08832323.2011.608388
Journal of Education for Business
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Communication in a Changing World:
Contemporary Perspectives on Business
Communication Competence
Jennifer Waldeck , Cathryn Durante , Briana Helmuth & Brandon Marcia
To cite this article: Jennifer Waldeck , Cathryn Durante , Briana Helmuth & Brandon Marcia
(2012) Communication in a Changing World: Contemporary Perspectives on Business
Communication Competence, Journal of Education for Business, 87:4, 230-240, DOI:
10.1080/08832323.2011.608388
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JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS, 87: 230–240, 2012
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ISSN: 0883-2323 print / 1940-3356 online
DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2011.608388
Communication in a Changing World: Contemporary
Perspectives on Business Communication
Competence
Jennifer Waldeck, Cathryn Durante, Briana Helmuth, and Brandon Marcia
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Chapman University, Orange, California, USA
Communication in and around business organizations has changed due to new technologies,
the demand for intercultural communication skills, the changing person–organization relationship, and the global nature of organizing. As a result, new communication competencies
may be required. The author’s objective was to identify specific communication competencies
important in the contemporary business and professional environment. Toward that objective,
articles referring to communication from best-selling popular press and practitioner-oriented
business periodicals were used as artifacts for a content analysis. Six inductively derived
competencies represent a mix of traditional and contemporary communication skills. The influence of collaborative communication and global interconnectivity permeated each theme.
Furthermore, the competencies reveal the necessity of a skill set that transcends typical disciplinary divisions—encompassing technology, intergroup relations, nonverbal and chronemic
awareness, relational competence, and more. These competencies should be of interest to
communication educators and trainers as they design curriculum and training plans for a
contemporary audience.
Keywords: business communication, communication, communication competence, technology, workplace relationships
Scholars, corporate recruiters and managers, research firms,
and business writers have argued for years that the ability to
communicate effectively is a leading factor in professional
success. Communication competence is widely regarded as
the basis for many other behaviors important to a successful
career, including teamwork, leadership, planning, organizing, and more. However, numerous sources cite a lack of
these critical communication skills in contemporary business contexts (cf. Kristof, 2008; Levinson, 2008; Paulsell,
2008; Wellner, 2005). Moreover, the modern professional
environment is characterized by new forms of organizing,
powerful communication technologies, frequent change, diminishing boundaries between work life and personal life,
an older and more diverse workforce, and a greater emphasis
on globalism—and these changes impact business communication in dramatic ways that students must have exposure
to prior to entering the workforce.
Correspondence should be addressed to Jennifer Waldeck, Chapman
University, Department of Communication Studies, One University Drive,
Orange, CA 92866, USA. E-mail: jennifer.waldeck@gmail.com
The overriding aim of this study was to identify communication competencies relevant to the contemporary workplace.
Identification of these skills should aid business communication educators in addressing practical concerns in their
classrooms. Furthermore, this study should enable scholars
to identify research topics and methods that enable them to
“go beyond the knowledge discovery of the basic research
enterprise to interpret and apply research outcomes . . . and
develop practices for the betterment of everyday life” (Petronio, 2007, p. 215). To provide further rationale for this study,
the review of literature that follows makes a compelling case
for the importance of business communication competence,
defines the construct, and argues for the emphasis on communication competence in business education.
Why Business Communication Competence?
Communication researchers have made the case for the
importance of communication skills (Morreale, Osborn, &
Pearson, 2000; Morreale & Pearson, 2008) for “succeeding
in one’s career and in the business enterprise” (Morreale &
Pearson, p. 225). Importantly, the truism that communication
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
matters is acknowledged beyond the communication discipline; Harvard Business School professors Kleinbaum, Stuart, and Tushman (2008) wrote that “communication is central to the very existence of organizations” (¶ 1).
Communication is important in all kinds of industries,
from traditional service-oriented areas such as travel, hospitality, real estate, and sales to highly technical fields such
as medicine, design, and engineering. Andrew Burroughs, an
engineer with Silicon Valley firm IDEO, commented, “We’re
looking for employees who are very smart technical contributors but who are also interesting, curious people who can
communicate about a lot more than just technical matters”
(as cited by Locke, 2007, p. A9)—demonstrating that the
cross-functional nature of the modern workplace requires
the communicators (e.g., sales, marketing, public relations,
human resources positions) to have technical knowledge, and
the tech people (e.g., engineers, programmers, designers) to
have the social skills to meaningfully interact with others.
Critical for students preparing to go on post-graduation interviews (Kristof, 2008) to chief-level executives (Alexander, 2008), effective communication is positively related to
employee engagement, as well as a number of organizationlevel variables, including organizational performance, shareholder dividends, decreased turnover, and financial performance (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007). In other words,
communication is not just a soft skill.
What Is Contemporary Business Communication
Competence?
To answer this question, we began by questioning the depth
to which requisite business and professional communication
skills have been articulated in academic and practitioneroriented literature. Although communication skills are topranked requirements of employers (National Association of
Colleges and Employers, 2010), little recent research has
identified exactly which skills are most important and why.
For example, the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD; 2009) listed communication as one of
10 critical skills desired by employers—but goes on to further define the competency as simply involving listening and
speaking. Because these skills are covered in 100-level communication courses which many college graduates complete,
and because practitioners persist in reporting widespread
deficiencies in workplace communication, we believe that
a stronger, clearer delineation of specific communicationrelated business and professional requirements might be in
order.
Next, expectations for effective and competent business
communication have evolved. Pointing to the dramatic impact of communication technology and global organizing,
Du-Babcock (2006) wrote that “our challenge is to cope with
and communicate in this increasingly complex and diverse
global, multidisciplinary environment” (p. 256). However,
the last systematic examination of job performance criteria
231
from the communication discipline was conducted over 10
years ago (Winsor, Curtis, & Stephens, 1997). Since then, researchers have been overwhelmed with reports of the changing nature of work—and provided with no real synthesis of
what these developments mean in terms of necessary communication competencies. Understandably, none of the important communication skills Winsor et al. identified for new
graduates, experienced employees, or ideal managers in 1997
related to issues such as virtual work, digitally mediated or
enhanced communication, global communication, or just-intime information exchange. Thus, an updated spotlight on
specific communication skills relevant to success in business
and the professions is required.
In summary, researchers and practitioners have established that communication competence is central to an individual’s participation in organizational life, and, specifically,
to business and professional success. However, no recent
research indicates what specific skills are most important.
Thus, this study was driven by the specific objective of identifying these communication competencies germane to the
contemporary business and professional environment.
METHOD
Content Analysis as a Research Design
In this study I employed a research method known as content
analysis, used widely by communication researchers, social
psychologists, sociologists, library scientists, linguists, and
cybernetic scholars (Krippendorff, 2004) for the systematic
and reliable analysis of messages. Berelson (1952) described
content analysis as a “research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the content of
communication” (p. 18) such as conversation, public address,
written texts, or mediated messages (e.g., film, television, Internet content). To be credible, content analysis methodology
must rely on “the scientific method (including attention to
objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing)”
(Neuendorf, 2002, p. 10). To meet the definition and criteria
for content analysis, the present study’s design has several
key features prescribed by Neuendorf.
An a priori design. In a process described in the next
section entitled “Data Identification,” before assessing the
content, the researchers agreed on the content to be coded,
the parameters of a useful unit of analysis, and the coding
procedures to be used.
Evidence of interrater reliability. This study’s design
employed multiple coders to ensure the scientific reliability
of findings. The procedures used to arrive at intercoder reliability estimates are described subsequently. Furthermore,
to avoid contamination of the dataset by the subjective
232
J. WALDECK ET AL.
observations of singular coders, the research team met frequently to engage in structured discussion on the nature and
meaning of the data they identified (cf. Neuendorf, 2002, on
intersubjectivity).
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Replicability. The study’s design and the coding procedures utilized were conceived and are reported subsequently
in such a way that the study can be replicated using the same
or future published content.
Generalizability. The publications analyzed in this
investigation were chosen using specific criteria described
subsequently. These criteria were designed to maximize the
likelihood that references to communication competence
identified within the publications chosen would mirror or
apply to other similar cases (i.e., publications) not chosen
for analysis.
Appropriateness of Content Analysis for the
Present Investigation
Neuendorf (2002) reported that content analysis is widely
and routinely used for assessing mass messages (e.g., those
created for a large audience) such as newspaper, magazine,
radio, and television content. Because the goal of this project
involved generating practical findings which could be used
in applied settings, and which reflect contemporary advancements in business and organizing, the present analysis focused on references to communication in recent nationally
and internationally circulated popular press and practitioneroriented serial business magazines. These magazines are
widely read and influential on the thinking, behavior, and
decisions of practitioners from a diversity of fields, job positions, cultural orientations, and geographic locations; further,
these publications routinely report, directly and indirectly,
on the general strengths and weaknesses of business communicators today (Fell, 2010). A description of the methods
employed is described in the next section.
Data Identification
Identifying and narrowing the field of publications to
code. For this content analysis, the research team focused
on a core set of publications that met specific criteria. Only
the material that appeared in the print version of these publications was analyzed (although that material also may have
appeared online). Most business publications offer a great
deal of additional online content that does not appear in
their print versions. The research team determined that a
systematic identification and reliable analysis of online-only
content was an unrealistic and unmanageable project, and
consequently decided to focus on the print versions of selected publications.
Using procedures similar to Lewis, Schmisseur, Stephens,
and Weir (2006)—who used content analysis in examining
best selling business books—the authors selected serial publications that were rated as top 10 best-sellers in the Business
Management category on Amazon.com as of September 1,
2009. This particular category of magazines was most appropriate because publications within it focus on management
and leadership, rather than (or in addition to) other areas of
business, such as finance or investing—and therefore were
most likely to contain content relevant to the objective of
identifying communication competencies. The publications
chosen for inclusion in the content analysis were Forbes, Fast
Company, Harvard Business Review, MIT Sloan Management Review, Training, T+D, Entrepreneur, Inc, HR Magazine, and Business Week.
To identify references to communication, the research
team examined all issues of the eight monthly publications.
For the two weeklies (Business Week and Forbes), the issues published in the first and third weeks of the month were
coded. To be selected for this study, an article, interview, or
essay had to reference one or more specific communication
behaviors relevant to the business enterprise. The research
team began the process of data identification with the first
published issue of 2005 for each magazine. That particular year coincides with the emergence of Web 2.0 interactive communication technologies in organizational settings,
which have had a profound and documented impact on all organizing behavior (Lazar, 2007; O’Reilly, 2005). Thus, 2005
was an appropriate starting point for identifying skills important in the contemporary workplace. Once the core field
of publications was narrowed and identified, the researchers
then began the next step of content analysis, unitizing the
data.
Unitizing the data. Unitizing involves identifying discrete units of analysis that pertain specifically to the research
objective. After an initial one-week period of data identification, the researchers met to discuss the nature of the articles they had collected and the units identified. The lead
researcher read each article and then the team collectively
discussed the extent to which each article pertained to the research topic of communication competence in contemporary
business settings. Some articles mentioned communication
in only a brief or tangential way. The authors decided that a
brief mention of a communication skill without some depth
of explanation or logical argument about its centrality to the
business enterprise did not warrant inclusion in the study.
Using this discussion as a guide for further article identification, the process of data collection, identification, and
unitizing continued.
Coding procedures and establishing intercoder reliability. The research team identified 347 articles published in
issues of the 10 magazines for the period January 2005–June
2010. The publication featuring the greatest number of articles discussing communication was HR Magazine (n =
84), followed by Entrepreneur (n = 56) and Fast Company (n = 44). The publications with the fewest articles
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
referencing communication were Forbes (n = 11) and MIT
Sloan Management Review (n = 7). Employing generally accepted content analysis procedures described by Potter and
Riddle (2007), a random selection of 25% of the sampled articles was coded for communication skill reference by two of
the four authors to create an overlap that could be used to test
reliability. First, the unitizing was tested and there was agreement 97% of the time with the yes–no decision of whether to
include the article. Second, the percentage of agreement on
the identification of units (skills) was assessed. Percentage of
unit-by-unit agreement ranged from 94% to 100% depending
on the article. Based on these reliability samples, due to the
large amount of data amassed, the research team proceeded
with single coder unitization (utilizing all four of the authors) of the rest of the articles (Krippendorff, 2004). When
all unitizing was complete, the research team had identified
625 total units of data (references to specific communication
skills)—an average of 1.8 per article.
After articles had been identified and coded for their reference to communication, the resulting 625 communication
skill descriptions were included in the remaining four stages
of the content analysis. Using a ground theory approach
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990), in Stage 1, two coders (the first
and second authors) placed each skill unit into conceptually
similar categories. In Stage 2, both coders reread all of the
skill descriptions within each of the categories to check for
internal consistency. Tentative labels were then assigned to
each category. In Stage 3, the same two coders reread the
skill descriptions in each category, discussed discrepancies,
and made adjustments and revisions. Stage 4 involved two
additional coders who had not participated in data identification, and who were trained in content-analytic procedures.
233
These individuals recategorized a sample of units randomly
selected from each of the categories. The percent of unit-byunit agreement between the original coders and the two additional coders ranged from 84% to 100%. Interrater reliability
among all coders, using Cohen’s kappa, was .87 (Wrench,
Thomas-Maddox, Richmond, & McCroskey, 2008). Any categorizations on which the secondary and initial raters did not
agree were discussed and recategorized. Through this process, the initial and additional coders reached 100% agreement on the categorization of the 625 communication skills
mentioned in the 347 articles into six primary competencies.
RESULTS
Analysis of the data identified using the procedures described
previously revealed six communication competencies important within the contemporary business environment. What
follows is a description of each communication competency, with examples of related behaviors, and—to enhance
reader understanding of each competency—representative
citations and quotes from articles analyzed. Table 1 provides
an overview of the competencies.
Competency 1: Relationship and Interpersonal
Communication
The 191 references to relationship and interpersonal communication skills constituted 31% of the instances in which
communication was mentioned. Relationship and interpersonal communication skills represented the most frequently
discussed communication competency in the sample. This
TABLE 1
Business Communication Competencies (n = 625)
Competency and examples
1. Relationship and interpersonal communication
Assist individuals in initiating, maintaining, or disengaging from interorganizational and external relationships.
e.g., civility, conflict management, small talk, conversation management, rapport building.
2. Mediated communication
Assist individuals in using communication technologies effectively and appropriately.
e.g., online interaction etiquette, online social networking
skills, willingness and ability to engage in online training and learning
3. Intergroup communication
Assist individuals in communicating within and across groups.
e.g., intergenerational communication, intercultural sensitivity
4. Communication of enthusiasm, creativity, and entrepreneurial spirit
Assist individuals in expressing enthusiasm and passion for their jobs, companies, products, and ideas.
e.g., communicating a positive attitude, creativity, motivation
5. Nonverbal communication
Assist individuals in managing a diversity of nonverbal behaviors important in the workplace.
e.g., time management, use of space, dress
6. Speaking and listening
Assist individuals in public presentation and active listening tasks in the business context.
e.g., facilitation, public speaking, listening to others’ ideas
n
%
191
31
183
29
97
15
73
12
52
8
29
5
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234
J. WALDECK ET AL.
competency referred to communication skills that assist individuals in initiating, maintaining, or disengaging from two
types of work-related relationships: interorganizational (e.g.,
collegial friendships and mentorships) and external (e.g., relationships with clients, vendors, competitors, venture capitalists). Examples of critical communication skills drawn
from the sample of articles which comprised this competency
included the themes of decency, civility and honesty (Davies
& Chun, 2007; Diener, 2005a; Sulkowicz, 2005, 2007a;
Torres, 2005b; Wolter, 2005), networking (Casciaro & Lobo,
2007; Kawasaki, 2007), conflict management skills (Diener,
2005b; Hasson, 2007; Sulkowicz, 2007c), communication in
relationships with a power differential (Sulkowicz, 2007d;
Weinstein, 2006c), small talk and rapport building (Farber,
2005; Raines & Ewing, 2006), negotiation skills (Diener,
2005a, 2007; Sulkowicz, 2007b), balancing friendships in
the workplace with the need for professionalism (Sulkowicz,
2007d; Wilbert, 2007), and communicating comfort and social support in the workplace (Salzhauer, 2005; Sulkowicz,
2007c).
The concepts of civil, decent, and honest communication have been cited in a noteworthy number of articles.
Sweeney, Stone, and Cossack (2007) highlighted the problem
of employees who conduct themselves in “a manner which
is disrespectful and unprofessional to managers, coworkers,
or customers . . .” (p. 50), and engage in abusive, vulgar,
or rude language; constant complaining; excessive gossip;
and insubordination. Welch and Welch (2007) underscored
the importance of communication behaviors which “preserve
the dignity” (p. 147) of others in the workplace, particularly
during the separation phase of employment.
Authors referred to the importance of communicating social support during colleagues’ personal crises such as illness
or the death of a family (Sulkowicz & Stead, 2007). In noncrisis contexts, the communication of social support may
be equally important. Farber (2005) noted that salespeople
who possess empathy and the ability to communicate respect for their customers’ problems tend to be top performers within their companies, and highly regarded by clients
and prospects. Additionally, articles pointed out the need to
build interpersonal relationships with colleagues in telework
and virtual work situations, to avoid isolation and loneliness
(Pentilla, 2006).
Competency 2: Mediated Communication
Skills in this category (n = 183, 29% of the sample) refer to individuals’ ability to use communication technologies appropriately and effectively. Examples mentioned in
the sample included willingness and ability to participate
in online training (Dolezalek, 2006; Gordon, 2006; Jarventaus, 2007), using interactive media (e.g., podcasts, blogging, video; Dahl, 2006; Karrer, 2007; Kooser, 2006a; Lyons,
2005; Moran, 2007a, 2007b; Post, 2007; Wells, 2005), following the rules of etiquette when using technology (Kooser,
2006b), using online social networking appropriately to facilitate work (Fine, 2007; Kooser, 2006a; Prince, 2005;
Schramm, 2007a), and balancing stress and productivity
while digitally connected (Henricks, 2005a; Tischler, 2005).
Authors in our sample offered advice for using technology related to work with great frequency. The bulk of articles referenced in this competency category referred to Web
2.0 collaborative communication technologies, such as interactive e-learning, blogs, social networking, and viral video,
over more traditional communication technologies such as email and presentation software. For example, Moran (2007a)
commented that people who use the Internet to share relevant
video contribute to the capture of a marketing advantage for
their companies. Schramm (2007a) noted that, on a macroscopic level, “the use of social networking . . . may become
important for organizations to establish their brands, especially among young people” (p. 176) and that, as a result,
people need to become skilled at using these media. Similarly, Scoble (2007) drew readers’ attention to the popularity
and usefulness of the business networking and blogging application Twitter, and others like it. A number of authors
indicated that web-based training and education, once seen
only in the most progressive organizations, should be expected by nearly everyone entering the workforce or hoping
to advance (“Education,” 2005).
In contrast to those articles emphasizing the benefits
of mediated communication, another common theme referenced in this category reflects authors’ concerns about the
impact of technology use on workers’ stress levels. Lyons
(2005) discussed the damage caused by misunderstood mediated messages, flaming, and cyber-bullying in organizational environments. Other articles emphasized the pitfalls of
overreliance on tech and the importance of communication
management skills to avoid burnout—such as prioritizing
mediated communication tasks, learning to disconnect from
work by turning off cell phones during nonbusiness hours,
and only checking e-mail at several designated times during the work day (“Technology spurring stress, decreasing
productivity?,” 2006).
Competency Three: Intergroup Communication
The third most frequently cited communication competence
(n = 97; 15% of the sample) involved intergenerational communication skills (Berfield, 2007), cross-cultural communication ability (Fraze, 2007), team effectiveness (Duboff,
2007), bilingual skills (Henricks, 2005b), and sensitivity to
the global nature of organizing (Wunker & Pohle, 2007).
In general, the study of intergroup communication focuses
on how communication within and across groups affects
social relations among members of those groups (International Communication Association, 2010). Most frequently
mentioned was the importance of engaging in intergenerational communication competently: Pomeroy (2005) pointed
out that almost half of the respondents in an international
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
survey of 2,000 executives planned to work past the age of
65. Accordingly, authors in the sample stressed the importance of valuing older workers. For example, Pomeroy argued
that embracing the older employee “provides organizations
with more opportunity to leverage senior talent and migrate
institutional and experiential knowledge to younger workers”
(p. 20).
Simultaneously, authors cautioned that older workers
must become comfortable with being managed by younger
ones. In terms of communication, Sulkowicz (2007f) recommended avoiding condescension and unnecessary advice
when dealing with a younger supervisor. Citing data collected at organizations which pair younger employees with
older, more experienced ones for job sharing and mentoring,
Berfield (2007) concluded that encouraging intergenerational
interaction may result in improved retention rates and job satisfaction for younger and older employees.
A few articles referencing the intergroup communication
competence mentioned the advantage of being bilingual in
the contemporary workplace (Campanelli, 2005; Henricks,
2005b). Several stressed intercultural communication competence (which encompasses more than the ability to speak
other languages) as a necessary condition, for example, for
working and traveling overseas (Schramm, 2006). Javidian
(2007) provided a new perspective on team effectiveness by
suggesting that the degree to which a group reflects cultural
forward thinking in its interactions and behaviors (e.g., delaying gratification, planning, investing in the team’s future)
is important.
Competency Four: The Ability to Communicate
Enthusiasm, Creativity, and an Entrepreneurial
Spirit
This competency (n = 73, 12%) encompassed skills that enable individuals to communicate their enthusiasm and passion for their jobs, companies, and products or ideas. Specific
examples of behaviors which further illustrate this competency include engaging others to embrace new ideas (Torres,
2007; Weinstein, 2006a); right-brain thinking (the ability to
generate and articulate, orally and in writing, creative and
innovative nonlinear ideas; Meisinger, 2007); communicating a lifelong desire to learn, grow, and develop in the career
(Meisinger, 2005; Wolter, 2005); demonstrating a positive
attitude and willingness to innovate (Daniel, 2005); and the
ability to motivate others (Ayres & Nalebuff, 2007; Erickson
& Gratton, 2007; Staver, 2006).
In a survey of human resource professionals, 73% of respondents ranked passion” as the most important quality of
a leader and 65% ranked “ability to motivate others” as the
second most important quality (Pomeroy, 2006). Yet, Farber (2005) argued that a lack of enthusiasm and passion is
endemic to many industries.
In representative articles drawn from the sample, Wolter
(2005) urged readers to “use passion as your foundation” (p.
235
124) and employ communication to “demonstrate that you do
what you love and excel at it.” Other articles offered strategies for communicating passion: rely on creative venues such
as improv comedy classes for adding energy to presentations
and meetings (Thilmany, 2007); develop the ability to present
information in the form of a story, complete with intriguing
characters, tension, a hero, drama, and humor (Torres, 2007);
let others know, explicitly, that you have the energy and willingness to take on extra work (Daniel, 2005); be dependable
and flexible (Sull & Spinosa, 2005); and participate in continuing education (“Education,” 2005).
Competency Five: Nonverbal Communication
The 52 communication skill references that support this category highlight the importance of chronemics in the workplace
(Hoge, 2007; Robinson, 2007), nontraditional work scheduling (e.g., flex time; Harris, 2007; Jossi, 2007), clear and accurate written communication (Shulman, 2005), appropriate
dress (Grischke, 2005), physical arrangement of workspace
(Buchanan, 2006), and the use of humor (Chafkin, 2007;
Weinstein, 2006c).
Time management and punctuality were the primary
themes of this category. Over half of the citations comprising this competency this category referenced an individual’s
ability to use time appropriately. DeLonzor (2005), for example, suggested that corporate culture is often to blame for
employee tardiness and recommended that meetings start on
time. He further suggested that as technology has enabled
individuals to multitask, that they have become less sensitive
to the big picture of their projects, and more likely to miss
deadlines. Lost in miniprojects and answering e-mail, and
less attuned to their overall progress on major projects, DeLonzor argued that American workers have lost the valuable
skill of project management. Individuals should use their
calendaring program to schedule reminders and tasks in an
effort to be punctual, and not underestimate the amount of
time necessary for accomplishing tasks.
Arguing that contemporary business communicators lack
writing skills, Shulman (2005) wrote, “The written word and
the writing process itself are powerful tools that can have a
real, strategic impact on business” (p. 28). However, authors
in this sample disagreed on whether the educational system is
solely responsible for teaching excellent writing, or if workrelated training could address deficiencies (Henricks, 2007).
Henricks concluded that “there is no three-step program to
becoming a great writer” (p. 86), and he urged students to
work on developing these skills under the tutelage of their
college professors.
The importance of the physical arrangement of workspace
and selecting the appropriate location for particular workrelated communication tasks was emphasized in several articles within this category. For example, Kirkpatrick (2006)
noted that the open layout of many office spaces can raise
privacy concerns. In a case study of an office in which
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J. WALDECK ET AL.
employees have little respect for physical boundaries,
Buchanan (2006) concluded that employees must be sensitive to when casual conversation at work is appropriate and
when it may be disruptive. A number of authors, while underscoring the positive effects of humor in the workplace,
discussed the need to use humor carefully and appropriately
in professional settings to avoid misunderstandings and even
legal action (Chafkin, 2007). One argued, for instance, that
the use of too much humor as a way of correcting low morale
can be insulting to organizational members (“Fun,” 2007).
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Competency Six: Speaking and Listening
Mentioned only 29 times in the sample of 347 popular
press and practitioner-oriented serial business publications,
the least frequently mentioned communication competency
was speaking and listening. The bulk of the articles in this
category focused on listening over speaking: specifically, the
importance of active listening during conversation (Pomeroy,
2007; Vilaga, 2005; “Where is the love?,” 2006 ) and overall, the more holistic skill of letting others’ concerns, ideas,
needs, and suggestions be known, or heard, in the workplace (Gnamm & Neuhaus, 2005; Meisinger, 2006; Nelson,
2006; Nunes, 2005; Wolter, 2007). Other skill references
included facilitation (either of group discussions or meetings; Hartley, 2006; Smith, 2005), public speaking (Kirby,
2007; Marquart & Sorden, 2007), and related visual support
(Sulkowicz, 2005e; Weinstein, 2006b).
Jay (2005) wrote that “the most effective communicators know when to stop talking and start listening. This is
especially important when emotions are high, in team situations, and when employees are sharing ideas” (p. 87). Numerous other authors echoed the importance of listening skills:
Meisinger (2006) reported the results of a study demonstrating a substantial correlation between employee perceptions
that others in the organization, particularly managers, listen
to them, and low turnover rates. And, authors suggested that
listening to others outside of the organization—particularly
customers—is critical (“Where is the love?,” 2006).
Mention of meeting and discussion facilitation in several
articles reflected the changing nature of this important communication skill. For example, in an article on web-based
conferencing, Hartley (2006) noted that “there are many differences between facilitating an event using a web conferencing tool and facilitating an event in a room” (p. 22). Excellent
public speakers, teachers, and meeting leaders must also be
good at coping with technical difficulties, and comfortable
with the mediated aspects of the presentation. Smith (2005)
cautioned that as organizational members become more informed due to on-demand news and research, they are asking questions, challenging one another, and assuming the
role of expert with an increasing frequency. Consequently,
facilitators must be hyperaware of their strengths and weaknesses, prepared to deal with challenges and disagreements,
and willing and able to integrate diverse viewpoints into formal business conversation.
Although some articles reminded readers of the importance of basic public speaking proficiency, such as choosing strong vocabulary and eliminating speech dysfluencies
(Danigelis, 2006), others suggested that the qualities of a
great presentation are changing. Because audience members’ information processing habits may be changing, authors
stressed the importance of using visual and other sensory images (meaningful audio and video, and even hands-on simulations) rather than traditional text-heavy PowerPoint to support presentations (“Present with panache,” 2007). Because
contemporary business audiences may have little tolerance
for lectures and talking heads (Kovaleski, 2007), the popular
press recommended engaging audience members with appropriate self-disclosure, a cohesive and relevant story, realworld case studies and examples, and enthusiasm (Kirby,
2007; Marquart & Sorden, 2007). In general, anyone who
presents information in a business and professional setting
needs to think of themselves less as a speaker and more as
a teacher, preparing and executing their presentations with a
greater understanding of how adults learn (Sims, 2006). Incorporating audience interaction, simulations and role-plays,
and peer-to-peer dialogue into a traditional one-to-many
presentation may be critical to contemporary presentation
success.
DISCUSSION
Pink (2006) posited that the future belongs to a person with
a different kind of mind than the linear, logical one that baby
boomers and their parents were encouraged to develop. Flexibility, the capability of simultaneous right- and left-brain
thinking, a sense of creativity, and the ability to innovate will
separate those who succeed and those who don’t—and communication is key to demonstrating these capacities. However, many Americans find themselves on the job feeling unprepared for the communicative challenges they face. This
study identified specific skills that will prepare more people
thrive in the modern workplace. In this section, the findings
of the study are reviewed, important themes highlighted, and
implications for scholarship and practice discussed.
In this analysis of 10 popular publications, among them
press and practitioner-oriented business periodicals, 347 articles that referred to communication were identified. Across
these articles, there were 625 references to a particular communication skill. These skill references were then submitted
to content analytic procedures, and six contemporary business communication competencies were inductively derived
as a result: (a) relationship and interpersonal communication competence; (b) mediated communication competence;
(c) intergroup communication competence; (d) the ability to
communicate enthusiasm, creativity, and an entrepreneurial
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
spirit; (e) nonverbal communication competence; and (f)
speaking and listening competence
The six categories represent a mix of both traditional and
contemporary skills, but in all categories, content revealed
new applications for traditional skills. The importance of collaboration and interconnectivity permeated each theme. Further, the competencies revealed the necessity of a skill set that
transcends typical disciplinary divisions—encompassing
technological concerns, intergroup relations, nonverbal and
chronemic awareness, relationship competence, and more.
One clear message resulting from this study is that if business and communication educators and scholars are to adequately prepare students for the modern business environment, they must be careful not to exist in silos, relying only
on the theories and research findings of their own areas of the
discipline. As the academy moves toward interdisciplinarity
(Redden, 2007), communication specialists also must work
to build bridges between subareas of the field (e.g., interpersonal communication and organizational communication) to
enhance understanding of the role of communication in the
entire human experience (Waldeck & Myers, 2007).
The most frequently referenced communication skill focused on facilitating relationships. A key theme that emerged
in this category focused on civility in the workplace as
a means of building positive connections with others and
avoiding unnecessary conflict. This theme is consistent with
Sypher’s (2004) work on desk rage and the effects of offensive communication on morale, productivity, stress, and
burnout.
Another theme suggested by this competency is the need
to cultivate skills for communicating social support in professional contexts. Pentilla (2006) noted, “We work long hours
that leave us too tired to call old friends” (p. 102)—leaving
people to determine how to confide in their colleagues appropriately. Interpersonal communication researchers (Albrecht & Burleson, 1992; Burleson, Holmstrom, & Gilstrap,
2005) have studied support; researchers in the areas of organizational and business communication could address the
concerns about providing social support in the workplace
evident in the present analysis by adapting the theories and
research methods used in the study of intimate relationships.
Overall, the relationship and interpersonal communication competence illustrates that communication is a key factor
in the kinds of relationships that people make in and around
the workplace, and the ease with which they finesse difficult business situations. Moreover, the frequency with which
this competency was mentioned is evidence that the ability
to build rapport, and to initiate, sustain, and withdraw from
relationships competently is critical. As Kawasaki (2007)
noted, “it is much easier to make a sale, build partnerships,
create joint ventures . . . if you establish a relationship before you need it. And the key to that is mastering the art of
communication” (p. 46).
The second most frequently mentioned category was mediated communication competence. Technology has defined
237
the direction and pace of contemporary society. Articles in referring to mediated communication competence emphasized
leveraging the power of online social networks, as well as
collaborative media, for branding, selling, learning, and innovating. This competency suggested that to succeed in the
contemporary business environment, it is necessary to not
only possess technical skills for using digital technologies,
but also have an understanding of the power of these applications for innovating, building business, and forging connections with others. However, this study revealed concern for
the stress that constant connection can create for users of business communication technologies. Gurchiek (2006) summarized the need to use communication technologies appropriately: “Round-the-clock connectedness to work—thanks to
technology—may seem like an employers’ dream but could
morph into a nightmare for both employer and worker if employees find themselves unable to unplug and manage their
mediated communications strategically” (p. 38).
The third competency, intergroup communication, illuminated the increasingly diverse workplace and the importance
of adapting one’s communication skills. The U.S. Census Bureau predicted that White individuals will comprise less than
half of the U.S. population by 2042, resulting in “big changes
for the nation’s workforce” (Dougherty, 2008, p. A3). As a
result, continued emphasis on intercultural communication
competence and learning to avoid ethnocentric attitudes and
behaviors in an individual’s interactions with others will be
important. As life expectancies increase and the stability of
the financial markets remains uncertain, people are working
well past traditional retirement age. Consequently, intergenerational communication skills are critical. The articles analyzed in this study mirrored the concern of McCann and Giles
(2006) that ageist communication, and the deeper attitudes
that lie beneath ageism, are counterproductive to the benefits
that older workers may offer. Persons of all ages must be
comfortable collaborating with one another. In general, as
the companies we work for and with diversify and develop
increasingly global ties, employees must learn and become
sensitive to the communication norms and lifestyles of others.
Fraze (2007) argued, “expansion into international markets
will become imperative for U.S. companies . . . as will the
importance of individual employees knowing the culture and
practices of the countries where you have commercial ties”
(p. 100).
The fourth competency revealed by this study suggested
that organizational members should be engaged and enthusiastic, feel connected to the mission and vision of their organizations, and have a sense of pride—and make these qualities apparent in their communication with others. Meisinger
(2007) noted that, “creativity, passion, and innovation will
be the most important factors in establishing and maintaining a competitive advantage. Logic, linear thinking, and rulebased analysis will remain important, but are no longer sufficient to succeed in the global economy” (p. 10). Educators
should promote increased participation in the classroom, and
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J. WALDECK ET AL.
encourage students to be collaborative and creative in their
academic endeavors as a way of preparing them for their professional futures, where passion for what they do, creative
and innovative thinking, and near-constant collaboration will
be normative.
Fifth, this study revealed that a series of nonverbal communication skills are highly valued in the contemporary
workplace—especially those relating to chronemics and
physical space. As individuals have a growing array of responsibilities, time management and the ability to multitask
are more critical than ever. In response to economic constraints and doing business globally (and the chronemic differences that accompany that shift), businesses are promoting more job sharing, flexible scheduling, and virtual work to
meet market demands. For example, companies such as Best
Buy, IBM, and Google have experimented with unique arrangements that allow employees to work virtually anywhere
and any time they want to work (Conlin, 2006). Scholars
should continue to pursue the agenda established by Ballard
and Seibold (2006) and Ballard and Gossett (2007), who
examined the experience of time in traditional and nontraditional work environments, and discuss the implications of
this work in their classrooms.
Surprisingly, the least frequently referenced communication competence was that of speaking and listening. Articles focusing on these basic communication skills revealed
the need for business communication proficiencies that are
anything but basic. Organization members must acquire new
skills for telling the story of a product or an idea story—often
via new media forms such as podcasts, webcasts, and teleconferences. Authors pointed out that what works in a live
face-to-face sales presentation, for example, is likely to be
highly ineffective in a webinar.
Moreover, as society has become more immersed in all
that technology and rich media have to offer, audiences have
changed. People spend so much of their time in a mediarich existence that offers dynamic, attractive, on-demand,
and addictive content that they no longer have the tolerance
for a boring presentation accompanied by PowerPoint slides
that they once did. Audiences demand more—they crave
a presentation that is easy to understand (yet substantive),
very relevant, interactive, and media-rich. This mandate involves more than just teaching students to incorporate media into the public presentation, it involves rethinking the
whole public speaking process based on how media exposure has influenced the way audiences listen, think, and relate
to information. Despite the shift in the popular press from
business speaking as public address to creating and telling a
story which engages participants (Atkinson, 2005; Reynolds,
2008) very little work in the communication discipline has
focused on how to acquire these critical contemporary public speaking competencies. Communication scholars should
heed the call to embrace “the emergent norms of an electronic era” (Cyphert, 2007, p. 187) in the ways they teach,
practice, and study presentational speaking.
CONCLUSION AND NEW DIRECTIONS
The contemporary organizational and business environment
demands much of business and communication educators
and scholars. To keep pace, scholars and educators must be
aware of the dynamic changes taking place in practice, stretch
the limits of their creativity, and embrace new theoretical
paradigms and research methods. The changing nature of society, and of the business enterprise in particular, challenges
those who study business and organizational communication
to expand the scope and depth with which they approach the
study of comm
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Communication in a Changing World:
Contemporary Perspectives on Business
Communication Competence
Jennifer Waldeck , Cathryn Durante , Briana Helmuth & Brandon Marcia
To cite this article: Jennifer Waldeck , Cathryn Durante , Briana Helmuth & Brandon Marcia
(2012) Communication in a Changing World: Contemporary Perspectives on Business
Communication Competence, Journal of Education for Business, 87:4, 230-240, DOI:
10.1080/08832323.2011.608388
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Copyright
ISSN: 0883-2323 print / 1940-3356 online
DOI: 10.1080/08832323.2011.608388
Communication in a Changing World: Contemporary
Perspectives on Business Communication
Competence
Jennifer Waldeck, Cathryn Durante, Briana Helmuth, and Brandon Marcia
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Chapman University, Orange, California, USA
Communication in and around business organizations has changed due to new technologies,
the demand for intercultural communication skills, the changing person–organization relationship, and the global nature of organizing. As a result, new communication competencies
may be required. The author’s objective was to identify specific communication competencies
important in the contemporary business and professional environment. Toward that objective,
articles referring to communication from best-selling popular press and practitioner-oriented
business periodicals were used as artifacts for a content analysis. Six inductively derived
competencies represent a mix of traditional and contemporary communication skills. The influence of collaborative communication and global interconnectivity permeated each theme.
Furthermore, the competencies reveal the necessity of a skill set that transcends typical disciplinary divisions—encompassing technology, intergroup relations, nonverbal and chronemic
awareness, relational competence, and more. These competencies should be of interest to
communication educators and trainers as they design curriculum and training plans for a
contemporary audience.
Keywords: business communication, communication, communication competence, technology, workplace relationships
Scholars, corporate recruiters and managers, research firms,
and business writers have argued for years that the ability to
communicate effectively is a leading factor in professional
success. Communication competence is widely regarded as
the basis for many other behaviors important to a successful
career, including teamwork, leadership, planning, organizing, and more. However, numerous sources cite a lack of
these critical communication skills in contemporary business contexts (cf. Kristof, 2008; Levinson, 2008; Paulsell,
2008; Wellner, 2005). Moreover, the modern professional
environment is characterized by new forms of organizing,
powerful communication technologies, frequent change, diminishing boundaries between work life and personal life,
an older and more diverse workforce, and a greater emphasis
on globalism—and these changes impact business communication in dramatic ways that students must have exposure
to prior to entering the workforce.
Correspondence should be addressed to Jennifer Waldeck, Chapman
University, Department of Communication Studies, One University Drive,
Orange, CA 92866, USA. E-mail: jennifer.waldeck@gmail.com
The overriding aim of this study was to identify communication competencies relevant to the contemporary workplace.
Identification of these skills should aid business communication educators in addressing practical concerns in their
classrooms. Furthermore, this study should enable scholars
to identify research topics and methods that enable them to
“go beyond the knowledge discovery of the basic research
enterprise to interpret and apply research outcomes . . . and
develop practices for the betterment of everyday life” (Petronio, 2007, p. 215). To provide further rationale for this study,
the review of literature that follows makes a compelling case
for the importance of business communication competence,
defines the construct, and argues for the emphasis on communication competence in business education.
Why Business Communication Competence?
Communication researchers have made the case for the
importance of communication skills (Morreale, Osborn, &
Pearson, 2000; Morreale & Pearson, 2008) for “succeeding
in one’s career and in the business enterprise” (Morreale &
Pearson, p. 225). Importantly, the truism that communication
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
matters is acknowledged beyond the communication discipline; Harvard Business School professors Kleinbaum, Stuart, and Tushman (2008) wrote that “communication is central to the very existence of organizations” (¶ 1).
Communication is important in all kinds of industries,
from traditional service-oriented areas such as travel, hospitality, real estate, and sales to highly technical fields such
as medicine, design, and engineering. Andrew Burroughs, an
engineer with Silicon Valley firm IDEO, commented, “We’re
looking for employees who are very smart technical contributors but who are also interesting, curious people who can
communicate about a lot more than just technical matters”
(as cited by Locke, 2007, p. A9)—demonstrating that the
cross-functional nature of the modern workplace requires
the communicators (e.g., sales, marketing, public relations,
human resources positions) to have technical knowledge, and
the tech people (e.g., engineers, programmers, designers) to
have the social skills to meaningfully interact with others.
Critical for students preparing to go on post-graduation interviews (Kristof, 2008) to chief-level executives (Alexander, 2008), effective communication is positively related to
employee engagement, as well as a number of organizationlevel variables, including organizational performance, shareholder dividends, decreased turnover, and financial performance (Watson Wyatt Worldwide, 2007). In other words,
communication is not just a soft skill.
What Is Contemporary Business Communication
Competence?
To answer this question, we began by questioning the depth
to which requisite business and professional communication
skills have been articulated in academic and practitioneroriented literature. Although communication skills are topranked requirements of employers (National Association of
Colleges and Employers, 2010), little recent research has
identified exactly which skills are most important and why.
For example, the American Society for Training and Development (ASTD; 2009) listed communication as one of
10 critical skills desired by employers—but goes on to further define the competency as simply involving listening and
speaking. Because these skills are covered in 100-level communication courses which many college graduates complete,
and because practitioners persist in reporting widespread
deficiencies in workplace communication, we believe that
a stronger, clearer delineation of specific communicationrelated business and professional requirements might be in
order.
Next, expectations for effective and competent business
communication have evolved. Pointing to the dramatic impact of communication technology and global organizing,
Du-Babcock (2006) wrote that “our challenge is to cope with
and communicate in this increasingly complex and diverse
global, multidisciplinary environment” (p. 256). However,
the last systematic examination of job performance criteria
231
from the communication discipline was conducted over 10
years ago (Winsor, Curtis, & Stephens, 1997). Since then, researchers have been overwhelmed with reports of the changing nature of work—and provided with no real synthesis of
what these developments mean in terms of necessary communication competencies. Understandably, none of the important communication skills Winsor et al. identified for new
graduates, experienced employees, or ideal managers in 1997
related to issues such as virtual work, digitally mediated or
enhanced communication, global communication, or just-intime information exchange. Thus, an updated spotlight on
specific communication skills relevant to success in business
and the professions is required.
In summary, researchers and practitioners have established that communication competence is central to an individual’s participation in organizational life, and, specifically,
to business and professional success. However, no recent
research indicates what specific skills are most important.
Thus, this study was driven by the specific objective of identifying these communication competencies germane to the
contemporary business and professional environment.
METHOD
Content Analysis as a Research Design
In this study I employed a research method known as content
analysis, used widely by communication researchers, social
psychologists, sociologists, library scientists, linguists, and
cybernetic scholars (Krippendorff, 2004) for the systematic
and reliable analysis of messages. Berelson (1952) described
content analysis as a “research technique for the objective,
systematic, and quantitative description of the content of
communication” (p. 18) such as conversation, public address,
written texts, or mediated messages (e.g., film, television, Internet content). To be credible, content analysis methodology
must rely on “the scientific method (including attention to
objectivity, intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity, generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing)”
(Neuendorf, 2002, p. 10). To meet the definition and criteria
for content analysis, the present study’s design has several
key features prescribed by Neuendorf.
An a priori design. In a process described in the next
section entitled “Data Identification,” before assessing the
content, the researchers agreed on the content to be coded,
the parameters of a useful unit of analysis, and the coding
procedures to be used.
Evidence of interrater reliability. This study’s design
employed multiple coders to ensure the scientific reliability
of findings. The procedures used to arrive at intercoder reliability estimates are described subsequently. Furthermore,
to avoid contamination of the dataset by the subjective
232
J. WALDECK ET AL.
observations of singular coders, the research team met frequently to engage in structured discussion on the nature and
meaning of the data they identified (cf. Neuendorf, 2002, on
intersubjectivity).
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Replicability. The study’s design and the coding procedures utilized were conceived and are reported subsequently
in such a way that the study can be replicated using the same
or future published content.
Generalizability. The publications analyzed in this
investigation were chosen using specific criteria described
subsequently. These criteria were designed to maximize the
likelihood that references to communication competence
identified within the publications chosen would mirror or
apply to other similar cases (i.e., publications) not chosen
for analysis.
Appropriateness of Content Analysis for the
Present Investigation
Neuendorf (2002) reported that content analysis is widely
and routinely used for assessing mass messages (e.g., those
created for a large audience) such as newspaper, magazine,
radio, and television content. Because the goal of this project
involved generating practical findings which could be used
in applied settings, and which reflect contemporary advancements in business and organizing, the present analysis focused on references to communication in recent nationally
and internationally circulated popular press and practitioneroriented serial business magazines. These magazines are
widely read and influential on the thinking, behavior, and
decisions of practitioners from a diversity of fields, job positions, cultural orientations, and geographic locations; further,
these publications routinely report, directly and indirectly,
on the general strengths and weaknesses of business communicators today (Fell, 2010). A description of the methods
employed is described in the next section.
Data Identification
Identifying and narrowing the field of publications to
code. For this content analysis, the research team focused
on a core set of publications that met specific criteria. Only
the material that appeared in the print version of these publications was analyzed (although that material also may have
appeared online). Most business publications offer a great
deal of additional online content that does not appear in
their print versions. The research team determined that a
systematic identification and reliable analysis of online-only
content was an unrealistic and unmanageable project, and
consequently decided to focus on the print versions of selected publications.
Using procedures similar to Lewis, Schmisseur, Stephens,
and Weir (2006)—who used content analysis in examining
best selling business books—the authors selected serial publications that were rated as top 10 best-sellers in the Business
Management category on Amazon.com as of September 1,
2009. This particular category of magazines was most appropriate because publications within it focus on management
and leadership, rather than (or in addition to) other areas of
business, such as finance or investing—and therefore were
most likely to contain content relevant to the objective of
identifying communication competencies. The publications
chosen for inclusion in the content analysis were Forbes, Fast
Company, Harvard Business Review, MIT Sloan Management Review, Training, T+D, Entrepreneur, Inc, HR Magazine, and Business Week.
To identify references to communication, the research
team examined all issues of the eight monthly publications.
For the two weeklies (Business Week and Forbes), the issues published in the first and third weeks of the month were
coded. To be selected for this study, an article, interview, or
essay had to reference one or more specific communication
behaviors relevant to the business enterprise. The research
team began the process of data identification with the first
published issue of 2005 for each magazine. That particular year coincides with the emergence of Web 2.0 interactive communication technologies in organizational settings,
which have had a profound and documented impact on all organizing behavior (Lazar, 2007; O’Reilly, 2005). Thus, 2005
was an appropriate starting point for identifying skills important in the contemporary workplace. Once the core field
of publications was narrowed and identified, the researchers
then began the next step of content analysis, unitizing the
data.
Unitizing the data. Unitizing involves identifying discrete units of analysis that pertain specifically to the research
objective. After an initial one-week period of data identification, the researchers met to discuss the nature of the articles they had collected and the units identified. The lead
researcher read each article and then the team collectively
discussed the extent to which each article pertained to the research topic of communication competence in contemporary
business settings. Some articles mentioned communication
in only a brief or tangential way. The authors decided that a
brief mention of a communication skill without some depth
of explanation or logical argument about its centrality to the
business enterprise did not warrant inclusion in the study.
Using this discussion as a guide for further article identification, the process of data collection, identification, and
unitizing continued.
Coding procedures and establishing intercoder reliability. The research team identified 347 articles published in
issues of the 10 magazines for the period January 2005–June
2010. The publication featuring the greatest number of articles discussing communication was HR Magazine (n =
84), followed by Entrepreneur (n = 56) and Fast Company (n = 44). The publications with the fewest articles
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
referencing communication were Forbes (n = 11) and MIT
Sloan Management Review (n = 7). Employing generally accepted content analysis procedures described by Potter and
Riddle (2007), a random selection of 25% of the sampled articles was coded for communication skill reference by two of
the four authors to create an overlap that could be used to test
reliability. First, the unitizing was tested and there was agreement 97% of the time with the yes–no decision of whether to
include the article. Second, the percentage of agreement on
the identification of units (skills) was assessed. Percentage of
unit-by-unit agreement ranged from 94% to 100% depending
on the article. Based on these reliability samples, due to the
large amount of data amassed, the research team proceeded
with single coder unitization (utilizing all four of the authors) of the rest of the articles (Krippendorff, 2004). When
all unitizing was complete, the research team had identified
625 total units of data (references to specific communication
skills)—an average of 1.8 per article.
After articles had been identified and coded for their reference to communication, the resulting 625 communication
skill descriptions were included in the remaining four stages
of the content analysis. Using a ground theory approach
(Strauss & Corbin, 1990), in Stage 1, two coders (the first
and second authors) placed each skill unit into conceptually
similar categories. In Stage 2, both coders reread all of the
skill descriptions within each of the categories to check for
internal consistency. Tentative labels were then assigned to
each category. In Stage 3, the same two coders reread the
skill descriptions in each category, discussed discrepancies,
and made adjustments and revisions. Stage 4 involved two
additional coders who had not participated in data identification, and who were trained in content-analytic procedures.
233
These individuals recategorized a sample of units randomly
selected from each of the categories. The percent of unit-byunit agreement between the original coders and the two additional coders ranged from 84% to 100%. Interrater reliability
among all coders, using Cohen’s kappa, was .87 (Wrench,
Thomas-Maddox, Richmond, & McCroskey, 2008). Any categorizations on which the secondary and initial raters did not
agree were discussed and recategorized. Through this process, the initial and additional coders reached 100% agreement on the categorization of the 625 communication skills
mentioned in the 347 articles into six primary competencies.
RESULTS
Analysis of the data identified using the procedures described
previously revealed six communication competencies important within the contemporary business environment. What
follows is a description of each communication competency, with examples of related behaviors, and—to enhance
reader understanding of each competency—representative
citations and quotes from articles analyzed. Table 1 provides
an overview of the competencies.
Competency 1: Relationship and Interpersonal
Communication
The 191 references to relationship and interpersonal communication skills constituted 31% of the instances in which
communication was mentioned. Relationship and interpersonal communication skills represented the most frequently
discussed communication competency in the sample. This
TABLE 1
Business Communication Competencies (n = 625)
Competency and examples
1. Relationship and interpersonal communication
Assist individuals in initiating, maintaining, or disengaging from interorganizational and external relationships.
e.g., civility, conflict management, small talk, conversation management, rapport building.
2. Mediated communication
Assist individuals in using communication technologies effectively and appropriately.
e.g., online interaction etiquette, online social networking
skills, willingness and ability to engage in online training and learning
3. Intergroup communication
Assist individuals in communicating within and across groups.
e.g., intergenerational communication, intercultural sensitivity
4. Communication of enthusiasm, creativity, and entrepreneurial spirit
Assist individuals in expressing enthusiasm and passion for their jobs, companies, products, and ideas.
e.g., communicating a positive attitude, creativity, motivation
5. Nonverbal communication
Assist individuals in managing a diversity of nonverbal behaviors important in the workplace.
e.g., time management, use of space, dress
6. Speaking and listening
Assist individuals in public presentation and active listening tasks in the business context.
e.g., facilitation, public speaking, listening to others’ ideas
n
%
191
31
183
29
97
15
73
12
52
8
29
5
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234
J. WALDECK ET AL.
competency referred to communication skills that assist individuals in initiating, maintaining, or disengaging from two
types of work-related relationships: interorganizational (e.g.,
collegial friendships and mentorships) and external (e.g., relationships with clients, vendors, competitors, venture capitalists). Examples of critical communication skills drawn
from the sample of articles which comprised this competency
included the themes of decency, civility and honesty (Davies
& Chun, 2007; Diener, 2005a; Sulkowicz, 2005, 2007a;
Torres, 2005b; Wolter, 2005), networking (Casciaro & Lobo,
2007; Kawasaki, 2007), conflict management skills (Diener,
2005b; Hasson, 2007; Sulkowicz, 2007c), communication in
relationships with a power differential (Sulkowicz, 2007d;
Weinstein, 2006c), small talk and rapport building (Farber,
2005; Raines & Ewing, 2006), negotiation skills (Diener,
2005a, 2007; Sulkowicz, 2007b), balancing friendships in
the workplace with the need for professionalism (Sulkowicz,
2007d; Wilbert, 2007), and communicating comfort and social support in the workplace (Salzhauer, 2005; Sulkowicz,
2007c).
The concepts of civil, decent, and honest communication have been cited in a noteworthy number of articles.
Sweeney, Stone, and Cossack (2007) highlighted the problem
of employees who conduct themselves in “a manner which
is disrespectful and unprofessional to managers, coworkers,
or customers . . .” (p. 50), and engage in abusive, vulgar,
or rude language; constant complaining; excessive gossip;
and insubordination. Welch and Welch (2007) underscored
the importance of communication behaviors which “preserve
the dignity” (p. 147) of others in the workplace, particularly
during the separation phase of employment.
Authors referred to the importance of communicating social support during colleagues’ personal crises such as illness
or the death of a family (Sulkowicz & Stead, 2007). In noncrisis contexts, the communication of social support may
be equally important. Farber (2005) noted that salespeople
who possess empathy and the ability to communicate respect for their customers’ problems tend to be top performers within their companies, and highly regarded by clients
and prospects. Additionally, articles pointed out the need to
build interpersonal relationships with colleagues in telework
and virtual work situations, to avoid isolation and loneliness
(Pentilla, 2006).
Competency 2: Mediated Communication
Skills in this category (n = 183, 29% of the sample) refer to individuals’ ability to use communication technologies appropriately and effectively. Examples mentioned in
the sample included willingness and ability to participate
in online training (Dolezalek, 2006; Gordon, 2006; Jarventaus, 2007), using interactive media (e.g., podcasts, blogging, video; Dahl, 2006; Karrer, 2007; Kooser, 2006a; Lyons,
2005; Moran, 2007a, 2007b; Post, 2007; Wells, 2005), following the rules of etiquette when using technology (Kooser,
2006b), using online social networking appropriately to facilitate work (Fine, 2007; Kooser, 2006a; Prince, 2005;
Schramm, 2007a), and balancing stress and productivity
while digitally connected (Henricks, 2005a; Tischler, 2005).
Authors in our sample offered advice for using technology related to work with great frequency. The bulk of articles referenced in this competency category referred to Web
2.0 collaborative communication technologies, such as interactive e-learning, blogs, social networking, and viral video,
over more traditional communication technologies such as email and presentation software. For example, Moran (2007a)
commented that people who use the Internet to share relevant
video contribute to the capture of a marketing advantage for
their companies. Schramm (2007a) noted that, on a macroscopic level, “the use of social networking . . . may become
important for organizations to establish their brands, especially among young people” (p. 176) and that, as a result,
people need to become skilled at using these media. Similarly, Scoble (2007) drew readers’ attention to the popularity
and usefulness of the business networking and blogging application Twitter, and others like it. A number of authors
indicated that web-based training and education, once seen
only in the most progressive organizations, should be expected by nearly everyone entering the workforce or hoping
to advance (“Education,” 2005).
In contrast to those articles emphasizing the benefits
of mediated communication, another common theme referenced in this category reflects authors’ concerns about the
impact of technology use on workers’ stress levels. Lyons
(2005) discussed the damage caused by misunderstood mediated messages, flaming, and cyber-bullying in organizational environments. Other articles emphasized the pitfalls of
overreliance on tech and the importance of communication
management skills to avoid burnout—such as prioritizing
mediated communication tasks, learning to disconnect from
work by turning off cell phones during nonbusiness hours,
and only checking e-mail at several designated times during the work day (“Technology spurring stress, decreasing
productivity?,” 2006).
Competency Three: Intergroup Communication
The third most frequently cited communication competence
(n = 97; 15% of the sample) involved intergenerational communication skills (Berfield, 2007), cross-cultural communication ability (Fraze, 2007), team effectiveness (Duboff,
2007), bilingual skills (Henricks, 2005b), and sensitivity to
the global nature of organizing (Wunker & Pohle, 2007).
In general, the study of intergroup communication focuses
on how communication within and across groups affects
social relations among members of those groups (International Communication Association, 2010). Most frequently
mentioned was the importance of engaging in intergenerational communication competently: Pomeroy (2005) pointed
out that almost half of the respondents in an international
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
survey of 2,000 executives planned to work past the age of
65. Accordingly, authors in the sample stressed the importance of valuing older workers. For example, Pomeroy argued
that embracing the older employee “provides organizations
with more opportunity to leverage senior talent and migrate
institutional and experiential knowledge to younger workers”
(p. 20).
Simultaneously, authors cautioned that older workers
must become comfortable with being managed by younger
ones. In terms of communication, Sulkowicz (2007f) recommended avoiding condescension and unnecessary advice
when dealing with a younger supervisor. Citing data collected at organizations which pair younger employees with
older, more experienced ones for job sharing and mentoring,
Berfield (2007) concluded that encouraging intergenerational
interaction may result in improved retention rates and job satisfaction for younger and older employees.
A few articles referencing the intergroup communication
competence mentioned the advantage of being bilingual in
the contemporary workplace (Campanelli, 2005; Henricks,
2005b). Several stressed intercultural communication competence (which encompasses more than the ability to speak
other languages) as a necessary condition, for example, for
working and traveling overseas (Schramm, 2006). Javidian
(2007) provided a new perspective on team effectiveness by
suggesting that the degree to which a group reflects cultural
forward thinking in its interactions and behaviors (e.g., delaying gratification, planning, investing in the team’s future)
is important.
Competency Four: The Ability to Communicate
Enthusiasm, Creativity, and an Entrepreneurial
Spirit
This competency (n = 73, 12%) encompassed skills that enable individuals to communicate their enthusiasm and passion for their jobs, companies, and products or ideas. Specific
examples of behaviors which further illustrate this competency include engaging others to embrace new ideas (Torres,
2007; Weinstein, 2006a); right-brain thinking (the ability to
generate and articulate, orally and in writing, creative and
innovative nonlinear ideas; Meisinger, 2007); communicating a lifelong desire to learn, grow, and develop in the career
(Meisinger, 2005; Wolter, 2005); demonstrating a positive
attitude and willingness to innovate (Daniel, 2005); and the
ability to motivate others (Ayres & Nalebuff, 2007; Erickson
& Gratton, 2007; Staver, 2006).
In a survey of human resource professionals, 73% of respondents ranked passion” as the most important quality of
a leader and 65% ranked “ability to motivate others” as the
second most important quality (Pomeroy, 2006). Yet, Farber (2005) argued that a lack of enthusiasm and passion is
endemic to many industries.
In representative articles drawn from the sample, Wolter
(2005) urged readers to “use passion as your foundation” (p.
235
124) and employ communication to “demonstrate that you do
what you love and excel at it.” Other articles offered strategies for communicating passion: rely on creative venues such
as improv comedy classes for adding energy to presentations
and meetings (Thilmany, 2007); develop the ability to present
information in the form of a story, complete with intriguing
characters, tension, a hero, drama, and humor (Torres, 2007);
let others know, explicitly, that you have the energy and willingness to take on extra work (Daniel, 2005); be dependable
and flexible (Sull & Spinosa, 2005); and participate in continuing education (“Education,” 2005).
Competency Five: Nonverbal Communication
The 52 communication skill references that support this category highlight the importance of chronemics in the workplace
(Hoge, 2007; Robinson, 2007), nontraditional work scheduling (e.g., flex time; Harris, 2007; Jossi, 2007), clear and accurate written communication (Shulman, 2005), appropriate
dress (Grischke, 2005), physical arrangement of workspace
(Buchanan, 2006), and the use of humor (Chafkin, 2007;
Weinstein, 2006c).
Time management and punctuality were the primary
themes of this category. Over half of the citations comprising this competency this category referenced an individual’s
ability to use time appropriately. DeLonzor (2005), for example, suggested that corporate culture is often to blame for
employee tardiness and recommended that meetings start on
time. He further suggested that as technology has enabled
individuals to multitask, that they have become less sensitive
to the big picture of their projects, and more likely to miss
deadlines. Lost in miniprojects and answering e-mail, and
less attuned to their overall progress on major projects, DeLonzor argued that American workers have lost the valuable
skill of project management. Individuals should use their
calendaring program to schedule reminders and tasks in an
effort to be punctual, and not underestimate the amount of
time necessary for accomplishing tasks.
Arguing that contemporary business communicators lack
writing skills, Shulman (2005) wrote, “The written word and
the writing process itself are powerful tools that can have a
real, strategic impact on business” (p. 28). However, authors
in this sample disagreed on whether the educational system is
solely responsible for teaching excellent writing, or if workrelated training could address deficiencies (Henricks, 2007).
Henricks concluded that “there is no three-step program to
becoming a great writer” (p. 86), and he urged students to
work on developing these skills under the tutelage of their
college professors.
The importance of the physical arrangement of workspace
and selecting the appropriate location for particular workrelated communication tasks was emphasized in several articles within this category. For example, Kirkpatrick (2006)
noted that the open layout of many office spaces can raise
privacy concerns. In a case study of an office in which
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employees have little respect for physical boundaries,
Buchanan (2006) concluded that employees must be sensitive to when casual conversation at work is appropriate and
when it may be disruptive. A number of authors, while underscoring the positive effects of humor in the workplace,
discussed the need to use humor carefully and appropriately
in professional settings to avoid misunderstandings and even
legal action (Chafkin, 2007). One argued, for instance, that
the use of too much humor as a way of correcting low morale
can be insulting to organizational members (“Fun,” 2007).
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Competency Six: Speaking and Listening
Mentioned only 29 times in the sample of 347 popular
press and practitioner-oriented serial business publications,
the least frequently mentioned communication competency
was speaking and listening. The bulk of the articles in this
category focused on listening over speaking: specifically, the
importance of active listening during conversation (Pomeroy,
2007; Vilaga, 2005; “Where is the love?,” 2006 ) and overall, the more holistic skill of letting others’ concerns, ideas,
needs, and suggestions be known, or heard, in the workplace (Gnamm & Neuhaus, 2005; Meisinger, 2006; Nelson,
2006; Nunes, 2005; Wolter, 2007). Other skill references
included facilitation (either of group discussions or meetings; Hartley, 2006; Smith, 2005), public speaking (Kirby,
2007; Marquart & Sorden, 2007), and related visual support
(Sulkowicz, 2005e; Weinstein, 2006b).
Jay (2005) wrote that “the most effective communicators know when to stop talking and start listening. This is
especially important when emotions are high, in team situations, and when employees are sharing ideas” (p. 87). Numerous other authors echoed the importance of listening skills:
Meisinger (2006) reported the results of a study demonstrating a substantial correlation between employee perceptions
that others in the organization, particularly managers, listen
to them, and low turnover rates. And, authors suggested that
listening to others outside of the organization—particularly
customers—is critical (“Where is the love?,” 2006).
Mention of meeting and discussion facilitation in several
articles reflected the changing nature of this important communication skill. For example, in an article on web-based
conferencing, Hartley (2006) noted that “there are many differences between facilitating an event using a web conferencing tool and facilitating an event in a room” (p. 22). Excellent
public speakers, teachers, and meeting leaders must also be
good at coping with technical difficulties, and comfortable
with the mediated aspects of the presentation. Smith (2005)
cautioned that as organizational members become more informed due to on-demand news and research, they are asking questions, challenging one another, and assuming the
role of expert with an increasing frequency. Consequently,
facilitators must be hyperaware of their strengths and weaknesses, prepared to deal with challenges and disagreements,
and willing and able to integrate diverse viewpoints into formal business conversation.
Although some articles reminded readers of the importance of basic public speaking proficiency, such as choosing strong vocabulary and eliminating speech dysfluencies
(Danigelis, 2006), others suggested that the qualities of a
great presentation are changing. Because audience members’ information processing habits may be changing, authors
stressed the importance of using visual and other sensory images (meaningful audio and video, and even hands-on simulations) rather than traditional text-heavy PowerPoint to support presentations (“Present with panache,” 2007). Because
contemporary business audiences may have little tolerance
for lectures and talking heads (Kovaleski, 2007), the popular
press recommended engaging audience members with appropriate self-disclosure, a cohesive and relevant story, realworld case studies and examples, and enthusiasm (Kirby,
2007; Marquart & Sorden, 2007). In general, anyone who
presents information in a business and professional setting
needs to think of themselves less as a speaker and more as
a teacher, preparing and executing their presentations with a
greater understanding of how adults learn (Sims, 2006). Incorporating audience interaction, simulations and role-plays,
and peer-to-peer dialogue into a traditional one-to-many
presentation may be critical to contemporary presentation
success.
DISCUSSION
Pink (2006) posited that the future belongs to a person with
a different kind of mind than the linear, logical one that baby
boomers and their parents were encouraged to develop. Flexibility, the capability of simultaneous right- and left-brain
thinking, a sense of creativity, and the ability to innovate will
separate those who succeed and those who don’t—and communication is key to demonstrating these capacities. However, many Americans find themselves on the job feeling unprepared for the communicative challenges they face. This
study identified specific skills that will prepare more people
thrive in the modern workplace. In this section, the findings
of the study are reviewed, important themes highlighted, and
implications for scholarship and practice discussed.
In this analysis of 10 popular publications, among them
press and practitioner-oriented business periodicals, 347 articles that referred to communication were identified. Across
these articles, there were 625 references to a particular communication skill. These skill references were then submitted
to content analytic procedures, and six contemporary business communication competencies were inductively derived
as a result: (a) relationship and interpersonal communication competence; (b) mediated communication competence;
(c) intergroup communication competence; (d) the ability to
communicate enthusiasm, creativity, and an entrepreneurial
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
spirit; (e) nonverbal communication competence; and (f)
speaking and listening competence
The six categories represent a mix of both traditional and
contemporary skills, but in all categories, content revealed
new applications for traditional skills. The importance of collaboration and interconnectivity permeated each theme. Further, the competencies revealed the necessity of a skill set that
transcends typical disciplinary divisions—encompassing
technological concerns, intergroup relations, nonverbal and
chronemic awareness, relationship competence, and more.
One clear message resulting from this study is that if business and communication educators and scholars are to adequately prepare students for the modern business environment, they must be careful not to exist in silos, relying only
on the theories and research findings of their own areas of the
discipline. As the academy moves toward interdisciplinarity
(Redden, 2007), communication specialists also must work
to build bridges between subareas of the field (e.g., interpersonal communication and organizational communication) to
enhance understanding of the role of communication in the
entire human experience (Waldeck & Myers, 2007).
The most frequently referenced communication skill focused on facilitating relationships. A key theme that emerged
in this category focused on civility in the workplace as
a means of building positive connections with others and
avoiding unnecessary conflict. This theme is consistent with
Sypher’s (2004) work on desk rage and the effects of offensive communication on morale, productivity, stress, and
burnout.
Another theme suggested by this competency is the need
to cultivate skills for communicating social support in professional contexts. Pentilla (2006) noted, “We work long hours
that leave us too tired to call old friends” (p. 102)—leaving
people to determine how to confide in their colleagues appropriately. Interpersonal communication researchers (Albrecht & Burleson, 1992; Burleson, Holmstrom, & Gilstrap,
2005) have studied support; researchers in the areas of organizational and business communication could address the
concerns about providing social support in the workplace
evident in the present analysis by adapting the theories and
research methods used in the study of intimate relationships.
Overall, the relationship and interpersonal communication competence illustrates that communication is a key factor
in the kinds of relationships that people make in and around
the workplace, and the ease with which they finesse difficult business situations. Moreover, the frequency with which
this competency was mentioned is evidence that the ability
to build rapport, and to initiate, sustain, and withdraw from
relationships competently is critical. As Kawasaki (2007)
noted, “it is much easier to make a sale, build partnerships,
create joint ventures . . . if you establish a relationship before you need it. And the key to that is mastering the art of
communication” (p. 46).
The second most frequently mentioned category was mediated communication competence. Technology has defined
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the direction and pace of contemporary society. Articles in referring to mediated communication competence emphasized
leveraging the power of online social networks, as well as
collaborative media, for branding, selling, learning, and innovating. This competency suggested that to succeed in the
contemporary business environment, it is necessary to not
only possess technical skills for using digital technologies,
but also have an understanding of the power of these applications for innovating, building business, and forging connections with others. However, this study revealed concern for
the stress that constant connection can create for users of business communication technologies. Gurchiek (2006) summarized the need to use communication technologies appropriately: “Round-the-clock connectedness to work—thanks to
technology—may seem like an employers’ dream but could
morph into a nightmare for both employer and worker if employees find themselves unable to unplug and manage their
mediated communications strategically” (p. 38).
The third competency, intergroup communication, illuminated the increasingly diverse workplace and the importance
of adapting one’s communication skills. The U.S. Census Bureau predicted that White individuals will comprise less than
half of the U.S. population by 2042, resulting in “big changes
for the nation’s workforce” (Dougherty, 2008, p. A3). As a
result, continued emphasis on intercultural communication
competence and learning to avoid ethnocentric attitudes and
behaviors in an individual’s interactions with others will be
important. As life expectancies increase and the stability of
the financial markets remains uncertain, people are working
well past traditional retirement age. Consequently, intergenerational communication skills are critical. The articles analyzed in this study mirrored the concern of McCann and Giles
(2006) that ageist communication, and the deeper attitudes
that lie beneath ageism, are counterproductive to the benefits
that older workers may offer. Persons of all ages must be
comfortable collaborating with one another. In general, as
the companies we work for and with diversify and develop
increasingly global ties, employees must learn and become
sensitive to the communication norms and lifestyles of others.
Fraze (2007) argued, “expansion into international markets
will become imperative for U.S. companies . . . as will the
importance of individual employees knowing the culture and
practices of the countries where you have commercial ties”
(p. 100).
The fourth competency revealed by this study suggested
that organizational members should be engaged and enthusiastic, feel connected to the mission and vision of their organizations, and have a sense of pride—and make these qualities apparent in their communication with others. Meisinger
(2007) noted that, “creativity, passion, and innovation will
be the most important factors in establishing and maintaining a competitive advantage. Logic, linear thinking, and rulebased analysis will remain important, but are no longer sufficient to succeed in the global economy” (p. 10). Educators
should promote increased participation in the classroom, and
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J. WALDECK ET AL.
encourage students to be collaborative and creative in their
academic endeavors as a way of preparing them for their professional futures, where passion for what they do, creative
and innovative thinking, and near-constant collaboration will
be normative.
Fifth, this study revealed that a series of nonverbal communication skills are highly valued in the contemporary
workplace—especially those relating to chronemics and
physical space. As individuals have a growing array of responsibilities, time management and the ability to multitask
are more critical than ever. In response to economic constraints and doing business globally (and the chronemic differences that accompany that shift), businesses are promoting more job sharing, flexible scheduling, and virtual work to
meet market demands. For example, companies such as Best
Buy, IBM, and Google have experimented with unique arrangements that allow employees to work virtually anywhere
and any time they want to work (Conlin, 2006). Scholars
should continue to pursue the agenda established by Ballard
and Seibold (2006) and Ballard and Gossett (2007), who
examined the experience of time in traditional and nontraditional work environments, and discuss the implications of
this work in their classrooms.
Surprisingly, the least frequently referenced communication competence was that of speaking and listening. Articles focusing on these basic communication skills revealed
the need for business communication proficiencies that are
anything but basic. Organization members must acquire new
skills for telling the story of a product or an idea story—often
via new media forms such as podcasts, webcasts, and teleconferences. Authors pointed out that what works in a live
face-to-face sales presentation, for example, is likely to be
highly ineffective in a webinar.
Moreover, as society has become more immersed in all
that technology and rich media have to offer, audiences have
changed. People spend so much of their time in a mediarich existence that offers dynamic, attractive, on-demand,
and addictive content that they no longer have the tolerance
for a boring presentation accompanied by PowerPoint slides
that they once did. Audiences demand more—they crave
a presentation that is easy to understand (yet substantive),
very relevant, interactive, and media-rich. This mandate involves more than just teaching students to incorporate media into the public presentation, it involves rethinking the
whole public speaking process based on how media exposure has influenced the way audiences listen, think, and relate
to information. Despite the shift in the popular press from
business speaking as public address to creating and telling a
story which engages participants (Atkinson, 2005; Reynolds,
2008) very little work in the communication discipline has
focused on how to acquire these critical contemporary public speaking competencies. Communication scholars should
heed the call to embrace “the emergent norms of an electronic era” (Cyphert, 2007, p. 187) in the ways they teach,
practice, and study presentational speaking.
CONCLUSION AND NEW DIRECTIONS
The contemporary organizational and business environment
demands much of business and communication educators
and scholars. To keep pace, scholars and educators must be
aware of the dynamic changes taking place in practice, stretch
the limits of their creativity, and embrace new theoretical
paradigms and research methods. The changing nature of society, and of the business enterprise in particular, challenges
those who study business and organizational communication
to expand the scope and depth with which they approach the
study of comm