rd , 19 77; L a za ru s, 1991; P lu t ch ik ,
1980; Sch erer, 19 84; To m k in s, 1962). A cco rd in g t o t h is m o d el, em o t io n
b egin s with a n eva lu a t io n o f ext er n a l o r in t ern a l em o t io n cu es. C er t a in
eva lu a t io n s t rigger a co -o rd in at ed set o f b eh avio u r a l, exp erien t ia l, a n d
p hy sio logica l em o t io n resp o n se t en d en cies. T h ese resp o n se t en d en cies
m ay b e m o d u la t ed , a n d it is t h is m o d u la tio n t h a t gives ®n a l sh ap e t o
m a n ifest em o t io n a l resp o n ses.
U sin g t h is sch em e, em o t io n regu la t o r y p ro cesses m ay b e seen a s t a rget in g o n e o r m o re o f ®ve p o in t s in t h e em o t io n -gen er at ive p ro cess (G ro ss,
1998b ). F irst , regu la to ry str at egies m ay a ct o n t h e sit u a t io n it self. T h e m o st
fo r wa rd -lo o k in g a p p ro a ch m igh t b e ca lled situation selection. T h is refer s t o
a p p ro a ch in g o r avo id in g cert a in p eo p le o r sit u a t io n s o n t h e b a sis o f t h eir
likely em o t io n a l im p a ct ; Sca r r a n d M cC a rt n ey (1983) h ave ca lled t h is n ich e
p ick in g. O n ce o n e is in a n em o t io n -elicitin g sit u a t io n , situation modification is st ill p o ssib le. T h is refers t o m o d ifyin g t h e lo ca l enviro n m en t so a s t o
a lter it s em o t io n a l im p a ct . Situ at io n select io n a n d sit u a t io n m o d i®ca t io n
h elp sh ap e t h e in d ivid u a l’s sit u a t io n . H owever, it a lso is p o ssib le t o regu la t e
em o t io n s with o u t a ct u a lly ch a n gin g t h e enviro n m en t . Sit u a t io n s h ave
m a ny a sp ect s, a n d attentional deploym ent refer s t o h ow in d ivid u a ls d irect
t h eir a t t en t io n w it h in a given sit u a t io n in o rd er t o in ¯u en ce t h eir em o t io n s.
T h is in clu d es a tt en t io n a l st ra t egies ra n gin g fro m d ist ra ctio n , wh ich fo cu ses
o n n o n em o t io n -releva n t a sp ects o f t h e sit u at io n , o r sh ift s a t t en t io n away
fro m t h e im m ed ia t e sit u at io n a lt o get h er (D er ryb erry & R o t h b a rt , 1988) t o
560
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r u m in a tio n , wh ich fo cu ses a tt en t io n o n t h e sit u a t io n a n d its em o t io n a l
im p lica t io n s (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ). E ven a fter a sit u a t io n h a s b een
selected , m o d i®ed , a n d select ively a t t en d ed t o, it still is p o ssible t o a lt er
its em o t io n a l im p a ct . Cognitive change refers t o eva lu at in g t h e sit u a t io n
o n e is in so a s t o a lt er its em o t io n a l signi®ca n ce, eit her by ch a n gin g h ow
o n e t h in k s ab o u t t h e sit u a t io n o r ab o u t o n e’s ca p a city t o m a n a ge t h e
d em a n d s it p o ses. Response m odulation refer s t o in ¯u en cin g em o t io n
resp o n se t en d en cies o n ce t h ey a rise. E ver yd ay exp er ien ce is rep let e with
effo r t s t o m a n ip u la t e em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r, su ch a s h id in g a n ger a t
a n o ffen sive rem a rk , a s well a s p hysio lo gica l resp o n d in g, su ch a s slowin g
o n e’s b rea t h in g ra t e. It is less cer t a in wh eth er em o t io n exp erien ce ca n b e
m o d i®ed d irect ly, a lth o u gh cogn it ive, b eh avio u r a l, a n d p h a r m a co logic
m ea n s a ll m ay b e u sed t o m o d ify em o t io n exp er ien ce in d irect ly.
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
A growin g sen se o f sh a red p u r p o se in t h e d o m a in o f em o t io n regu la t io n
h a s led t o gr ea ter co n t a ct b et ween p revio u sly d isp a ra t e resea rch p ro gr a m s.
I n t h e fo llo win g sect io n s, I illu st ra t e cu r ren t em o t io n regu la t ion resea rch
b y d escr ib in g p ro m isin g resea rch o n b a sic p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in a d u lt em o t io n regu la t io n (fo r a review o f t h e lit era t u re o n em o t io n
regu la t io n in ch ild ren , see T h o m p so n , 1990). R e¯ect in g t h e b ia s in co n t em p o ra r y resea rch , m y fo cu s is o n t h e regu la t io n o f n egat ive em o t io n s.
Basic Processes
A va riet y o f em o t io n regu la t o r y p ro cesses h ave a t t r a ct ed a tt en t io n , in clu d in g: R eca llin g m o o d -in co n gr u en t m em o r ies (P a rro t t & Sa b in i, 19 90; Sm ith
& P et t y, 1995), h elp in g o t h er s (Sch a ller & C ia ld in i, 1990), exercisin g
(T h ayer, N ewm a n & M cC la in , 19 94), seek in g so cia l su p p o rt (R ip p ere,
19 77), u sin g d r u gs (M o rris & R eilley, 19 87), a n d m a k in g so cia l co m p a riso n s (Taylo r & L o b el, 1989). In t h e fo llowin g, I fo cu s o n t wo b a sic
p ro cessesÐ rea p p ra isa l a n d su p p ressio n Ð t h at rep resen t t wo m a jo r p o in t s
in t h e em o t io n gen er a t ive p ro cess a t wh ich em o t io n s ca n b e regu la t ed
(G ro ss, 1998b ).
Reappraisal. I t is w id ely agr eed t h a t a sit u a t io n t yp ica lly d o es n o t in
a n d o f itself gen era t e em o t io n . R a t h er, it is t h e in d ivid u a l’s eva lu at io n o f
t h a t situ a tio n t h a t is em o t io n -gen era t ive. O n e p o wer fu l m ea n s o f em o t io n
regu la t io n , t h erefo re, is t o m o d ify t h e way a sit u a t io n is eva lu at ed . Su ch
rea p p ra isa ls m ay d ecrea se em o t io n a l resp o n d in g, a s wh en o n e im a gin es
t h a t gr ap h ic n ews fo o t a ge h a s b een fa ked , o r in crea se em o t io n a l resp o n d in g, a s wh en o n e rein t erp ret s a jo k e a s a t h in ly veiled in su lt. R ea p p ra isa l
EMOTION REGULATION
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p lays a key ro le in t h eo r ies o f em o t io n (e.g. L a za ru s, 1991) a n d st ress
red u ct io n (e.g. K a t z & E p st ein , 1991; M eich en b a u m , 1985). U n fo rt u n a t ely, d esp ite its wid e cu r ren cy, even t h e hyp o t h esis t h a t co gn itive str a tegies m ay b e u sed t o d ecrea se n ega t ive em o t io n Ð wh ich is wh at we k n o w
m o st ab o u t Ð h a s a su r p r isin gly m o d est em p ir ica l fo u n d a t io n . L ea d in g
su b ject s t o rea p p ra ise n ega t ive em o t io n -elicitin g ®lm s h a s b een sh ow n t o
d ecrea se n egat ive em o t io n exp erien ce (C a n t o r & W ilso n , 1984; D a n d o y &
G o ld st ein , 1990; G ro ss, 1998a ; L a za ru s & A lfer t , 1964). H owever, co n co m ita n t d ecrea ses in p hysio logica l resp o n d in g a re o ft en n o t o b served (e.g.
G ro ss, 1998a ; St ep t o e & Vo gele, 1986). W hy m igh t t h is b e? O n e p o ssib ilit y
is t h at co gn itive ap p ra isa ls p lay a lim ited ro le in t h e gen er at io n o f p hysio lo gica l resp o n se t en d en cies in t h e co n t ext o f gr a p h ic su rgery ®lm s
(L eD o u x, 19 89). If so, rea p p r a isa l m igh t b e exp ect ed t o b e m o re effect ive
in co m p lex so cia l sit u a t io n s. In d eed , St em m ler (1997 ) h a s sh o wn t h at
reap p ra isa l in st r u ct io n s led t o d ecrea sed p hysio lo gica l resp o n d in g fo r
su b ject s wh o a n exp er im en t er ver b a lly h a r a ssed . O n e im p o rt a n t d irect io n
fo r fu t u re resea rch is t o u se rea p p ra isa l a s a p ro b e t o cla r ify t h e n at u re o f
cogn it ive p ro cessin g in em o t io n gen era t io n a n d regu la tio n .
Sup pression. C o n t em p o ra r y in t erest in t h e effect s o f in h ib itin g em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r ca n b e t r a ced t o W illia m Ja m es. O n Ja m es’
(1884) view, em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r wa s so im p o r t a n t t o em o t io n
t h a t go in g t h ro u gh t h e o u t wa rd m o t io n s o f a n em o t io n a l st a te co u ld give
rise t o t h a t feelin g, a n d lim it in g exp ressive b eh avio u r co u ld d ecrea se t h e
a sso ciat ed feelin gs. O n e va ria n t o f t h is hyp o t h esis ca m e t o b e k n own a s t h e
``fa cia l feed b a ck hyp o t h esis’’ (Bu ck , 19 80). M o st st u d ies d esign ed t o t est
t h is hyp o t h esis co n cen t ra t ed o n t h e em o t io n gen era tio n a sp ect o f t h e
hyp o t h esis, a n d in d eed , in it ia t in g em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r seem s t o
in crea se t h e feelin g o f t h at em o t io n sligh t ly (M a t su m o t o, 1987 ). F ewer
st u d ies h ave t est ed p red ict io n s rega rd in g t h e su p p ressio n o f o n go in g em o t io n a l b eh avio u r, a s it wa s a ssu m ed t h a t in h ib it in g o n go in g em o t io n
exp ressive b eh avio u r wo u ld sim p ly h ave t h e o p p o sit e effect s fro m vo lu n t a rily p ro d u cin g em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r (G ro ss & L even so n , 1993).
H owever, resu lts t o d a t e d o n o t su p p o rt t h e view t h a t su p p ressio n is t h e
sim p le o p p o sit e o f exa ggera t io n . W h at is k n o wn su ggest s t h a t in h ib itin g
exp ressive b eh avio u r d ecrea ses self-rep o r t ed exp er ien ce o f so m e em o t io n s
(e.g. p a in , p rid e, a n d a m u sem en t ), b u t n o t o t h ers (e.g. d isgu st, sa d n ess)
(fo r a review, see G ro ss & L even so n , 1997). P hysio logica lly, in h ib itin g
exp ressive b eh avio u r wh ile wa itin g fo r a p a in fu l sh o ck lea d s t o d ecrea sed
sk in co n d u ct a n ce rea ct ivit y (C o lb y, L a n zet t a , & K leck , 1977; L a n zet t a ,
C a r t wr igh t -Sm it h , & K leck , 19 76), bu t t h e effect s o f in h ib itin g em o t io n a l
resp o n ses t o o t h er n egat ive st im u li h ave in clu d ed sign s o f in crea sed
sym p at h etic a ct ivat io n (G ro ss, 1998a ; G ro ss & L even so n , 1993, 1997).
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F u t u re resea rch sh o u ld exp lo re t h e ext en t t o wh ich t h e in h ib it io n o f
exp ressive b eh avio u r h a s co n sist en t effect s a cro ss em o t io n s, a n d t est
wh et h er t h ese effect s a re sim ila r t o t h o se o f a t t em p t in g t o in h ib it o t h er
a sp ect s o f t h e em o t io n a l resp o n se, su ch a s em o t io n a l exp er ien ce.
Individual Differences
E m ot io n regu la t io n a lways t a kes p la ce in t h e co n t ext o f a p a r ticu la r
in d ivid u a l. Beca u se in d ivid u a ls d iffer b o t h in th e em o t io n s t h ey exp erien ce a n d in t h e way t h ey regu lat e t h ese em o t io n s, a ny sep a r at io n b et ween
t h e st u dy o f b a sic em o t io n regu lat o ry p rocesses a n d ind ivid u a l d ifferen ces
in su ch p ro cesses m u st b e rega rd ed a s a t em p o r a ry co nven ien ce rat h er
t h a n a lo n g-ter m st ra t egy (see G ro ss, in p ress). H owever, o n e m a jo r
im p ed im en t t o t a k in g a process-o r ien t ed ap p ro a ch t o p er so n a lit y is t h a t
in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in em o t io n regu lat io n h ave b een stu d ied u n d er a
d isco n cert in gly la rge nu m b er o f ru b rics. C o n st ru ct s m o st clo sely relat ed t o
em o t io n regu lat io n in clu d e: E m o t io n a l co n tro l (Ro ger & N a ja ria n , 1989),
n ega t ive m oo d regu lat ion (C a ta n za ro, 1996), rep ressio n (Wein b erger,
1990), a n d ru m in at io n /d ist ra ctio n (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993). R elat ed co n str u ct s in clu d e: m o n ito rin g/b lu n t in g (M iller, 1987), sen sat io n seek in g
(Z u cker m a n , 1979), co n str u ctive t h in k in g (E p stein & M eier, 1989), im p u lsivit y (E ysen ck & E ysen ck, 1969), b eh avio u r a l inh ib itio n (K aga n, R ezn ick ,
& G ibb o n s, 1989), co n stra in t (Tellegen , 1985), a m b iva len ce over em o t io n a l exp ressivit y (K in g & E m m o n s, 1990), d elay o f gr at i®cat ion (M isch el, 19 74), a lexit hym ia (Taylo r, Bagb y, & P arker, 1997), co p in g style
(C a r ver, Sch eier, & Wein t ra u b, 19 89), ego co n tro l (Blo ck & Blo ck ,
1980), a n d em o t io n a l in t elligen ce (Sa lo vey & M ayer, 1990). R at h er t h a n
at t em p t in g a co m p reh en sive review, I illu strat e recen t resea rch o n ind ivid u a l d ifferen ces in em o t io n regu lat io n b y fo cu sin g on t wo well-st u d ied
in d ivid u a l d ifferen cesÐ ru m in a tion a nd rep ressio n Ð t h at were selected t o
rep resen t con scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n regu lat o r y p ro cesses t h a t
va ry d ia m et rica lly in t h eir u se o f at t en t io n.
Rumination. T h is refer s t o ``b eh avio u rs a n d t h o u gh t s t h a t fo cu s o n e’s
a t t en t io n o n o n e’s d ep ressive sym p t o m s’’ (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1991, p. 569).
E xa m p les in clu d e dw ellin g o n p ro b lem s o n e is h avin g at wo rk , fo cu sin g o n
feelin gs o f t ired n ess o r b o d ily p a in s, a n d wo rr yin g ab o u t h avin g yet
a n o t h er sleep less n igh t . W h en a ssessed b y N o len -H o ek sem a ’s R esp o n se
St yles Q u estio n n a ire (N o len -H o ek sem a & M o rro w, 1991 ), d isp o sit io n a l
r u m in a tio n h a s m o d era t e st ab ilit y over p er io d s a s lo n g a s o n e yea r (Ju st
& A lloy, 1997). R u m in at io n is effo rt fu l, co n t ro lled , a n d co n scio u s, a n d
seem s t o b e a im ed a t red u cin g d ep ressive feelin gs, a lt h o u gh its a ct u a l
effect is u su a lly t h e o p p o sit e. H igh er levels o f d isp o sit io n a l ru m in a t io n
EMOTION REGULATION
563
a re a sso cia t ed with gr eat er likelih o o d o f d evelo p in g d ep ressive sym p t o m s
(Ju st & A lloy, 1997; N o len -H o ek sem a , P a rker, & L a r so n , 1994), m o re
severe d ep ressive sym p t o m s (Ju st & A lloy, 1997; N o len -H o ek sem a &
M o rro w, 1991; N o len -H o ek sem a , M o rro w, & F red r ick so n , 1993), a n d
lo n ger d ep ressive ep iso d es (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ; N o len -H o ek sem a ,
M cBr id e, & L a rso n , 1997). I n t h e co n t ext o f a n a n a lysis o f sex d ifferen ces
in d ep ressio n , N o len -H o ek sem a (1993, p. 30 8) h a s a rgu ed t h a t ``it is m o re
ef®cien t a n d p o t en t ia lly u sefu l t o fo cu s o n p eo p le’s styles o f resp o n d in g t o
t h e sp eci®c m o o d st a t es t h a n t o u t ilize m o re glo b a l co n st r u ct s’’. H o wever,
fro m a b ro a d er em o t io n regu la t o r y p ersp ect ive, o n e m igh t exp ect t h at
ru m in a t io n in t h e co n t ext o f o t h er em o t io n a l st at es su ch a s a n ger, gu ilt ,
o r a n xiet y wo u ld h ave co m p a rable co n seq u en ces in t er m s o f p ro d u cin g
m o re in t en se a n d lo n ger-la st in g ep iso d es o f ea ch o f t h ese em o t io n s.
E xp lo rin g in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in ru m in a t io n with o t h er em o t io n a l sta t es
is a clea r resea rch p r io rity in t h is a rea .
Repression . Sin ce t h e 1950s, h u n d red s o f stu d ies h ave exa m in ed t h e
rep ressive co p in g st yle, a n d t h ere recen t ly h a s b een a ren a issa n ce o f
in t erest in t h is co n str u ct (E glo ff & K ro h n e, 1996). I n co n t ra st t o t h e
co n t ro lled a tt en t io n t o d ep ressive feelin gs t h a t ch a ra ct erises ru m in a t io n ,
rep ressio n a pp ea rs t o b e a n a u t o m a t ic a t t en t io n a l d efen ce aga in st
u n p lea sa n t st im uli (B o n a n n o & Sin ger, 1990) a n d a cco m p a nyin g a ffect ive a ro u sa l (K ro h n e, 1996), p o ssib ly invo lvin g in crea sed a t t en t io n t o
p lea sa n t t h o u gh t s (Bo d en & Ba u m eist er, 1997, bu t see M cF a rla n d &
Bu eh ler, 19 97). R epr essive t en d en cies a re t yp ica lly o p era t io n a lised a s
lo w sco res o n a t ra it a n xiet y m ea su re in co m b in a t io n with h igh sco res
o n a so cia l d esir ab ilit y m ea su res t h at t ap s d efen siven ess (Wein b erger,
Sch wa r t z, & D avid so n , 1979). C lin icia n ju d gem en t s o f d efen siven ess
a lso h ave b een u sed (Sh ed ler, M aym a n , & M a n is, 1993). R ep resso r s
rep o r t feelin g low levels o f a n xiet y (b y d e®n it io n ), a n d t h ese rep o rt s
m ay re¯ect less freq u en t n ega tive em o t io n exp er ien ce. In t erest in gly,
rep resso rs’ capac ity fo r n ega t ive em o t io n exp erien ce a p p ea rs u n d im in ish ed , a lt h o u gh t h ey d o la ck t h e seco n d a r y em o t io n s t h a t u su a lly a cco m p a ny a n em o t io n exp er ien ce (D avis, 1987; E glo ff & K ro h n e, 1996;
H a n sen & H a n sen , 1988). Beh avio u r a lly, rep resso rs sh ow d ecrea sed
exp ressive b eh avio u r (L even so n , M a d es, & M eek , 1980), a lth o u gh t h is
in h ib itio n o f exp ressive b eh avio u r m ay n o t b e evid en t when su b ject s do
n o t k n ow t h ey a re b ein g o b served (e.g. A sen d o rp f & Sch erer, 1983).
P hysio logica lly, rep resso rs t en d t o b e m o re a ro u sed p hysio lo gica lly
t h a n o t h er su b jects wh o rep o rt lo w a n xiet y, a s sh o wn b y gr ea ter fro n t a lis regio n elect ro m yo gr ap h ic (E M G ) a ct ivit y (Wein b erger et a l., 1979),
in crea sed co r t iso l levels (Bro wn et a l., 19 96), a n d in crea sed sym p a t h et ic
a ct iva tio n (e.g. K o h lm a n n , Weid n er, & M essin a , 19 96; L even so n et a l.,
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19 80; N ewt o n & C o n t ra d a , 1992; Wein b erger, 1990). F u t u re resea rch w ill
b e need ed t o cla rify rep resso rs’ t yp ica l p at t er n s o f em o t io n a l exp er ien ce
a n d exp ressio n , a n d t o a ssess m o re p recisely wh ere in t h e em o t io n gen era t ive p ro cess rep resso rs regu la t e em o t io n .
THEORETICAL CHALLENGES AND
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
T h is selective review o f recen t resea rch d em o nst ra tes t h e in t egr a t ive
p ower o f t h e co n st ru ct o f em o t io n regu la t io n . A p p a ren t ly d isp a ra t e
co n cern s a re b ro u gh t u n d er o n e ro o f, h elp in g t o sh a rp en q u est io n s
ab o u t p o in t s o f co nvergen ce a n d d ivergen ce a m o n g p ro cesses. H o wever,
t h e n o t io n o f em o t io n regu la t io n a lso p o ses a nu m b er o f serio u s t h eo ret ica l ch a llen ges. I n t h e fo llow in g sect io n s, I d iscu ss ®ve o f t h e m o st
p ressin g o f t h ese ch a llen ges, a n d su ggest a nu m b er o f d irect io n s fo r
fu t u re resea rch .
What Is Regulated in Emotion Regulation?
T h o m p so n (1994) ra ises t h e im p o rt a n t q u estio n a s t o wh at is regu la t ed in
em o t io n regu la tio n . I h ave su ggest ed t h at em o t io n regu la t io n invo lves
ch a nges in b eh avio u ra l, exp er ien t ia l, a n d /o r p hysio lo gica l resp o n ses.
Beca u se em o t io n s u n fo ld o ver t im e, t h ese ch a n ges in vo lve a ltera t io n s in
``em o t io n d yn a m ics’’ (T h o m p so n , 1990), o r t h e la t en cy, r ise t im e, m a gn it u d e, d u r a t io n , a n d o ffset o f resp o n ses in o n e o r m o re d o m a in s. E m o t io n
regu la t io n a lso m ay invo lve ch a n ges in h o w resp o n se co m p o n en t s a re
in t er rela ted a s t h e em o t io n u n fo ld s over t im e, su ch a s wh en la rge
in crea ses in
Emotion Regulation: Past, Present, Future
Ja m es J. G ross
Stanford University, California, USA
M o d er n em o t io n th eo r ies em p h a sise t h e a d ap t ive va lu e o f em o t io n s. E m o tio n s a r e by n o m ean s always h elp fu l, h owever. T h ey o ften m u st b e r egu lat ed .
T h e stu d y o f em o t io n regu la tio n h a s its o r igin s in t h e psych oa n a lytic a n d
str ess a n d co p in g tr a d itio n s. R ecen t ly, in crea sed in t erest in em o t io n regu la tio n h a s led t o cru cia l b o u n d a r y a m b igu ities t h at n ow t h reat en p rogress in
th is d o m a in . I t is a rgu ed t h at d ist in ct io n s n eed t o b e m ad e b et ween
(1) r egu lat io n of em o t io n a n d regu la tio n by em o t io n ; (2) em o t io n r egu lat io n
in self a n d em o t io n regu la tio n in o th er s; a n d (3) co n scio u s a n d n o n co nscio u s
em o t io n regu la t io n . U sin g a p ro cess m o d el o f em o t io n gen er at io n , th is review
co n sid er s p ro m isin g r esea r ch o n b a sic p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in
em o t io n r egu lat io n a n d p o ses ®ve t heo r etica l ch a llen ges.
INTRODUCTION
C o n t em p o r a ry co n cep t io n s o f em o t io n em p h a sise em o t io n s’ p o sitive ro le in
a d a p t a t io n (e.g. L a za ru s, 1991 ; To o b y & C o sm id es, 19 90). E m o t io n s a re
sa id t o t a ilo r cogn itive style t o sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s (C lo re, 1994), t o fa cilit a te d ecisio n -m a k in g (O a t ley & Jo h n so n -L a ird , 1987), t o p rep a re t h e
in d ivid u a l fo r ra p id m o t o r resp o n ses (F r ijd a , 19 86), a n d t o p ro m o t e lea r n in g (C a h ill, P rin s, Web er, & M cG a u gh , 1994). I n a d d itio n t o t h ese in t r a o rga n ism ic fu nct io n s, em o t io n s a lso a re t h o u gh t t o h ave im p o r t a n t so cia l
fu n ct io n s. F o r exa m p le, em o t io n s a re h eld t o p ro vid e in fo r m a t io n ab o u t
b eh avio u ra l in t en t io n s (E k m a n , F riesen , & E llswo rt h , 1972; F r id lu n d ,
1994), t o give clu es a s t o wh et h er so m et h in g is go o d o r b a d (Wa ld en ,
1991), a n d t o ¯exib ly scr ip t co m p lex so cia l b eh avio u r (Averill, 1980).
A t t en t io n t o t h e fu n ct io n s em o t io n s ser ve h a s p rovid ed a fo rcefu l a n d
m u ch -n eed ed co u n t erp o in t t o t h e lo n g-st a n d in g view o f em o t io n s a s
R eq uest s fo r rep r in ts sh ou ld b e sen t to D r. Ja m es J. G ro ss, D ep ar tm ent o f P sych o logy,
St an fo r d U n iver sity, St an fo r d, C A 94305-2130; E -m a il: ja m es@ p sych .st an fo r d.ed u .
P r ep ar atio n o f t his a r t icle wa s su pp o rt ed by G r a n t M H 53859 fro m th e N atio na l I n st itu te o f
M ent al H ealth . T h e a ut ho r wo u ld like t o th a nk Br a m F r idh a n d ler, Ju d y M o skowitz, Jer r y
P a r ro t t, two an o nym ou s r eviewer s, a n d m em bers o f th e St a n fo r d P sych op hysio logy L ab o r a to r y fo r help fu l co m m en ts o n an ea r lier d r a ft of this a r ticle.
q 1999 P sych olo gy P ress L td
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d ysfu n ct io n a l a n d d isru p t ive (Yo u n g, 1943). I n d eed , t h e t ren d t owa rd
fu n ct io n a l a p p ro a ch es h a s ga t h ered su ch m o m en t u m t h a t it n ow m u st b e
a sked : A re em o t io n s ever t o b e regu la t ed ?
In t h e p a st t wo d eca d es, a n ew resea rch d o m a in h a s em erged t h a t is
co n cern ed with ju st t h is q u est io n . T h e co re co n st ru ct in t h is d o m a in Ð
em o t io n regu la tio n Ð ®r st ca m e in t o u se in t h e d evelo p m en t a l lit era tu re
in t h e ea r ly 1980s (C a m p o s, B a rret t , L a m b, G o ld sm ith , & St en b erg,
19 83; G a en sb a u er, 1982 ). Sin ce t h is t im e, em o t io n regu la t o ry p ro cesses
h ave en joyed in crea sin g a t t en t io n in b o t h d evelo p m en t a l (C a m p o s,
C a m p o s, & Ba r ret t , 1989 ) a n d a d u lt (G ro ss, 1998b ) lit er a tu res, a s
resea rch ers fro m a va riet y o f t r a d itio n s h ave exa m in ed h ow in d ivid u a ls
in ¯u en ce wh ich em o t io n s t h ey h ave, wh en t h ey h ave t h em , a n d h o w t h ey
exp er ien ce a n d exp ress t h ese em o t io n s. In t h is a rt icle, I ®rst d escrib e t wo
m a jo r p recu rso rs t o t h e stu dy o f em o t io n regu la tio n : T h e p sych o a n a lyt ic
t r a d it io n a n d t h e st ress a n d co p in g t ra d it io n . I t h en u se a p ro cess m o d el
o f em o t io n gen era t io n t o p rov id e a fra m ewo rk fo r stu d yin g em o t io n
regu la t io n , a n d co n sid er severa l b o u n d a ry issu es. To illu st ra te co n t em p o r a ry resea rch in t h is a rea , I review p ro m isin g wo rk o n b a sic p ro cesses
a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in a d u lt em o t io n regu lat io n . I co n clu d e b y
co n sid erin g sever a l t h eo ret ica l ch a llen ges a nd d irectio n s fo r fu t u re
resea rch .
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS
R esea rch sp eci®ca lly co n cern ed with em o t io n regu lat io n is a rela t ively
recen t in n ova t io n , b u t a n in t erest in h ow em o t ion s ca n a n d sh o u ld b e
regu la t ed is a nyt h in g bu t n ew (Averill, 1982). P h ilo so p h ers fro m So cra tes
o n h ave gra p p led w it h t he ro le em o t io n sh o u ld p lay in ever yd ay a ffa irs, a n d
t o t h is d ay o n e o f t h e co re t h em es in West er n p h ilo so p hy is t h e co n t est
b etween rea so n a n d t h e p a ssio n s (So lo m o n , 1976). In t h e p a st cen t u ry, t h is
lo n g-st a n d in g in t erest in em o t io n regu la t io n h a s b een p layed o u t in t wo
p rin cip a l a ren a s. To get h er, t h ese h ave set t h e sta ge fo r co n t em p o r a ry
resea rch o n em o t io n regu lat io n .
The Psychoanalytic Tradition
O n e im p o rt a n t p recu r so r t o t h e co n t em p o ra r y st u d y o f em o t io n regu la t io n
is t h e p sych o a n a lyt ic t ra d itio n . T h is t ra d itio n em p h a sises t h e co n ¯ict
b etween b io lo gica lly b a sed im p u lses a n d in t ern a l a n d ext er n a l rest ra in in g
fa cto rs. H owever, t h e a sso cia t io n b et ween p sych o a n a lyt ic ap p ro a ch es a n d
em o t io n regu la t io n is m o re in t im a t e t h a n a sh a red co n cern w it h im p u lse
regu la t io n . I n d eed , b y t h e en d o f F reu d ’s ca reer, p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo risin g
relied h eavily o n t h e n o t io n o f a n xiet y regu la t io n (F reu d , 1926/1959).
EMOTION REGULATION
553
F reu d u sed a n xiet y a s a ca t ch -a ll t er m fo r n ega t ive em o t io n s (E rd elyi,
1993), a n d a d iscu ssio n o f h is views o n a n xiet y regu lat io n id ea lly wo u ld
b e co u ch ed in a gen era l p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo ry o f a ffect. U n fo rt u n a t ely, a s
o n e co m m en t at o r p u t it , a ny at t em p t a t fo r m u la tin g su ch a co m p reh en sive
p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y is ``ill-a dvised , if n o t im p o ssib le’’ d u e t o t h e co m p lex
a n d co n ¯ict in g d iscu ssio n s o f a ffect in F reu d ’s wr it in gs (R a p a p o rt , 1953, p.
193). O f co u r se, t h is h a s n o t p reven t ed a nu m b er o f at t em p t s a t d evisin g
su ch a p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r y o f a ffect (e.g. Ba sch , 1976 ; Bren n er, 1982;
K ryst a l, 19 77; Sch wa r t z, 19 87; Sp ezza n o, 1993). G iven t h e cu r ren t la ck o f
a gr eem en t , I fo cu s o n a n xiet y.
In itia lly, F reu d b elieved t h a t a n xiet y resu lt ed wh en lib id in a l im p u lses
were d en ied exp ressio n (F reu d , 1900/1950; 1915/1976). H e saw a n xiet y a s
ep ip h en o m en a l, like st ea m escap in g fro m a st u ck t u rb in e. W ith t h e d evelo p m en t o f t h e st r u ct u r a l m o d el o f p erso n a lit y, F reu d d evelo p ed a very
d ifferen t co n cep t io n o f a n xiet y (F reu d , 19 26/19 59). F reu d (1933/1964)
a rgu ed t h at t h e ego a lo n e ca n p ro d u ce a n d exp erien ce a n xiet y, a n d t h at
rea list ic, n eu ro t ic, a n d m o r a l a n xiet y d erived fro m t h e ego ’s relat io n s with
rea lit y, t h e id , a n d t h e su p erego , resp ect ively. R ea lit y-b a sed a n xiet y wa s
t h o u gh t t o resu lt wh en t h e ego wa s over wh elm ed b y sit u a t io n a l d em a n d s.
In t h is ca se, a n xiet y regu la t io n t o o k t h e fo r m o f avo id in g su ch sit u a tio n s in
t h e fu t u re, even if t h is m ea n t severe cu rt a ilm en t o f b eh avio u r, a s in
a go ra p h o b ia . By co n t r a st , F reu d h eld t h a t id - a n d su p erego -b a sed a n xiet y
resu lted wh en im p u lses p ressed fo r a ctio n a n d t h e ego a n t icip at ed h o w it
wo u ld feel if su ch im p u lses were exp ressed . If t h e ego ’s im a gin a l ru n t h ro u gh led t o h igh levels o f a n xiet y, su f®cien t u n p lea su re wa s gen er at ed
t o su p p ress t h e im p u lse (F reu d , 1926 /1959). I n t h is ca se, a n xiet y regu la t io n
t o o k t h e fo r m o f cu rt a ilin g im p u lses t h at were ju d ged likely t o crea t e fu t u re
a n xiet y.
A s t h is su m m a r y su ggest s, a n xiet y regula t io n p lays a cen t ra l ro le in
p sych o a n a lyt ic t h eo r isin g. T h is is p a r t icu la r ly t r u e in t h e st ru ctu ra l
m o d el, wh ere ego d efen ces m ay b e seen a s p ro cesses t h a t regu la t e a n xiet y
(F reu d , 1926/19 59). T h ese p ro cesses t yp ica lly a re n o t co n scio u sÐ b u t t h ey
m ay b eÐ a n d t h ey invo lve d ifferin g levels o f rea lit y d ist o r t io n , b eh avio u ra l
im p a ir m en t , en ergy co n su m p t io n , a n d u n n ecessa r y n o n gra t i®ca t io n o f
im p u lses (F en ich el, 1945; A . F reu d , 1946; H a a n , 1977, Va illa n t , 1977).
M a la d a p t ive d efen ces a re t h o u gh t t o d evelo p a s ch ild ren a sso ciat e sit u at io n s o r im p u lses with h igh levels o f a n xiet y, a n d lea rn t o regu la te t h is
a n xiet y t h ro u gh id io syn cra t ic a n d p ro b lem at ic fo r m s o f a n xiet y regu la t io n
(Sch wa r t z, 1987). F o r exa m p le, in t h e fa ce o f wild ly in co n sist en t p a ren t in g,
ch ild ren lea r n t o sh ield t h em selves fro m in t o ler ab le a n xiet y a n d p ro t ect
t h eir vit a l lin k s wit h ca regiver s (H o fer, 1994). In so d o in g, t h ey m ay
d evelo p avo id a n t st ra t egies t h a t h ave lifelo n g ra m i®cat io n s fo r so cia l
a d ju st m en t . Tr ea tm en t co n sist s o f lea rn in g n ew ways t o regu lat e a n xiet y,
554
GROSS
in p a rt t h ro u gh a ``co rrect ive em o t io n a l exp erien ce’’ (A lexa n d er, 1950 ) in
wh ich d rea d ed co n seq u en ces o f im p u lse exp ressio n fa il t o m at eria lise
(B a sch , 1976).
Continuities and Discontinuities. C o n t em p o ra r y em o t io n regu la t io n
resea rch rem a in s co n cer n ed with red u cin g n egat ive em o t io n exp er ien ce
t h ro u gh b eh avio u r a l o r m en t a l co n t ro l. T h e ®eld o f st u d y h a s b ro a d en ed ,
h owever, t o in clu d e t h e wa ys in wh ich in d ivid u a ls in crea se a n d d ecrea se
t h e exp erien ce a n d exp ressio n o f a r a n ge o f n ega t ive a n d p o sit ive em o t io n s (P a rro t t , 1993). T h ere a lso is a grow in g awa ren ess o f t h e d ifferen ces
b etween co n scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n regu la t o r y p ro cesses
(M ayer & Sa lovey, 1995 ). E m o t io n regu lat o ry styles still a re seen a s
cen t r a l t o p sych o p a t h o lo gy (C icch et t i, A cker m a n , & Iza rd , 1995 ; G ro ss
& M u n o z, 19 95), b u t t h ere n ow is grea t er in t erest in d irectly a ssessin g t h e
fu ll r a n ge o f n o r m a l fu n ct ion in g a s well (e.g. C a t a n za ro, 19 96). P erh a p s
t h e m o st str ik ing d isco n t inu ity, h o wever, is co n t em p o r a r y resea rch ers’
relia n ce o n co rrelat io n a l a n d exp er im en t a l m et h o d s r at h er t h a n clin ica l
rep o r t s.
The Stress and Coping Tradition
T h e seco n d im p o rt a n t p recu rso r t o co n t em p o r a r y em o t io n regu la t io n
resea rch is t h e stress a n d co p in g t ra d itio n . T h is t ra d itio n o r igin a t ed in
t h e wo rk o f C a n n o n (1914), a lth o u gh it wa s Selye wh o p o p u la rised t h e
n o t io n t h a t o rga n ism s p ro du ce sim ila r ``st ress’’ resp o n ses t o d iver se ch a llen ges (Selye, 19 56, 1974). T h is view d raws u p o n a n a n a lo gy t o p hysica l
lo a d s t h at exer t a fo rce o n n a tu ra l o r m a n -m a d e st ru ct u res, resu ltin g in a
st ra in , o r d efo r m a t io n o f t h e st ru ct u re d u e t o t h e st ress (H in k le, 1974).
I m p o r t in g t h ese n o t io n s t o t h e b io logica l rea lm , Selye a rgu ed t h a t st resso rs
im p in ge u p o n t h e o rga n ism , wh ich resp o n d s by p ro d u cin g a st ereo t yp ed
st ress resp o n se, wh o se p ro ®le va ries a cco rd in g t o wh eth er t h e st resso r is o f
sh o rt d u r a tio n (a la r m ), m o d era t e d u ra t io n (resist a n ce), o r lo n g d u ra t io n
(exh a u st io n ).
In t erest in st ress resea rch gr ew d u rin g Wo r ld Wa r II , a s resea rch ers
exp lo red t h e co n seq u en ces o f wa r o n ®gh t in g m en (e.g. G r in ker &
Sp iegel, 1945), a n d co n t inu ed t o ga in m o m en t u m a ft er t h e wa r a s a t t en t io n sh ift ed t o t h e st resses o f p ea cetim e. A lth o u gh ea r ly stress resea rch
fo cu sed o n resp o n ses t o physical ch a llen ges su ch a s crowd in g a n d co ld ,
resea rch ers so o n b ega n t o exp lo re resp o n ses t o psychological stresso r s a s
well. T h e stu dy o f p sych o logica l st ress led t o a n em p h a sis o n t h e cogn itive
p ro cesses req u ired t o t r a n sfo r m a n ext ern a l even t in t o so m et h in g with
a d a p t ive sign i®ca n ce fo r t h e in d ivid u a l (L a za r u s, 1966). T h is led t o d ist in ctio n s a m o n g: (a ) h ow t h e sit u a t io n wa s eva lu a t ed (p r im a r y a p p ra isa l);
EMOTION REGULATION
555
(b ) h ow t h e o rga n ism viewed it s o wn ca p a cities t o resp o n d (seco n d a ry
a p p ra isa l); a n d (c) h o w t h e o rga n ism a t t em p t ed t o m a n a ge t h e t ro u bled
o rga n ism -enviro n m en t rela t io n t h a t o cca sio n ed t h e st ress (co p in g). St ress
wa s d e®n ed a s ``a rela t io n sh ip b et ween t h e p er so n a n d t h e enviro n m en t
t h a t is ap p ra ised b y t h e p erso n a s releva n t t o h is o r h er well-b ein g a n d in
wh ich t h e p er so n ’s reso u rces a re t a xed o r exceed ed ’’, a n d co p in g wa s
d e®n ed a s ``co gn itive a n d b eh avio r a l effo r t s t o m a n a ge (m a st er, red u ce,
o r t o lera t e) a t ro u b led p er so n -enviro n m en t relat io n sh ip ’’ (F o lk m a n &
L a za ru s, 1985, p. 152).
In itia lly, co m m o n a lties were em p h a sised a cro ss sit u at io n s r a n gin g fro m
t h e o rd in a r y, su ch a s t a k in g a n exa m (M ech a n ic, 1962 ) t o t h e ext r a o rd in a r y, su ch a s b ein g t ra p p ed in a co a l m in e (L u ca s, 1969). W ith t im e,
resea rch er s b ega n t o d ist in gu ish a m o n g st resso rs. L a za r u s (1966 ) d e®n ed
har m a s a fo r m o f st ress a sso cia t ed w ith d a m a ge t h at h a s b een d o n e,
threat a s a fo r m o f st ress a sso cia t ed with fu t u re h a r m , a n d challenge a s a
fo r m o f st ress a sso cia ted with p o sit ive resp on d in g. L ikew ise, Selye (1974)
d ist in gu ish ed b etween eustressÐ a fo r m o f st ress a sso cia t io n with go o d
feelin gs, a n d distressÐ a fo rm o f stress a sso cia t ed with b a d feelin gs.
D ist in ct io n s a lso were m a d e a m o n g co p in g resp o n ses, su ch a s L a za ru s
a n d co llea gu es’ d ist in ctio n b et ween problem-focused coping, wh ich wa s
a im ed at ®xin g t h e p ro b lem , a n d em otion-focused coping, which wa s
a im ed a t lessen in g n ega t ive em o t io n exp erien ce. I t wa s t h is la st co n st ru ct , in p a rt icu la r, t h a t la id t h e gro u n dwo rk fo r t h e st u d y o f em o t io n
regu la tio n .
Continuities and D iscontinuities. R esea rch er s lo n g h ave b em o a n ed t h e
co n cep t u a l co n fu sio n a sso cia t ed with t h e t er m st ress (e.g. H a a n , 1993;
H o b fo ll, 1989). T h e p ro b lem is t h a t ``st ress’’ cover s su ch a n ext r a o rd in a ry r a n ge o f p h en o m en a t h at m a ny h ave co n clu d ed t h a t ``t h e t er m is
m ea n in gless’’ (L evin e & U rsin , 19 91, p. 3). L ikewise, co p in g n o w seem s
t o in clu d e t h e fu ll r a n ge o f b eh avio u r em itt ed b y a n in d ivid u a l in t a xin g
circu m sta n ces (C o st a , So m er®eld , & M cC ra e, 1996). E m o t io n regu la t ion
resea rch er s h ave so u gh t ®n er-gra in ed d ist in ct io n s a m o n g enviro n m en t o rga n ism in t er a ct io n s t h a n a re p o ssible u n d er t h e b ro a d ru b ric o f st ress,
u sin g eith er d im en sio n a l (D avid so n , 1992 ; L a n g, 1995) o r d iscrete
(E k m a n , 1992) a p p ro a ch es. O n t h e co p in g sid e, t o o, em o t io n regu la t ion
resea rch er s a re fo cu sin g in crea sin gly o n sp eci®c em o t io n regu la t o ry
p ro cesses su ch a s r u m in a t io n (N o len -H o ek sem a , 19 93), su p p ressio n
(G ro ss, 1998 a ), a n d d own wa rd so cia l co m p a r iso n (A sp in wa ll & Ta ylo r,
1993). O f t h e t wo t er m sÐ co p in g a n d em o t io n regu la t io n Ð co p in g is t h e
b ro a d er cat ego r y, a s it in clu d es n o n em o t io n a l a ct io n s t a ken t o a ch ieve
n o n em o t io n a l go a ls (Sch eier, Wein b t r a u b , & C a r ver, 1986), su ch a s
bu yin g a m a p in o rd er t o n avigat e a n ew city. C o p in g a lso d iffer s
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GROSS
fro m em o t io n regu la tio n in t h a t t h e u n it o f a n a lysis is t yp ica lly lo n ger Ð
ext en d ed per io d s o f h o u rs, d ays, o r m o n t h s r at h er t h a n seco n d s o r
m inu t es. T h u s, fo r exa m p le, o n e m igh t sp ea k o f co p in g with a d ju st m en t
t o fresh m a n yea r o f co llege, o r co p in g with t h e lo ss o f o n e’s sp o u se.
H owever, co p in g d o es n o t en t irely su b su m e em o t io n regu la t io n : E m o t io n
regu la t io n in clu d es p ro cesses n o t t yp ica lly co n sid ered in t h e co p in g
lit er a t u re, su ch a s regu la t in g exp ressive o r p hysio logica l a sp ect s o f em o t io n , o r in ¯u en cin g p o sitively va len ced em o t io n s.
CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS
W it h p sych o a n a lyt ic a n d st ress a n d co p in g t r a d it io n s a s a b a ck d ro p,
em o t io n regu la t io n resea rch h a s em erged a s a rela t ively d ist in ct d o m a in
over t h e p a st t wo d eca d es (G ro ss, 1998b ). P a r a m ou n t co n cern s in clu d e
d e®n in g em o t io n a n d em o t io n regu la t io n , a n d d elin ea t in g in d ivid u a ls’
em o t io n regu la t o r y go a ls a n d str a tegies.
De®ning Emotion
F ro m a n evolu t io n a ry p ersp ect ive, em o t io n sÐ lik e m a ny o f o u r p hysica l
a t t r ib u t es a n d p sych o logica l p ro cessesÐ rep resent t im e-tested so lu t io n s t o
a d a p t ive p ro b lem s (To o b y & C o sm id es, 1990). In p a rt icu la r, em o t io n s a re
t h o u gh t t o h ave a risen b eca u se t h ey ef®cien t ly co -o rd in at e d iver se resp o n se
syst em s, t h ereb y h elp in g u s resp o n d t o im p o r t a n t ch a llen ges o r o p p o r t u n it ies (L even so n , 1994). Ta ke fea r, fo r exa m p le. W h en we a re a fra id , o u r
sen ses a re sh a r p en ed , o u r m u scles a re p rim ed t o m ove u s q u ick ly o u t o f
h a r m ’s way, a n d o u r ca rd io va scu la r syst em is t u n ed t o p rovid e in crea sed
o xygen a n d en ergy t o la rge m u scle gro u p s t h a t will b e ca lled u p o n wh en we
¯ee. T h ese em o t io n a l rea ct io n s t yp ica lly a re sh o rt -lived , a n d invo lve
ch a nges in su b jective exp erien ce, exp ressive b eh avio u r, a n d cen t ra l, a u t o n o m ic a n d en d o cr in e resp o n se syst em s (L a n g, 1995). D ifferen t em o t io n s
a re t h o u gh t t o a d d ress d ifferen t a d a p t ive p ro b lem s (e.g. E k m a n , 1992;
I za rd , 1977; P lu t ch ik , 1980), a lt h o u gh t h ere is cu rren t ly lively d eb a t e
ab o u t t h e ext en t t o wh ich ea ch em o t io n ca lls fo r t h d ist in gu ish ab le, cro sssit u at io n a lly co n sist en t p hysio lo gica l (C a cio p p o, K lein , Ber n t so n , & H at ®eld , 1993; L even so n , 19 92; Z a jo n c & M cI n t o sh , 19 92) a n d b eh avio u r a l
(E k m a n , 1994 ; F rijd a , 1986; R u ssell, 1994) resp o n ses. If ``a ffect ’’ is u sed t o
refer t o va len ced (``go o d -b a d ’’) rea ct io n s t o st im u li o r situ a t io n s t ha t a re
m ea n in gfu l t o t h e in d ivid u a l (Sch erer, 1984), em o t io n s a re p a r t o f t h e
la rger a ffect ive fa m ily t h a t a lso in clu d es: (a ) stress responses t o t a xin g
circu m st a n ces; (b ) em otion episodes su ch a s a b a r-ro o m b rawl a n d d eliverin g b a d n ews t o a clo se fr ien d; a n d (c) mood s su ch a s d ep ressio n a n d
eu p h o r ia .
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De®ning Emotion Regulation
T h e p h ra se ``em o t io n regu lat io n ’’ is a m b igu o u s, a s it m igh t refer eq u a lly
well t o h o w em o t io n s regu la t e so m et h in g elseÐ su ch a s t h o u gh t s o r b eh avio u r Ð o r t o h ow em ot io n s a re t h em selves regu la t ed (D o d ge & G a r b er,
1991). H o wever, if a p rim a ry fu n ct io n o f em o t io n is t o co -o rd in a t e d iverse
resp o n se syst em s (C a m p o s et a l., 19 83), t h e ®rst sen se o f em o t io n regu lat io n is la rgely red u n d a n t with em o t io n . F o r t h is rea so n , I b elieve t h a t t h e
seco n d u sa ge is p referab le, in wh ich em o t io n regu la t io n refer s t o t h e
h et erogen eo u s set o f p ro cesses b y wh ich em o t io n s a re t h em selves regu la t ed . B eca u se virt u a lly a ll go a l-d irect ed b eh avio u r ca n b e co n st ru ed a s
m a xim isin g p lea su re o r m in im isin g p a in Ð a n d t h u s a ffect regu lat o ry in
so m e b ro a d sen seÐ it is im p o rt a n t t o p reven t over-in clu sivit y b y n a rro win g t h e fo cu s t o p ro cesses wh o se p roxim a l fu n ctio n is t o regu la t e em o t io n .
A seco n d im p o rt a n t d ist in ct io n is su ggested b y resea rch ers’ u se o f
em o t io n regu la t io n t o refer b o t h t o h o w in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce t h eir ow n
em o t io n s a n d t o h o w t h ey in ¯u en ce o t h er p eo p le’s em o t io n s. T h is p ra ct ice
lea d s t o d iscu ssio n s in wh ich st i¯in g o n e’s o wn t ea rs a n d t ellin g so m eo n e
else t o st o p a ct in g like a cryb ab y a re b o t h co n sid ered in sta n ces o f em o t ion
regu la tio n . T h is u sa ge is p a rt icu la rly co m m o n in t h e d evelo p m en t a l lit er at u re (e.g. M a sters, 19 91; T h o m p so n , 1994), bu t it is a lso evid en t in t h e
a d u lt lit era t u re (G ro ss & L even so n , 1993; Sa lovey, H see, & M ayer, 1993). I
n o w b elieve t h is d o u b le u sa ge is u n fo rt u n a t e, a s it m ixes t wo p o t en t ia lly
q u it e d ifferen t set s o f m o t ives, go a ls, a n d st ra t egies. Bo t h k in d s o f em o t ion
regu la tio n m u st b e exa m in ed , b u t in d o in g so , t h e t wo sh o u ld b e clea rly
d ist in gu ish ed . I n t h e fo llo win g, I fo cu s o n em o t io n regu la t io n in t h e self, b y
wh ich I m ea n t h e ways in d ivid u a ls in ¯u en ce wh ich em o t io n s t h ey h ave,
wh en t h ey h ave t h em , a n d h o w t h ey exp erien ce a n d exp ress t h ese em o t io n s.
In co llo q u ia l u sage, em o t io n is o ft en u sed in t erch a n geab ly with t h e su b ject ive exp er ien ce o f em o t io n , a n d em o t io n regu lat io n t h u s m igh t b e
t h o u gh t t o n ecessa r ily invo lve ch a n ges in su b jective exp er ien ce. H o wever,
t h ere is gen er a l co n sen su s a m o n g em o t io n resea rch er s t h a t em o t io n s a re
m u ltico m p o n en t ia lÐ sp a n n in g exp er ien t ia l, b eh avio u ra l, a n d p hysio lo gica l
d o m a in s. E m o t io n regu la t io n t h u s invo lves ch a n ges in o n e o r m o re o f t h ese
resp o n ses syst em s a n d n eed n o t (bu t cer t a in ly ca n ) invo lve a t t em p t s t o
ch a n ge t h e su b jective exp er ien ce o f em o t io n .
A t h ird d ist in ct io n co n cer n s wh et h er em o t io n regu la t io n is co n scio u s o r
n o n co n scio u s (M a st er s, 1991; M ayer & Sa lovey, 1995). P ro t o t yp ic exa m p les
o f em o t io n regu lat io n a re co n scio u s, su ch a s d ecid in g t o ch a n ge a n u p set t in g t o p ic, o r sq u elch in g la u gh t er a t a ch ild’s in ap p ro p riat e a n t ics. O n e
m igh t im a gin e, h owever, em o t io n regu lat o ry a ct ivit y o ccu rr in g wit h o u t
co n scio u s awa ren ess, su ch a s wh en well-p r a ct ised ro u t in es b eco m e a u t o m at ised . E xa m p les in clu d e h id in g o n e’s d isa p p o in t m en t a t a n u n a t t ra ct ive
558
GROSS
p resen t (C o le, 1986), ligh t in g a ciga rett e wh en a n xio u s (Bra n d o n , 1994), o r
even cra ck in g a jo ke t o relieve t en sio n (F red r ick so n & L even so n , 1998).
P revio u s d iscu ssio n s h ave favo u red a ca tego rica l d ist in ct io n b et ween co n scio u s a n d u n co n scio u s p ro cesses, bu t it p ro b ably is m o re u sefu l t o t h in k o f
a co n t inu u m o f p ro cesses t h a t va r y in t h e d egr ee t o wh ich t h ey a re
co n t ro lled , effo r t fu l, a n d co n scio u s ver su s a u t o m a t ic, effo rt less, a n d
u n co n scio u s. C la rity ab o u t t h e n a t u re o f p ro cesses u n d er invest iga t io n is
essen t ia l b eca u se t h ere m ay b e im p o rt a n t d ifferen ces in t h e a n t eced en t s a n d
co n seq u en ces o f em o t io n regu lat o ry p ro cesses ch a r a ct er ised b y d ifferin g
levels o f co n scio u sn ess (Wegn er & Ba rgh , 19 98).
Emotion Regulatory Goals
A n evo lu t io n a ry p er sp ect ive h o ld s t h a t em o t io n s en co d e sit u a t io n -resp o n se
d ep en d en cies t h a t h ave p roven va lu ab le over t h e sweep o f m illen n ia (To o by
& C o sm id es, 19 90). T h is in n o wa y im p les, h owever, t h a t em o t io n resp o n se
t en d en cies a re a lwaysÐ o r even u su a llyÐ a p p ro p r iat e t o t h e sit u a t io n s we
n ow fa ce. P hysica l a n d so cia l enviro n m en t s h ave ch a n ged o u t o f a ll recogn it io n fro m t h o se t h a t sh a p ed o u r em o t io n s, a n d t ech n o logica l a d va n ces
h ave d ra m a tica lly m a gn i®ed t h e co n seq u en ces t h at o u r em o t io n a l
resp o n ses m ay h ave fo r o u r selves a n d o t h ers. A n irritab le sw ip e t h a t o n ce
sca rcely ra ised a welt, is n o w t r a n slat ed w it h t h e grea t est ea se in t o a fa t a l
ca r a ccid en t o r gu n -rela t ed h o m icid e.
H owever rea l t h e m a ny b en e®t s o f em o t io n , t h en , it is im p o rt a n t n o t t o
overst a te t h e a dva n t a ges o f a ct in g in a cco rd w it h u n t ra m m eled em o t io n a l
im p u lses (P a rro t t , 1995). In d eed , wh en o n e su rveys t h e ca u ses o f h u m a n
d ysfu n ct io n a n d su ffer in g, o n e is str u ck b y t h e d egr ee t o wh ich em o t io n s
lea d u s t o d o t h in gs t h at ca u se su ffer in g t o o u rselves a n d t h o se a ro u n d u s,
wh et h er t h ro u gh im p u lsive agg ressive a ct io n , h a st y b u sin ess d ecisio n s, o r
d eceit fu l sexu a l lia iso n s. P a r t icu la rly wh en em o t io n s a re viewed a s a risin g
a t m o m en t s o f ch a llen ge o r o p p o rt u n ity, t h e im p o rt a n ce o f p ro p er regu la t io n is u n m ist a k able.
We k n ow relat ively lit t le ab o u t in d ivid u a ls’ em o t io n regu la t o ry go a ls,
b u t it seem s in crea sin gly clea r t h a t em o t io n regu la t io n in vo lves b o t h
d ecrea sin g a n d in crea sin g n egat ive a n d p o sitive em o t io n s (L a n gst o n ,
19 94; M a sters, 1991; P a rro t t , 1993). E m o t io n regu la t io n t h a t invo lves
decreasing em o t io n s m ay o ccu r wh en : (a ) em o t io n s p rom p t b eh avio u r a l
resp o n ses t h at a re n o lo n ger u sefu l, su ch a s p hysica lly a tt a ck in g a n irr it at in g su b o rd in at e; (b ) em o t io n s a r ise fro m a n overly sim p le a p p r a isa l o f t h e
sit u at io n , su ch a s m ist a k in g a st ick fo r a sn a ke; o r (c) em o t io n resp o n se
t en d en cies co n ¯ict with o t h er im p o rt a n t go a ls, su ch a s savin g o n e’s sk in by
¯eein g a ®gh t ver su s savin g fa ce b y st a n d in g o n e’s gr o u n d . E m o t io n
regu la t io n t h at in vo lves initiating or increasing em o t io n s m ay o ccu r
EMOTION REGULATION
559
wh en : (a ) em o t io n resp o n se t en d en cies a re la ck in g b eca u se o n e’s m in d is
elsewh ere, b u t o n e wish es t o m u st er a n a p p ro p ria t ely en t h u sia st ic resp o n se
t o a n o t h er ’s go o d n ew s; o r (b ) o n e d esires t o rep la ce o n e em o t io n with
a n o t h er, su ch a s wh en o n e is feelin g d ow n , a n d o n e wa n t s t o su m m o n a
m o re p o sitive em o t io n a l st a te b efo re ca llin g o n frien d s. O n e resea rch
p r io rity is t o d evelo p a b et t er u n d er st a n d in g o f wh at in d ivid u a ls a re t r yin g
t o a cco m p lish wh en t h ey regu la t e t h eir em o t io n s, keep in g in m in d t h at
em o t io n regu lat o r y go a ls m ay b e n o n co n scio u s, a n d t h a t t h ey a re likely t o
b e h igh ly co n t ext -sen sit iveÐ su ch a s m a t ch in g t h e em o t io n a l sta t e o f a n
a n t icip a t ed in t er a ct io n p a rt n er (E r b er, Wegn er, & T h err ia u lt , 1996).
Emotion Regulatory Processes
W h a t in d ivid u a ls wa n t t o a ch ieve a s t h ey in ¯u en ce t h eir em o t io n sÐ t h eir
em o t io n regu la t o ry go a lsÐ m ust b e d ist in gu ish ed fro m t h e p ro cesses t h ey
in vo ke in o rd er t o a ch ieve t h ese go a ls. O n e way t o o rga n ise t h ese em o t io n
regu la to ry p ro cesses is b y d r awin g o n a co n sen su a l p ro cess m o d el o f
em o t io n gen era t io n . T h is m o d el is a d ist illa t io n o f m a jo r p oin t s o f co nvergen ce a m o n g em o t io n resea rch ers wh o em p h a sise b io lo gica l b a ses o f
em o t io n (m a jo r co n t r ibu t o r s t o t h is t r a d it io n in clu d e: A r n o ld , 1960; Bu ck ,
1985; E k m a n , 1972; F r ijd a , 19 86; Iza rd , 19 77; L a za ru s, 1991; P lu t ch ik ,
1980; Sch erer, 19 84; To m k in s, 1962). A cco rd in g t o t h is m o d el, em o t io n
b egin s with a n eva lu a t io n o f ext er n a l o r in t ern a l em o t io n cu es. C er t a in
eva lu a t io n s t rigger a co -o rd in at ed set o f b eh avio u r a l, exp erien t ia l, a n d
p hy sio logica l em o t io n resp o n se t en d en cies. T h ese resp o n se t en d en cies
m ay b e m o d u la t ed , a n d it is t h is m o d u la tio n t h a t gives ®n a l sh ap e t o
m a n ifest em o t io n a l resp o n ses.
U sin g t h is sch em e, em o t io n regu la t o r y p ro cesses m ay b e seen a s t a rget in g o n e o r m o re o f ®ve p o in t s in t h e em o t io n -gen er at ive p ro cess (G ro ss,
1998b ). F irst , regu la to ry str at egies m ay a ct o n t h e sit u a t io n it self. T h e m o st
fo r wa rd -lo o k in g a p p ro a ch m igh t b e ca lled situation selection. T h is refer s t o
a p p ro a ch in g o r avo id in g cert a in p eo p le o r sit u a t io n s o n t h e b a sis o f t h eir
likely em o t io n a l im p a ct ; Sca r r a n d M cC a rt n ey (1983) h ave ca lled t h is n ich e
p ick in g. O n ce o n e is in a n em o t io n -elicitin g sit u a t io n , situation modification is st ill p o ssib le. T h is refers t o m o d ifyin g t h e lo ca l enviro n m en t so a s t o
a lter it s em o t io n a l im p a ct . Situ at io n select io n a n d sit u a t io n m o d i®ca t io n
h elp sh ap e t h e in d ivid u a l’s sit u a t io n . H owever, it a lso is p o ssib le t o regu la t e
em o t io n s with o u t a ct u a lly ch a n gin g t h e enviro n m en t . Sit u a t io n s h ave
m a ny a sp ect s, a n d attentional deploym ent refer s t o h ow in d ivid u a ls d irect
t h eir a t t en t io n w it h in a given sit u a t io n in o rd er t o in ¯u en ce t h eir em o t io n s.
T h is in clu d es a tt en t io n a l st ra t egies ra n gin g fro m d ist ra ctio n , wh ich fo cu ses
o n n o n em o t io n -releva n t a sp ects o f t h e sit u at io n , o r sh ift s a t t en t io n away
fro m t h e im m ed ia t e sit u at io n a lt o get h er (D er ryb erry & R o t h b a rt , 1988) t o
560
GROSS
r u m in a tio n , wh ich fo cu ses a tt en t io n o n t h e sit u a t io n a n d its em o t io n a l
im p lica t io n s (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ). E ven a fter a sit u a t io n h a s b een
selected , m o d i®ed , a n d select ively a t t en d ed t o, it still is p o ssible t o a lt er
its em o t io n a l im p a ct . Cognitive change refers t o eva lu at in g t h e sit u a t io n
o n e is in so a s t o a lt er its em o t io n a l signi®ca n ce, eit her by ch a n gin g h ow
o n e t h in k s ab o u t t h e sit u a t io n o r ab o u t o n e’s ca p a city t o m a n a ge t h e
d em a n d s it p o ses. Response m odulation refer s t o in ¯u en cin g em o t io n
resp o n se t en d en cies o n ce t h ey a rise. E ver yd ay exp er ien ce is rep let e with
effo r t s t o m a n ip u la t e em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r, su ch a s h id in g a n ger a t
a n o ffen sive rem a rk , a s well a s p hysio lo gica l resp o n d in g, su ch a s slowin g
o n e’s b rea t h in g ra t e. It is less cer t a in wh eth er em o t io n exp erien ce ca n b e
m o d i®ed d irect ly, a lth o u gh cogn it ive, b eh avio u r a l, a n d p h a r m a co logic
m ea n s a ll m ay b e u sed t o m o d ify em o t io n exp er ien ce in d irect ly.
CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH
A growin g sen se o f sh a red p u r p o se in t h e d o m a in o f em o t io n regu la t io n
h a s led t o gr ea ter co n t a ct b et ween p revio u sly d isp a ra t e resea rch p ro gr a m s.
I n t h e fo llo win g sect io n s, I illu st ra t e cu r ren t em o t io n regu la t ion resea rch
b y d escr ib in g p ro m isin g resea rch o n b a sic p ro cesses a n d in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in a d u lt em o t io n regu la t io n (fo r a review o f t h e lit era t u re o n em o t io n
regu la t io n in ch ild ren , see T h o m p so n , 1990). R e¯ect in g t h e b ia s in co n t em p o ra r y resea rch , m y fo cu s is o n t h e regu la t io n o f n egat ive em o t io n s.
Basic Processes
A va riet y o f em o t io n regu la t o r y p ro cesses h ave a t t r a ct ed a tt en t io n , in clu d in g: R eca llin g m o o d -in co n gr u en t m em o r ies (P a rro t t & Sa b in i, 19 90; Sm ith
& P et t y, 1995), h elp in g o t h er s (Sch a ller & C ia ld in i, 1990), exercisin g
(T h ayer, N ewm a n & M cC la in , 19 94), seek in g so cia l su p p o rt (R ip p ere,
19 77), u sin g d r u gs (M o rris & R eilley, 19 87), a n d m a k in g so cia l co m p a riso n s (Taylo r & L o b el, 1989). In t h e fo llowin g, I fo cu s o n t wo b a sic
p ro cessesÐ rea p p ra isa l a n d su p p ressio n Ð t h at rep resen t t wo m a jo r p o in t s
in t h e em o t io n gen er a t ive p ro cess a t wh ich em o t io n s ca n b e regu la t ed
(G ro ss, 1998b ).
Reappraisal. I t is w id ely agr eed t h a t a sit u a t io n t yp ica lly d o es n o t in
a n d o f itself gen era t e em o t io n . R a t h er, it is t h e in d ivid u a l’s eva lu at io n o f
t h a t situ a tio n t h a t is em o t io n -gen era t ive. O n e p o wer fu l m ea n s o f em o t io n
regu la t io n , t h erefo re, is t o m o d ify t h e way a sit u a t io n is eva lu at ed . Su ch
rea p p ra isa ls m ay d ecrea se em o t io n a l resp o n d in g, a s wh en o n e im a gin es
t h a t gr ap h ic n ews fo o t a ge h a s b een fa ked , o r in crea se em o t io n a l resp o n d in g, a s wh en o n e rein t erp ret s a jo k e a s a t h in ly veiled in su lt. R ea p p ra isa l
EMOTION REGULATION
561
p lays a key ro le in t h eo r ies o f em o t io n (e.g. L a za ru s, 1991) a n d st ress
red u ct io n (e.g. K a t z & E p st ein , 1991; M eich en b a u m , 1985). U n fo rt u n a t ely, d esp ite its wid e cu r ren cy, even t h e hyp o t h esis t h a t co gn itive str a tegies m ay b e u sed t o d ecrea se n ega t ive em o t io n Ð wh ich is wh at we k n o w
m o st ab o u t Ð h a s a su r p r isin gly m o d est em p ir ica l fo u n d a t io n . L ea d in g
su b ject s t o rea p p ra ise n ega t ive em o t io n -elicitin g ®lm s h a s b een sh ow n t o
d ecrea se n egat ive em o t io n exp erien ce (C a n t o r & W ilso n , 1984; D a n d o y &
G o ld st ein , 1990; G ro ss, 1998a ; L a za ru s & A lfer t , 1964). H owever, co n co m ita n t d ecrea ses in p hysio logica l resp o n d in g a re o ft en n o t o b served (e.g.
G ro ss, 1998a ; St ep t o e & Vo gele, 1986). W hy m igh t t h is b e? O n e p o ssib ilit y
is t h at co gn itive ap p ra isa ls p lay a lim ited ro le in t h e gen er at io n o f p hysio lo gica l resp o n se t en d en cies in t h e co n t ext o f gr a p h ic su rgery ®lm s
(L eD o u x, 19 89). If so, rea p p r a isa l m igh t b e exp ect ed t o b e m o re effect ive
in co m p lex so cia l sit u a t io n s. In d eed , St em m ler (1997 ) h a s sh o wn t h at
reap p ra isa l in st r u ct io n s led t o d ecrea sed p hysio lo gica l resp o n d in g fo r
su b ject s wh o a n exp er im en t er ver b a lly h a r a ssed . O n e im p o rt a n t d irect io n
fo r fu t u re resea rch is t o u se rea p p ra isa l a s a p ro b e t o cla r ify t h e n at u re o f
cogn it ive p ro cessin g in em o t io n gen era t io n a n d regu la tio n .
Sup pression. C o n t em p o ra r y in t erest in t h e effect s o f in h ib itin g em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r ca n b e t r a ced t o W illia m Ja m es. O n Ja m es’
(1884) view, em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r wa s so im p o r t a n t t o em o t io n
t h a t go in g t h ro u gh t h e o u t wa rd m o t io n s o f a n em o t io n a l st a te co u ld give
rise t o t h a t feelin g, a n d lim it in g exp ressive b eh avio u r co u ld d ecrea se t h e
a sso ciat ed feelin gs. O n e va ria n t o f t h is hyp o t h esis ca m e t o b e k n own a s t h e
``fa cia l feed b a ck hyp o t h esis’’ (Bu ck , 19 80). M o st st u d ies d esign ed t o t est
t h is hyp o t h esis co n cen t ra t ed o n t h e em o t io n gen era tio n a sp ect o f t h e
hyp o t h esis, a n d in d eed , in it ia t in g em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r seem s t o
in crea se t h e feelin g o f t h at em o t io n sligh t ly (M a t su m o t o, 1987 ). F ewer
st u d ies h ave t est ed p red ict io n s rega rd in g t h e su p p ressio n o f o n go in g em o t io n a l b eh avio u r, a s it wa s a ssu m ed t h a t in h ib it in g o n go in g em o t io n
exp ressive b eh avio u r wo u ld sim p ly h ave t h e o p p o sit e effect s fro m vo lu n t a rily p ro d u cin g em o t io n -exp ressive b eh avio u r (G ro ss & L even so n , 1993).
H owever, resu lts t o d a t e d o n o t su p p o rt t h e view t h a t su p p ressio n is t h e
sim p le o p p o sit e o f exa ggera t io n . W h at is k n o wn su ggest s t h a t in h ib itin g
exp ressive b eh avio u r d ecrea ses self-rep o r t ed exp er ien ce o f so m e em o t io n s
(e.g. p a in , p rid e, a n d a m u sem en t ), b u t n o t o t h ers (e.g. d isgu st, sa d n ess)
(fo r a review, see G ro ss & L even so n , 1997). P hysio logica lly, in h ib itin g
exp ressive b eh avio u r wh ile wa itin g fo r a p a in fu l sh o ck lea d s t o d ecrea sed
sk in co n d u ct a n ce rea ct ivit y (C o lb y, L a n zet t a , & K leck , 1977; L a n zet t a ,
C a r t wr igh t -Sm it h , & K leck , 19 76), bu t t h e effect s o f in h ib itin g em o t io n a l
resp o n ses t o o t h er n egat ive st im u li h ave in clu d ed sign s o f in crea sed
sym p at h etic a ct ivat io n (G ro ss, 1998a ; G ro ss & L even so n , 1993, 1997).
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F u t u re resea rch sh o u ld exp lo re t h e ext en t t o wh ich t h e in h ib it io n o f
exp ressive b eh avio u r h a s co n sist en t effect s a cro ss em o t io n s, a n d t est
wh et h er t h ese effect s a re sim ila r t o t h o se o f a t t em p t in g t o in h ib it o t h er
a sp ect s o f t h e em o t io n a l resp o n se, su ch a s em o t io n a l exp er ien ce.
Individual Differences
E m ot io n regu la t io n a lways t a kes p la ce in t h e co n t ext o f a p a r ticu la r
in d ivid u a l. Beca u se in d ivid u a ls d iffer b o t h in th e em o t io n s t h ey exp erien ce a n d in t h e way t h ey regu lat e t h ese em o t io n s, a ny sep a r at io n b et ween
t h e st u dy o f b a sic em o t io n regu lat o ry p rocesses a n d ind ivid u a l d ifferen ces
in su ch p ro cesses m u st b e rega rd ed a s a t em p o r a ry co nven ien ce rat h er
t h a n a lo n g-ter m st ra t egy (see G ro ss, in p ress). H owever, o n e m a jo r
im p ed im en t t o t a k in g a process-o r ien t ed ap p ro a ch t o p er so n a lit y is t h a t
in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in em o t io n regu lat io n h ave b een stu d ied u n d er a
d isco n cert in gly la rge nu m b er o f ru b rics. C o n st ru ct s m o st clo sely relat ed t o
em o t io n regu lat io n in clu d e: E m o t io n a l co n tro l (Ro ger & N a ja ria n , 1989),
n ega t ive m oo d regu lat ion (C a ta n za ro, 1996), rep ressio n (Wein b erger,
1990), a n d ru m in at io n /d ist ra ctio n (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993). R elat ed co n str u ct s in clu d e: m o n ito rin g/b lu n t in g (M iller, 1987), sen sat io n seek in g
(Z u cker m a n , 1979), co n str u ctive t h in k in g (E p stein & M eier, 1989), im p u lsivit y (E ysen ck & E ysen ck, 1969), b eh avio u r a l inh ib itio n (K aga n, R ezn ick ,
& G ibb o n s, 1989), co n stra in t (Tellegen , 1985), a m b iva len ce over em o t io n a l exp ressivit y (K in g & E m m o n s, 1990), d elay o f gr at i®cat ion (M isch el, 19 74), a lexit hym ia (Taylo r, Bagb y, & P arker, 1997), co p in g style
(C a r ver, Sch eier, & Wein t ra u b, 19 89), ego co n tro l (Blo ck & Blo ck ,
1980), a n d em o t io n a l in t elligen ce (Sa lo vey & M ayer, 1990). R at h er t h a n
at t em p t in g a co m p reh en sive review, I illu strat e recen t resea rch o n ind ivid u a l d ifferen ces in em o t io n regu lat io n b y fo cu sin g on t wo well-st u d ied
in d ivid u a l d ifferen cesÐ ru m in a tion a nd rep ressio n Ð t h at were selected t o
rep resen t con scio u s a n d n o n co n scio u s em o t io n regu lat o r y p ro cesses t h a t
va ry d ia m et rica lly in t h eir u se o f at t en t io n.
Rumination. T h is refer s t o ``b eh avio u rs a n d t h o u gh t s t h a t fo cu s o n e’s
a t t en t io n o n o n e’s d ep ressive sym p t o m s’’ (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1991, p. 569).
E xa m p les in clu d e dw ellin g o n p ro b lem s o n e is h avin g at wo rk , fo cu sin g o n
feelin gs o f t ired n ess o r b o d ily p a in s, a n d wo rr yin g ab o u t h avin g yet
a n o t h er sleep less n igh t . W h en a ssessed b y N o len -H o ek sem a ’s R esp o n se
St yles Q u estio n n a ire (N o len -H o ek sem a & M o rro w, 1991 ), d isp o sit io n a l
r u m in a tio n h a s m o d era t e st ab ilit y over p er io d s a s lo n g a s o n e yea r (Ju st
& A lloy, 1997). R u m in at io n is effo rt fu l, co n t ro lled , a n d co n scio u s, a n d
seem s t o b e a im ed a t red u cin g d ep ressive feelin gs, a lt h o u gh its a ct u a l
effect is u su a lly t h e o p p o sit e. H igh er levels o f d isp o sit io n a l ru m in a t io n
EMOTION REGULATION
563
a re a sso cia t ed with gr eat er likelih o o d o f d evelo p in g d ep ressive sym p t o m s
(Ju st & A lloy, 1997; N o len -H o ek sem a , P a rker, & L a r so n , 1994), m o re
severe d ep ressive sym p t o m s (Ju st & A lloy, 1997; N o len -H o ek sem a &
M o rro w, 1991; N o len -H o ek sem a , M o rro w, & F red r ick so n , 1993), a n d
lo n ger d ep ressive ep iso d es (N o len -H o ek sem a , 1993 ; N o len -H o ek sem a ,
M cBr id e, & L a rso n , 1997). I n t h e co n t ext o f a n a n a lysis o f sex d ifferen ces
in d ep ressio n , N o len -H o ek sem a (1993, p. 30 8) h a s a rgu ed t h a t ``it is m o re
ef®cien t a n d p o t en t ia lly u sefu l t o fo cu s o n p eo p le’s styles o f resp o n d in g t o
t h e sp eci®c m o o d st a t es t h a n t o u t ilize m o re glo b a l co n st r u ct s’’. H o wever,
fro m a b ro a d er em o t io n regu la t o r y p ersp ect ive, o n e m igh t exp ect t h at
ru m in a t io n in t h e co n t ext o f o t h er em o t io n a l st at es su ch a s a n ger, gu ilt ,
o r a n xiet y wo u ld h ave co m p a rable co n seq u en ces in t er m s o f p ro d u cin g
m o re in t en se a n d lo n ger-la st in g ep iso d es o f ea ch o f t h ese em o t io n s.
E xp lo rin g in d ivid u a l d ifferen ces in ru m in a t io n with o t h er em o t io n a l sta t es
is a clea r resea rch p r io rity in t h is a rea .
Repression . Sin ce t h e 1950s, h u n d red s o f stu d ies h ave exa m in ed t h e
rep ressive co p in g st yle, a n d t h ere recen t ly h a s b een a ren a issa n ce o f
in t erest in t h is co n str u ct (E glo ff & K ro h n e, 1996). I n co n t ra st t o t h e
co n t ro lled a tt en t io n t o d ep ressive feelin gs t h a t ch a ra ct erises ru m in a t io n ,
rep ressio n a pp ea rs t o b e a n a u t o m a t ic a t t en t io n a l d efen ce aga in st
u n p lea sa n t st im uli (B o n a n n o & Sin ger, 1990) a n d a cco m p a nyin g a ffect ive a ro u sa l (K ro h n e, 1996), p o ssib ly invo lvin g in crea sed a t t en t io n t o
p lea sa n t t h o u gh t s (Bo d en & Ba u m eist er, 1997, bu t see M cF a rla n d &
Bu eh ler, 19 97). R epr essive t en d en cies a re t yp ica lly o p era t io n a lised a s
lo w sco res o n a t ra it a n xiet y m ea su re in co m b in a t io n with h igh sco res
o n a so cia l d esir ab ilit y m ea su res t h at t ap s d efen siven ess (Wein b erger,
Sch wa r t z, & D avid so n , 1979). C lin icia n ju d gem en t s o f d efen siven ess
a lso h ave b een u sed (Sh ed ler, M aym a n , & M a n is, 1993). R ep resso r s
rep o r t feelin g low levels o f a n xiet y (b y d e®n it io n ), a n d t h ese rep o rt s
m ay re¯ect less freq u en t n ega tive em o t io n exp er ien ce. In t erest in gly,
rep resso rs’ capac ity fo r n ega t ive em o t io n exp erien ce a p p ea rs u n d im in ish ed , a lt h o u gh t h ey d o la ck t h e seco n d a r y em o t io n s t h a t u su a lly a cco m p a ny a n em o t io n exp er ien ce (D avis, 1987; E glo ff & K ro h n e, 1996;
H a n sen & H a n sen , 1988). Beh avio u r a lly, rep resso rs sh ow d ecrea sed
exp ressive b eh avio u r (L even so n , M a d es, & M eek , 1980), a lth o u gh t h is
in h ib itio n o f exp ressive b eh avio u r m ay n o t b e evid en t when su b ject s do
n o t k n ow t h ey a re b ein g o b served (e.g. A sen d o rp f & Sch erer, 1983).
P hysio logica lly, rep resso rs t en d t o b e m o re a ro u sed p hysio lo gica lly
t h a n o t h er su b jects wh o rep o rt lo w a n xiet y, a s sh o wn b y gr ea ter fro n t a lis regio n elect ro m yo gr ap h ic (E M G ) a ct ivit y (Wein b erger et a l., 1979),
in crea sed co r t iso l levels (Bro wn et a l., 19 96), a n d in crea sed sym p a t h et ic
a ct iva tio n (e.g. K o h lm a n n , Weid n er, & M essin a , 19 96; L even so n et a l.,
564
GROSS
19 80; N ewt o n & C o n t ra d a , 1992; Wein b erger, 1990). F u t u re resea rch w ill
b e need ed t o cla rify rep resso rs’ t yp ica l p at t er n s o f em o t io n a l exp er ien ce
a n d exp ressio n , a n d t o a ssess m o re p recisely wh ere in t h e em o t io n gen era t ive p ro cess rep resso rs regu la t e em o t io n .
THEORETICAL CHALLENGES AND
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
T h is selective review o f recen t resea rch d em o nst ra tes t h e in t egr a t ive
p ower o f t h e co n st ru ct o f em o t io n regu la t io n . A p p a ren t ly d isp a ra t e
co n cern s a re b ro u gh t u n d er o n e ro o f, h elp in g t o sh a rp en q u est io n s
ab o u t p o in t s o f co nvergen ce a n d d ivergen ce a m o n g p ro cesses. H o wever,
t h e n o t io n o f em o t io n regu la t io n a lso p o ses a nu m b er o f serio u s t h eo ret ica l ch a llen ges. I n t h e fo llow in g sect io n s, I d iscu ss ®ve o f t h e m o st
p ressin g o f t h ese ch a llen ges, a n d su ggest a nu m b er o f d irect io n s fo r
fu t u re resea rch .
What Is Regulated in Emotion Regulation?
T h o m p so n (1994) ra ises t h e im p o rt a n t q u estio n a s t o wh at is regu la t ed in
em o t io n regu la tio n . I h ave su ggest ed t h at em o t io n regu la t io n invo lves
ch a nges in b eh avio u ra l, exp er ien t ia l, a n d /o r p hysio lo gica l resp o n ses.
Beca u se em o t io n s u n fo ld o ver t im e, t h ese ch a n ges in vo lve a ltera t io n s in
``em o t io n d yn a m ics’’ (T h o m p so n , 1990), o r t h e la t en cy, r ise t im e, m a gn it u d e, d u r a t io n , a n d o ffset o f resp o n ses in o n e o r m o re d o m a in s. E m o t io n
regu la t io n a lso m ay invo lve ch a n ges in h o w resp o n se co m p o n en t s a re
in t er rela ted a s t h e em o t io n u n fo ld s over t im e, su ch a s wh en la rge
in crea ses in