Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:A:Agricultural Water Management:Vol42.Issue2.Nov1999:
Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
Effects of irrigation method on chile pepper yield
and Phytophthora root rot incidence
Jinhui Xiea, Elsa S. Cardenasb, Theodore W. Sammisa,*,
Marisa M. Walla, Donald L. Lindseyb, Leigh W. Murrayc
a
Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces NM 88003, USA
b
Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Weed Science, New Mexico State University,
Las Cruces NM 88003, USA
c
Department of Economics and International Business and University Statistics Center, New Mexico State
University, Las Cruces NM 88003, USA
Accepted 23 February 1999
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted in 1995 and 1996 to examine the effects of different irrigation
methods on yields and Phytophthora root rot disease of chile plants (Capsicum annum New Mexico `6±
4'). Three irrigation methods, daily drip, 3-day drip, and alternate row furrow irrigation, were applied to
plots infested with P. capsici and uninfested plots. For both years, the drip irrigation (either daily or 3day) created higher marketable green chile yields than the alternate row furrow irrigation (p < 0.05), and
the yields between the daily and 3-day drip irrigation were statistically similar. The effect of irrigation on
marketable combined yields was similar to that on green chile yields. In 1995, root rot disease incidence
in the infested plots was significantly higher under alternate row furrow irrigation than for daily and 3day drip irrigation. There was no disease development in the uninfested plots regardless of the irrigation
method. The disease decreased green chile yield by 55% (p < 0.1), and combined yield (green red
chile) by 36% (p < 0.1) in 1995 compared to that in uninfested plots in alternate row furrow irrigation. In
1996, however, no disease occurred in any treatment. The results suggested that drip irrigation increases
chile yield through providing either favorable soil moisture conditions or unfavorable conditions for
Phytophthora propagation. # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Water stress is one of the most influential factors contributing to crop yield loss.
Insufficient water supplied to a crop during critical stages of growth causes substantial
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-505-646-3405; fax: +1-505-646-6041
E-mail address: tsammis@nmsu.edu (T.W. Sammis)
0378-3774/99/$ ± see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 3 7 7 4 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 3 8 - 4
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J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
yield loss. (Tuner, 1990; Singh et al., 1991). The measurements of plant water status
can be used to evaluate if crops suffer from moisture stress. One of the measurements
is the crop water stress index (CWSI) developed by Idao et al. (1981). The relationship between yield and CWSI was reported on spring barley (Tubaileh et al., 1986),
alfalfa (Abdul-Jabbar et al., 1985), and sweet lime (Sepaskhah and Kashefipour,
1994).
In arid or semi-arid areas, crop growth is mainly dependent on irrigation. Irrigation
methods and management are of importance to soil water status, and thus, to plant water
status. Inappropriate irrigation could result in water stress. Drip irrigation provides more
efficient water use for crops than furrow irrigation because drip irrigation applies frequent
small amounts of water to the root zone and reduces adverse effects of cyclic overirrigated and water stress commonly caused by furrow irrigation. Many studies and
reports have addressed that yield and quality of hop (Humulus Lupulus L.), potato
(Solanum tuberosum) tuber, tomato, cotton, and cantaloupe could be improved with drip
irrigation (Bernstein and Francois, 1973; Sammis, 1980; Wample and Farrar, 1983;
Wood, 1988). Reports about the effect of irrigation on chile pepper yields are few
(Wierenga and Hendrickx, 1985).
Chile peppers are sensitive to soil water status. Bell peppers had higher pod yield when
soil water potential was high (Shmueli and Goldberg, 1972) and the final yield would
decrease if limited water was applied during the period of rapid growth stage of a trickleirrigation chile (Beese et al., 1982). Wierenga and Hendrickx (1985) studied the
relationship between several water application amounts and the yield responses of trickleirrigated chile pepper (Capsicum annuum `New Mexico 6±4'), and found that the
maximum green chile yield was obtained with an approximate crop evapotranspiration of
86.1 cm in the Las Cruces, NM area.
Diseases also occur due to inappropriate irrigation. Chile root rot is a common disease
of chile peppers in New Mexico. This disease is caused by a soil fungus, Phytophthora
capsici. There are many reports about P. capsici disease on peppers and other plants in the
United States and worldwide. Fungicides can be used to control P. capsici; however, their
effectiveness is reduced if the environmental conditions are favorable for fungal growth
(Biles et al., 1992).
Epidemics of root and crown rot caused by Phytophthora spp. largely depend
upon climate and soil conditions (Duniway, 1976). Rainfall and soil moisture status
are the important factors stimulating Phytophthora root and crown rot (Wilcox
and Mircetich, 1985a; Bowers et al., 1990; Cafe-Filho and Duniway, 1995).
Since irrigation affects soil water conditions, the incidence of root rot disease
can potentially be modified by changing irrigation practices (MacDonald and
Duniway, 1978; Kenerley et al., 1984; Matheron and Mircetich, 1985; Grove and
Boal, 1991). The frequency of furrow irrigation and flooding duration had a direct
relation to Phytophthora diseases (Wilcox and Mircetich, 1985b; Bowers and
Mitchell, 1990). Higher disease incidence and mortality of pepper plants occurred
with more frequent irrigation and longer duration of flooding (Bowers and Mitchell,
1990; Cafe-Filho and Duniway, 1995).
Zoospore release, and sporangia formation of P. capsici are critical forms causing
pepper root rot disease. To maintain the life cycle of most Phytophthora spp., the
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
129
condition of wet±dry cycles in soil is required (Duniway, 1975a, b; Gisi et al., 1980;
Wilcox and Mircetich, 1985a). In practice, rainfall and periodic furrow irrigation usually
provide a wet±dry cycle in soil, favoring sporangia formation during the drying period
and zoospore release during the flooding (MacDonald and Duniway, 1978; Kuan and
Erwin, 1982; Bowers and Mitchell, 1990). It is likely that the disease can be greatly
reduced if soil water status can be maintained at a relatively steady condition which
prevents either sporangia production or zoospore release. This goal may be achieved by
using drip irrigation.
In the present research, a field experiment was conducted to determine if root rot
in chile pepper plants caused by P. capsici could be controlled by elimination of
favorable conditions for zoospore release and sporangia formation by applying drip
irrigations daily or every 3 days as compared with using alternate row furrow irrigation.
Meanwhile, yields in chile pepper were evaluated under the three different irrigation
methods.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Field preparation
The experimental field was located at the Fabian Garcia Agricultural Research Center,
Las Cruces, NM. The soil-type was a Brazito sandy loam (mixed, thermic typic
torripsamments) with a pH of 7.2. The field had been fallow for 15 years before the
experiment in 1995. In November 1994, the field was custom plowed, laser leveled, and
divided into five blocks (18.3 m long 15.2 m wide). The field was raised as beds and the
bed spacing was 1.0 m.
2.2. Experimental treatments
The experimental design was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three
irrigation levels (daily drip irrigation, 3-day drip irrigation, and alternate row furrow
irrigation) and two Phytophthora levels (non-infested and infested). The treatments were
randomly applied to each block, and the treatment rows were separated by 2±3 border
rows. The experiment began in 1995 and was repeated in 1996.
2.3. Phytophthora inoculum preparation and field infestation
The 6143 strain, A1 compatibility-type of P. capsici isolated from diseased chile plants
was used as the pathogen for this experiment. The inoculum was prepared by transferring
the isolate from V8 juice agar to quart jars containing vermiculite amended with 350 ml
of V8 broth, and incubated at 248C for 4 weeks (Ristaino et al., 1992). On 11 April 1995
the vermiculite inoculum, containing sporangia and mycelia, was placed on both sides of
the plants 15 cm from the center of the bed and 5 cm deep at a rate of 360 ml mÿ1. Since
a leaf disk assay based on Hord and Ristaino (1992) showed the existence of P. capsici in
soil, the field was not re-infested in 1996.
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2.4. Chile planting
Eight-week old chile seedlings, Capsicum annum `New Mexico 6±4', were
transplanted on treated rows on 24 April 1995 and 15 April 1996. Two lines per bed
were planted in a staggered arrangement. Plants were placed 7.5 cm from the center with
a 60 cm spacing between two adjacent plants on the same side and a 30 cm spacing
between two adjacent plants on opposite sides of the bed. The drip system was operated
daily for 2 h during the establishment of the transplants, and furrow rows were irrigated
every 3±4 days in the first week. Beginning the second week after transplanting, drip
irrigation was reduced to every 2 days, and furrow irrigation to every 5 days. The
irrigation scheduling for the experiments began on 24 May 1995 and on 14 May 1996
after the establishment of the plants.
2.5. Irrigation system installation and irrigation application
The drip tubing (T-tape) with emitters every 30 cm was buried 20 cm below the
soil surface in the center line of each row and connected to the submain line
through flexible tape (2 cm in diameter) with twist locks. Water was applied at a
rate of 5.0 l hÿ1 mÿ1. The drip irrigation system was operated by a computer
that scheduled water application. The amount of water applied every day or every
3 days through drip irrigation was determined using potential evapotranspiration
(ET0) and a crop coefficient (Kc). ET0 was calculated using weather data and the
Penman equation referenced to grass (Sammis et al., 1985), and Kc was estimated
by the Arizona Irrigation Scheduling (AZSCHED) model (Fox et al., 1992) using
growing degree days (GDD). The product of ET0 and Kc is an estimate of crop
evapotranspiration (ETc) under non-water stress conditions (Eq. (1)). The actual amount
of water applied for drip irrigation was determined by dividing the calculated ETc by an
irrigation efficiency of 0.8.
ETc ET0 Kc
(1)
The furrow irrigation system included a buried main, a submain line, and risers
with valves on the end to deliver water to each furrow-irrigated treatment. The
system was controlled manually. The irrigation date for the furrow system was
predicted by the AZSCHED model (Fox et al., 1992). Actual irrigation amounts
were recorded by a flowmeter on both the drip and furrow irrigation systems after
each irrigation event.
The total amount of irrigated water for daily, 3-day drip and furrow irrigation is
1170, 1220, and 1240 mm, respectively, in 1995, and 1180, 1190 and 1490 mm in
1996.
2.6. Field management
Several weeks before transplanting, the field was irrigated to allow germination of
weed seed, and the weeds were killed with glyphosate1. After transplanting, weeds were
controlled manually. Orthene1 was applied in May to control aphids and thrips, and
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
131
Sevin1 was applied in June to control leafhoppers, both at a rate of 8 ml lÿ1 during the
two growing seasons.
Nitrogen fertilizer (URAN) was applied with the irrigation water by injection at
a concentration of 32 mg l ÿ1 (397 kg haÿ1) of NO3±N. Before transplanting,
phosphorous (P2O5) was applied as banded fertilizer on both sides of the row at a
rate of 67.3 kg haÿ1.
2.7. Disease data collection
Disease incidence was monitored weekly before 14 June and daily thereafter by
counting the diseased plants in every plot. Plants were rated from 0 to 3 where zero
indicated healthy plants, 1 incipient wilting plants, 2 stem necrosis and 3 dead
plants. Diseased plants with a rating of 3 were sampled to confirm the presence of P.
capsici by culturing and inoculating chile seedlings in a greenhouse. While counting the
number of diseased plants, the number of plants with curly top disease and other disorders
was also recorded.
2.8. Yield measurements
Green chile was harvested twice during the growing season. The first harvest was on 13
July 1995 and on 16 July 1996. The second harvest was on 2 August 1995 and on 15
August 1996. Harvested pods were dark green, glossy, firm and longer than 10 cm. In
1995, chile was picked from an area 3.0 m 1.0 m for drip-irrigated plots, and from an
area 6.0 m 1.0 m for alternate row furrow-irrigated plots. In 1996, chile was picked
from a 3.0 m 1.0 m plots for all treatments. Unmarketable fruits were classified as
exhibiting sunburn damage, blossom end rot, misshapen fruits, disease symptoms, and
other defects (less than 10 cm length or dehydrated pods). The green chile yield data
included total and marketable fruit yields.
Red chile was harvested on 25 October 1995 and on 31 October 1996. All red pods
were harvested except small and rotten ones, and dried at 55±608C. Marketable yield was
obtained by culling pods which had severe signs of sunburn and black mold (Alternaria
alternata).
Combined yield (green red chile yield) was obtained by converting dry red chile
yield to wet yield using a wet/dry ratio of 8 (Gore and Wilken, 1995).
2.9. Canopy temperature and CWSI measurements
Canopy temperature was measured using an infrared thermometer (Model 210, Everest
Interscience) in August 1995 to evaluate water stress under different irrigation methods.
The measurements were conducted from 12:00 to 2:00 p.m. on sunny days when daily
radiation was highest. Canopy temperature (Tc) was measured by holding the infrared gun
about 0.5 m above chile plants at an angle of 35±458C above the horizon. Ten
measurements were taken, five toward the east and five toward the west, and the average
canopy temperature was calculated. Air temperature (Ta) and wet bulb temperature were
measured with a psychrometer (Model H331, Weather Measure Corp.) to calculate vapor
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pressure deficit (VPD). By plotting (TcÿTa) versus VPD, we obtained the lower base line
which represented non-stress conditions. The upper base line is a horizontal line
representing no transpiration. CWSI was calculated by determining the relative distance
between the lower base line and the upper base line regarding the point of (TcÿTa)
(Saddiq, 1983).
2.10. Soil moisture and rainfall data
The water content in the soil profile was monitored biweekly on three blocks using a
neutron probe (3226 series, Troxler Electronic Laboratory) at depths of 30, 60, 90, 120,
and 150 cm. Access tubings were installed in the middle of the beds about 15 cm away
from adjacent plants.
2.11. Data analysis
Yield and disease data were subjected to analysis of variance using the Statistical
Analysis System (SAS). Covariance analysis was performed to account for high
incidence of curly top virus in 1995. Least square means were used to locate the effects of
irrigation, infestation, and their combination. CWSI was contrasted among irrigation
methods on each measurement date.
3. Results
3.1. Influence of irrigation methods on chile yields
Total and marketable green chile yields were higher for both daily and 3-day drip
irrigation than for alternate row furrow irrigation in 1995 and 1996 regardless of
infestation, but yields were similar between daily and 3-day drip irrigation (Figs. 1 and
2). In 1995, both total and marketable green chile yields were 66% greater from daily drip
irrigation treatments, and 60% greater for 3-day drip irrigation, respectively, than
alternate row furrow irrigation. In 1996, the marketable green yield increased by 43% for
the daily drip irrigation and 45% for the 3-day drip irrigation compared to yield for
alternate row furrow irrigation.
The effect of irrigation methods on dry red chile yield was different between years. In
1995, the effect was similar to green chile yield. Drip irrigation increased dry red chile
yield (both total and marketable yields; p 0.05), and there was no difference between
the daily and 3-day drip irrigation under the same infestation level. However, in 1996,
there was no significant difference among the three irrigation methods (Figs. 1 and 2) on
dry red chile yield.
The response of combined yields to irrigation methods was similar to green chile yield.
Daily and the 3-day drip irrigation increased total as well as marketable combined yield
as compared to the alternate row furrow irrigation. There was no difference in yield
between drip irrigation treatments (Figs. 1 and 2). Drip irrigation increased both total and
marketable combined yield by 42% in 1995 and 20% in 1996.
Fig. 1. Total green (A), red (B), and combined (C) chile yields for each treatment in 1995 and 1996. Id Daily drip
irrigation; It 3-day drip irrigation; If Alternate row furrow irrigation; P0 Non-infested with P. capsici;
P1 Infested with P. capsici. Yields under three irrigation methods were compared at 95% confidence level.
Fig. 2. Marketable green (A), red (B), and combined (C) chile yields for each treatment. Id Daily drip irrigation;
It 3-day drip irrigation; If Alternate row furrow irrigation; P0 Non-infested with Phytophthora;
P1 Infested with Phytophthora. Yields under three irrigation methods were compared at 95% confidence level.
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
135
3.2. Influence of Phytophthora infestation on chile yields
In 1995, total green yield (11.6 t haÿ1) and combined yield (24.1 t haÿ1) under the noninfested furrow irrigated treatment were higher than yields (5.2 t haÿ1 for green,
15.2 t haÿ1 for combined) under the infested furrow-irrigated treatment (Fig. 1). The
infestation treatment decreased alternate row furrow-irrigated green chile yield by 55%
and combined yield by 36%. However, there was no difference in yields between infested
and non-infested treatments for the daily and 3-day drip irrigations at a 90% confidence
level. Total dry red chile yield did not show any difference between infested and noninfested treatments for all irrigation treatments at the 90% confidence level. In 1996, the
infested treatments did not reduce yield among the three irrigation treatments.
In 1995, an unexpected epidemic of curly top virus prevailed in the field and affected
green and combined yields (p < 0.05). The final incidence of this disease in the field
ranged from 25 to 46% among treatments. The yield loss caused by the curly top virus
could be seen in the field. The plants with the virus were stunted, chlorotic, and bore
small or no fruit.
3.3. Disease incidence
In 1995, the plants showed no sign of Phytophthora disease incidence in the treatments
without inoculum, regardless of irrigation method. In infested plots, the final disease
incidence was 3.3% for daily drip irrigation, 1.5% for 3-day drip irrigation, and 36.8% for
alternate row furrow irrigation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Disease incidence in chile plots inoculated with P. capsici under different irrigation methods (1995).
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J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
Fig. 4. Estimated CWSI under different irrigation methods during several irrigation cycles in August 1995. The
irrigated dates were 10, 13, 23, 25, 28, and 31 August for 3-day drip irrigation; 10, 18, and 25 August for
alternate row furrow irrigation.
In the growing season of 1996, the Phytophthora disease was not found in either the
infested or uninfested treatments regardless of the irrigation method.
3.4. Estimated CWSI, moisture content in soil profile, and rainfall
Alternate row furrow irrigation had the highest CWSI among the three irrigation
methods in several irrigation cycles measured in August 1995 (Fig. 4), indicating that the
plants grown on the alternate row furrow-irrigated plots suffered greater water stress than
those grown on the drip-irrigated rows. The difference in CWSI between alternate row
furrow irrigation and drip irrigation was significant (p < 0.05) among the irrigation cycles
except on 27 August. The average CWSI was 0.65 for alternate furrow irrigation, 0.20 for
daily drip irrigation, and 0.25 for 3-day drip irrigation in August.
Average soil moisture content was lower under alternate row furrow irrigation than
under daily and 3-day irrigation (Fig. 5). Since only the available water around the root
zone is important in terms of crop use, soil water depletion level, difference between the
field capacity (FC) and soil water content in percentage of FC, in the root zone would be
a better way to evaluate whether the plants suffer water stress. The depletion level for the
alternate row furrow irrigation, in general, was higher than for drip irrigation throughout
the growing season, indicating that less available water occurred for furrow irrigation than
for drip irrigation in the root zone (Table 1).
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
137
Fig. 5. Average soil moisture content in profile and rainfall distribution.
Heavy rainfall is one of the important factors causing severe root rot in chile (Shannon,
1989; Ristaino, 1991). Heavy rainfall is considered an event greater than 20 mm (Ristaino,
1991). However, rainfall did not play an important role in this experiment, because only
120 mm cumulative rainfall and three events greater than 20 mm occurred in 1995, and
140 mm cumulative rainfall and two events greater than 20 mm occurred in 1996 (Fig. 5).
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Table 1
Water depletion level in % of field capacitya for chile peppers grown in sandy loam soil
Month
May
June
July
August
September
October
a
b
c
Rooting
Daily ETb
1995
depthb (cm) (mm dayÿ1)
Furrow
Daily
3-day
Furrow
Daily
3-day
25
37
66
93
100
100
13
18
17
16
20
±
14
7
10
7
12
±
±
30
34
25
34
35
±
14
12
10
14
16
±
19
21
6
18
21
2
4
7
8
4
1
10
20
32
39
34
±
MADc
1996
25
20
20±25
25
35
>40
Depletion level (%) (FCÿWC)/FC. FC Field capacity; WC Measured water content.
Rooting depth and average daily evapotranspiration (ET) were from AZSCHED model, (Fox et al., 1992).
MAD Management allowed depletion level. Source: Doneen and Westcot (Rev., 1984).
4. Discussion
4.1. Influence of irrigation methods on chile yield
Seasonal crop evapotranspiration (ETc) had a positive linear relationship with yield
(Sammis and Samani, 1991). Wierenga and Hendrickx (1985) found that a maximum
yield of green chile (`New Mexico 6±4', 33.2 t haÿ1) grown in Las Cruces, NM in 1981
was obtained with a seasonal ETc of 861 mm under drip irrigation. This yield was higher
than total green yield (23.0 t haÿ1) in our experiment of 1995 for drip irrigation although
the water applied that year reached 120 cm. The 2 years had similar weather conditions,
with the cumulative heat units of 17098C in 1995 during the growing season and of
17778C in 1981 during the same period based on the maximum and minimum daily
temperature with the base temperature of 30.58C (if the daily maximum temperature was
greater than 30.58C, 30.58C replaced it) and cut-off temperature of 58C (if the minimum
daily temperature was lower than 58C, 58C replaced it) for the chile plant (Fox et al.,
1992). Fertilizer stress was not a limiting factor for both drip and alternate furrow
irrigation with a total 384 kg haÿ1 of NO3±N for the drip irrigation and 397 kg haÿ1 of
NO3±N for alternate furrow irrigation. However, only 130 kg N haÿ1 was taken up by the
plants based on a harvest index of 0.61 and a concentration of N in the plants of chile (AlJamal, 1995). Phosphorous was also unlikely to have been a limiting factor since
67.3 kg haÿ1 P2O5 was applied which was 1.5 times the recommended rate for a furrow
irrigation system (Glover and Baker, 1990). The drip yield in the study was also 1.5 times
the average furrow-irrigated yields for Dona Ana County, NM (Gore and Wilken, 1995).
High incidence of curly top virus during the season of 1995 could have contributed to
the yield loss as compared with Wierenga and Hendrickx's result (1985). CWSI indicated
that the plants under the drip irrigation suffered 20 (daily) to 25% (3-day) water stress
(Fig. 4) even though the water applied was in excess of maximum ET obtained by
Wierenga and Hendrickx (1985). Due to the high incidence of curly top virus, the plants
chosen for canopy temperature measurement had the virus infection. The curly top virus
would decrease transpiration and water use of chile plants, resulting in water stress of
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
139
plants. This explained the high CWSI under drip irrigation. The curly top virus could also
reduce the capability of photosynthesis of chile plants due to small and wilted leaves,
which caused yield loss. Consequently, curly top disease in 1995 might be the factor
responsible for the reduction of chile yield under drip irrigation.
In 1996, the average green chile yield (30.3 t haÿ1) under drip irrigation was
compatible with the maximum yield (33.2 t haÿ1) obtained by Wierenga and Hendrickx
(1985), indicating plant growth was not limited by fertilizer, soil water or disease factors.
In both years, drip irrigation increased chile yield as compared with the alternate row
furrow irrigation. CWSI can indicate whether plants suffer water stress or not. The
increase in CWSI from 0.22 for the drip to 0.65 for the furrow in 1995 indicated that the
furrow-irrigated plants suffered an additional 43% decrease in ET due to soil moisture
stress. The estimated seasonal ET for furrow irrigation was 300 mm [86 cm (1 ÿ 0.65)]
based upon CWSI. This ET resulted in an estimated green chile yield of 8.0 t haÿ1 based
upon Wierenga and Hendrickx's water production function (1985), which agreed with the
yield in this study (11.6 t haÿ1) under non-Phytophthora treatment.
4.2. Disease incidence
Drip irrigation controlled root rot caused by P. capsici in 1995 (Fig. 2). This was
probably due to a lack of wet±dry cycles for sporangia formation and zoospore discharge.
The life cycle of Phytophthora requires moist soil for sporangia production but saturated
conditions for zoospore release (Duniway, 1976, 1979, 1983; MacDonald and Duniway,
1978; Bernhardt and Grogan, 1982). However, drip irrigation, especially light frequent
application such as the daily treatment in our experiment, usually would not create saturated
conditions in the soil except in the vicinity of the emitter during irrigation. The soil matric
potential is lower the farther the soil volume is from the emitter (Goldberg et al., 1976).
In the present experiment, it is reasonable to speculate that the soil layer of 5 cm depth
at which the inoculum was applied could not be saturated because of the buried depth of
drip tubing (20 cm below soil surface) and low emitter discharge rate (5.0 l hÿ1 mÿ1). As
a result, the life cycle of P. capsici might be interrupted at the stage of zoospore release
under the daily drip irrigation, causing decreased secondary inoculum production and
dispersal which is a major route for multiple infection of plants (Bernhardt and Grogan,
1982; Duniway, 1983).
The distribution of soil moisture under 3-day drip irrigation is similar to that under
daily drip irrigation. Although the time of operation was three times that of daily drip
irrigation, the soil layer of 5 cm depth was likely to be unsaturated during the irrigation
operation because of low emitter discharge rate. Again, the 3-day drip irrigation could not
create saturation to implement zoospore discharge in the experiment of 1995. However,
our finding that drip irrigation controlled Phytophthora disease in 1995 contradicted
Ristaino's results (1991). She found that more frequent drip irrigation (3 times per week
for 4 h duration) increased root and crown rot significantly as compared with less
frequent drip-irrigated treatment when greater than 2.0 cm of rainfall occurred only twice
during the growing season. The distance between drip tubing and the application site of
the inoculum might explain the difference. In Ristaino's research (1991), the inoculum
was applied at the same depth as drip tubing was buried (10 cm below soil surface), and
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likely provided saturated conditions for the zoospore release during irrigation, whereas,
the drip tubing was buried at 20 cm depth and the inoculum was applied at less than 5 cm
depth in our experiment. Although our experiment suggested that the Phytophthora
disease could be controled by both daily and 3-day drip irrigation, less frequent drip
irrigation was recommended for practical implication because the distribution of the
pathogen was likely to be relatively uniform in the field with a history of Phytophthora,
and inoculum density was greater near the drip line (Ristaino et al., 1992). Less frequent
drip irrigation could provide less saturation periods.
In 1995, the alternate row furrow-irrigated chile had a disease incidence (Fig. 3) which
agreed with other research on various furrow-irrigated plants, such as walnut (Matheron
and Mircetich, 1985), processing tomatoes (Ristaino et al., 1988), cherry (Wilcox and
Mircetich, 1985b), Fraser fir seedlings (Kenerley et al., 1984), and pepper (Bowers and
Mitchell, 1990). The occurrence of the disease caused by flooding irrigation could be
explained by the favorable condition for zoospore release of Phytophthora. The
prolonged duration of flooding increased the occurrence of root rot in cherry (Wilcox and
Mircetich, 1985a) and Fraser fir seedlings (Kenerley et al., 1984). We observed 4±5 h
standing water occurring in the furrows after each application, which was likely to favor
zoospore release of P. capsici.
As discussed in the previous section, furrow irrigation usually caused the problem of
water stress. Increasing the frequency of furrow irrigation would relieve the stress;
however, the number of wet±dry cycles would increase correspondingly. The possible
resultant could be more disease.
Farmers have choices of irrigation methods. Drip irrigation is likely to be the optimal
method to control P. capsici disease and to maintain high yield. However, farmers using
furrow irrigation need to choose either decreasing the frequency of irrigation to control
the disease but increasing water stress or increasing the frequency of irrigation to
decrease water stress but increasing disease incidence. Both water stress and the disease
cause yield loss. If furrow irrigation is selected, the problem is how to obtain a balance
between water stress and disease occurrence.
No disease developed in the field in 1996 under furrow irrigation, even in the infested
treatment. The reason could be low inoculum units without re-infesting the field.
5. Conclusions
Chile yield could be increased greatly and root rot caused by P. capsici could be
controlled by the drip irrigation designed in the present experiment. In practice, less
frequent drip irrigation might be a better method to control the disease, because the
inoculum near the emitters would be exposed to a lesser saturation period (Ristaino et al.,
1992). Although alternate row furrow irrigation might be a good way to limit disease
incidence as indicated by Biles et al. (1992), the frequency of alternate row irrigation
should be considered to prevent crop water stress. Limiting the frequency or duration of
furrow irrigation and preventing plants from undergoing water stress still remains an
interesting issue. Profit and cost of the drip system still needs to be evaluated when chile
growers anticipate controlling the disease by using drip irrigation.
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
141
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Effects of irrigation method on chile pepper yield
and Phytophthora root rot incidence
Jinhui Xiea, Elsa S. Cardenasb, Theodore W. Sammisa,*,
Marisa M. Walla, Donald L. Lindseyb, Leigh W. Murrayc
a
Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces NM 88003, USA
b
Department of Entomology, Plant Pathology and Weed Science, New Mexico State University,
Las Cruces NM 88003, USA
c
Department of Economics and International Business and University Statistics Center, New Mexico State
University, Las Cruces NM 88003, USA
Accepted 23 February 1999
Abstract
A field experiment was conducted in 1995 and 1996 to examine the effects of different irrigation
methods on yields and Phytophthora root rot disease of chile plants (Capsicum annum New Mexico `6±
4'). Three irrigation methods, daily drip, 3-day drip, and alternate row furrow irrigation, were applied to
plots infested with P. capsici and uninfested plots. For both years, the drip irrigation (either daily or 3day) created higher marketable green chile yields than the alternate row furrow irrigation (p < 0.05), and
the yields between the daily and 3-day drip irrigation were statistically similar. The effect of irrigation on
marketable combined yields was similar to that on green chile yields. In 1995, root rot disease incidence
in the infested plots was significantly higher under alternate row furrow irrigation than for daily and 3day drip irrigation. There was no disease development in the uninfested plots regardless of the irrigation
method. The disease decreased green chile yield by 55% (p < 0.1), and combined yield (green red
chile) by 36% (p < 0.1) in 1995 compared to that in uninfested plots in alternate row furrow irrigation. In
1996, however, no disease occurred in any treatment. The results suggested that drip irrigation increases
chile yield through providing either favorable soil moisture conditions or unfavorable conditions for
Phytophthora propagation. # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Water stress is one of the most influential factors contributing to crop yield loss.
Insufficient water supplied to a crop during critical stages of growth causes substantial
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-505-646-3405; fax: +1-505-646-6041
E-mail address: tsammis@nmsu.edu (T.W. Sammis)
0378-3774/99/$ ± see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 8 - 3 7 7 4 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 3 8 - 4
128
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
yield loss. (Tuner, 1990; Singh et al., 1991). The measurements of plant water status
can be used to evaluate if crops suffer from moisture stress. One of the measurements
is the crop water stress index (CWSI) developed by Idao et al. (1981). The relationship between yield and CWSI was reported on spring barley (Tubaileh et al., 1986),
alfalfa (Abdul-Jabbar et al., 1985), and sweet lime (Sepaskhah and Kashefipour,
1994).
In arid or semi-arid areas, crop growth is mainly dependent on irrigation. Irrigation
methods and management are of importance to soil water status, and thus, to plant water
status. Inappropriate irrigation could result in water stress. Drip irrigation provides more
efficient water use for crops than furrow irrigation because drip irrigation applies frequent
small amounts of water to the root zone and reduces adverse effects of cyclic overirrigated and water stress commonly caused by furrow irrigation. Many studies and
reports have addressed that yield and quality of hop (Humulus Lupulus L.), potato
(Solanum tuberosum) tuber, tomato, cotton, and cantaloupe could be improved with drip
irrigation (Bernstein and Francois, 1973; Sammis, 1980; Wample and Farrar, 1983;
Wood, 1988). Reports about the effect of irrigation on chile pepper yields are few
(Wierenga and Hendrickx, 1985).
Chile peppers are sensitive to soil water status. Bell peppers had higher pod yield when
soil water potential was high (Shmueli and Goldberg, 1972) and the final yield would
decrease if limited water was applied during the period of rapid growth stage of a trickleirrigation chile (Beese et al., 1982). Wierenga and Hendrickx (1985) studied the
relationship between several water application amounts and the yield responses of trickleirrigated chile pepper (Capsicum annuum `New Mexico 6±4'), and found that the
maximum green chile yield was obtained with an approximate crop evapotranspiration of
86.1 cm in the Las Cruces, NM area.
Diseases also occur due to inappropriate irrigation. Chile root rot is a common disease
of chile peppers in New Mexico. This disease is caused by a soil fungus, Phytophthora
capsici. There are many reports about P. capsici disease on peppers and other plants in the
United States and worldwide. Fungicides can be used to control P. capsici; however, their
effectiveness is reduced if the environmental conditions are favorable for fungal growth
(Biles et al., 1992).
Epidemics of root and crown rot caused by Phytophthora spp. largely depend
upon climate and soil conditions (Duniway, 1976). Rainfall and soil moisture status
are the important factors stimulating Phytophthora root and crown rot (Wilcox
and Mircetich, 1985a; Bowers et al., 1990; Cafe-Filho and Duniway, 1995).
Since irrigation affects soil water conditions, the incidence of root rot disease
can potentially be modified by changing irrigation practices (MacDonald and
Duniway, 1978; Kenerley et al., 1984; Matheron and Mircetich, 1985; Grove and
Boal, 1991). The frequency of furrow irrigation and flooding duration had a direct
relation to Phytophthora diseases (Wilcox and Mircetich, 1985b; Bowers and
Mitchell, 1990). Higher disease incidence and mortality of pepper plants occurred
with more frequent irrigation and longer duration of flooding (Bowers and Mitchell,
1990; Cafe-Filho and Duniway, 1995).
Zoospore release, and sporangia formation of P. capsici are critical forms causing
pepper root rot disease. To maintain the life cycle of most Phytophthora spp., the
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
129
condition of wet±dry cycles in soil is required (Duniway, 1975a, b; Gisi et al., 1980;
Wilcox and Mircetich, 1985a). In practice, rainfall and periodic furrow irrigation usually
provide a wet±dry cycle in soil, favoring sporangia formation during the drying period
and zoospore release during the flooding (MacDonald and Duniway, 1978; Kuan and
Erwin, 1982; Bowers and Mitchell, 1990). It is likely that the disease can be greatly
reduced if soil water status can be maintained at a relatively steady condition which
prevents either sporangia production or zoospore release. This goal may be achieved by
using drip irrigation.
In the present research, a field experiment was conducted to determine if root rot
in chile pepper plants caused by P. capsici could be controlled by elimination of
favorable conditions for zoospore release and sporangia formation by applying drip
irrigations daily or every 3 days as compared with using alternate row furrow irrigation.
Meanwhile, yields in chile pepper were evaluated under the three different irrigation
methods.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Field preparation
The experimental field was located at the Fabian Garcia Agricultural Research Center,
Las Cruces, NM. The soil-type was a Brazito sandy loam (mixed, thermic typic
torripsamments) with a pH of 7.2. The field had been fallow for 15 years before the
experiment in 1995. In November 1994, the field was custom plowed, laser leveled, and
divided into five blocks (18.3 m long 15.2 m wide). The field was raised as beds and the
bed spacing was 1.0 m.
2.2. Experimental treatments
The experimental design was a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three
irrigation levels (daily drip irrigation, 3-day drip irrigation, and alternate row furrow
irrigation) and two Phytophthora levels (non-infested and infested). The treatments were
randomly applied to each block, and the treatment rows were separated by 2±3 border
rows. The experiment began in 1995 and was repeated in 1996.
2.3. Phytophthora inoculum preparation and field infestation
The 6143 strain, A1 compatibility-type of P. capsici isolated from diseased chile plants
was used as the pathogen for this experiment. The inoculum was prepared by transferring
the isolate from V8 juice agar to quart jars containing vermiculite amended with 350 ml
of V8 broth, and incubated at 248C for 4 weeks (Ristaino et al., 1992). On 11 April 1995
the vermiculite inoculum, containing sporangia and mycelia, was placed on both sides of
the plants 15 cm from the center of the bed and 5 cm deep at a rate of 360 ml mÿ1. Since
a leaf disk assay based on Hord and Ristaino (1992) showed the existence of P. capsici in
soil, the field was not re-infested in 1996.
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2.4. Chile planting
Eight-week old chile seedlings, Capsicum annum `New Mexico 6±4', were
transplanted on treated rows on 24 April 1995 and 15 April 1996. Two lines per bed
were planted in a staggered arrangement. Plants were placed 7.5 cm from the center with
a 60 cm spacing between two adjacent plants on the same side and a 30 cm spacing
between two adjacent plants on opposite sides of the bed. The drip system was operated
daily for 2 h during the establishment of the transplants, and furrow rows were irrigated
every 3±4 days in the first week. Beginning the second week after transplanting, drip
irrigation was reduced to every 2 days, and furrow irrigation to every 5 days. The
irrigation scheduling for the experiments began on 24 May 1995 and on 14 May 1996
after the establishment of the plants.
2.5. Irrigation system installation and irrigation application
The drip tubing (T-tape) with emitters every 30 cm was buried 20 cm below the
soil surface in the center line of each row and connected to the submain line
through flexible tape (2 cm in diameter) with twist locks. Water was applied at a
rate of 5.0 l hÿ1 mÿ1. The drip irrigation system was operated by a computer
that scheduled water application. The amount of water applied every day or every
3 days through drip irrigation was determined using potential evapotranspiration
(ET0) and a crop coefficient (Kc). ET0 was calculated using weather data and the
Penman equation referenced to grass (Sammis et al., 1985), and Kc was estimated
by the Arizona Irrigation Scheduling (AZSCHED) model (Fox et al., 1992) using
growing degree days (GDD). The product of ET0 and Kc is an estimate of crop
evapotranspiration (ETc) under non-water stress conditions (Eq. (1)). The actual amount
of water applied for drip irrigation was determined by dividing the calculated ETc by an
irrigation efficiency of 0.8.
ETc ET0 Kc
(1)
The furrow irrigation system included a buried main, a submain line, and risers
with valves on the end to deliver water to each furrow-irrigated treatment. The
system was controlled manually. The irrigation date for the furrow system was
predicted by the AZSCHED model (Fox et al., 1992). Actual irrigation amounts
were recorded by a flowmeter on both the drip and furrow irrigation systems after
each irrigation event.
The total amount of irrigated water for daily, 3-day drip and furrow irrigation is
1170, 1220, and 1240 mm, respectively, in 1995, and 1180, 1190 and 1490 mm in
1996.
2.6. Field management
Several weeks before transplanting, the field was irrigated to allow germination of
weed seed, and the weeds were killed with glyphosate1. After transplanting, weeds were
controlled manually. Orthene1 was applied in May to control aphids and thrips, and
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
131
Sevin1 was applied in June to control leafhoppers, both at a rate of 8 ml lÿ1 during the
two growing seasons.
Nitrogen fertilizer (URAN) was applied with the irrigation water by injection at
a concentration of 32 mg l ÿ1 (397 kg haÿ1) of NO3±N. Before transplanting,
phosphorous (P2O5) was applied as banded fertilizer on both sides of the row at a
rate of 67.3 kg haÿ1.
2.7. Disease data collection
Disease incidence was monitored weekly before 14 June and daily thereafter by
counting the diseased plants in every plot. Plants were rated from 0 to 3 where zero
indicated healthy plants, 1 incipient wilting plants, 2 stem necrosis and 3 dead
plants. Diseased plants with a rating of 3 were sampled to confirm the presence of P.
capsici by culturing and inoculating chile seedlings in a greenhouse. While counting the
number of diseased plants, the number of plants with curly top disease and other disorders
was also recorded.
2.8. Yield measurements
Green chile was harvested twice during the growing season. The first harvest was on 13
July 1995 and on 16 July 1996. The second harvest was on 2 August 1995 and on 15
August 1996. Harvested pods were dark green, glossy, firm and longer than 10 cm. In
1995, chile was picked from an area 3.0 m 1.0 m for drip-irrigated plots, and from an
area 6.0 m 1.0 m for alternate row furrow-irrigated plots. In 1996, chile was picked
from a 3.0 m 1.0 m plots for all treatments. Unmarketable fruits were classified as
exhibiting sunburn damage, blossom end rot, misshapen fruits, disease symptoms, and
other defects (less than 10 cm length or dehydrated pods). The green chile yield data
included total and marketable fruit yields.
Red chile was harvested on 25 October 1995 and on 31 October 1996. All red pods
were harvested except small and rotten ones, and dried at 55±608C. Marketable yield was
obtained by culling pods which had severe signs of sunburn and black mold (Alternaria
alternata).
Combined yield (green red chile yield) was obtained by converting dry red chile
yield to wet yield using a wet/dry ratio of 8 (Gore and Wilken, 1995).
2.9. Canopy temperature and CWSI measurements
Canopy temperature was measured using an infrared thermometer (Model 210, Everest
Interscience) in August 1995 to evaluate water stress under different irrigation methods.
The measurements were conducted from 12:00 to 2:00 p.m. on sunny days when daily
radiation was highest. Canopy temperature (Tc) was measured by holding the infrared gun
about 0.5 m above chile plants at an angle of 35±458C above the horizon. Ten
measurements were taken, five toward the east and five toward the west, and the average
canopy temperature was calculated. Air temperature (Ta) and wet bulb temperature were
measured with a psychrometer (Model H331, Weather Measure Corp.) to calculate vapor
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pressure deficit (VPD). By plotting (TcÿTa) versus VPD, we obtained the lower base line
which represented non-stress conditions. The upper base line is a horizontal line
representing no transpiration. CWSI was calculated by determining the relative distance
between the lower base line and the upper base line regarding the point of (TcÿTa)
(Saddiq, 1983).
2.10. Soil moisture and rainfall data
The water content in the soil profile was monitored biweekly on three blocks using a
neutron probe (3226 series, Troxler Electronic Laboratory) at depths of 30, 60, 90, 120,
and 150 cm. Access tubings were installed in the middle of the beds about 15 cm away
from adjacent plants.
2.11. Data analysis
Yield and disease data were subjected to analysis of variance using the Statistical
Analysis System (SAS). Covariance analysis was performed to account for high
incidence of curly top virus in 1995. Least square means were used to locate the effects of
irrigation, infestation, and their combination. CWSI was contrasted among irrigation
methods on each measurement date.
3. Results
3.1. Influence of irrigation methods on chile yields
Total and marketable green chile yields were higher for both daily and 3-day drip
irrigation than for alternate row furrow irrigation in 1995 and 1996 regardless of
infestation, but yields were similar between daily and 3-day drip irrigation (Figs. 1 and
2). In 1995, both total and marketable green chile yields were 66% greater from daily drip
irrigation treatments, and 60% greater for 3-day drip irrigation, respectively, than
alternate row furrow irrigation. In 1996, the marketable green yield increased by 43% for
the daily drip irrigation and 45% for the 3-day drip irrigation compared to yield for
alternate row furrow irrigation.
The effect of irrigation methods on dry red chile yield was different between years. In
1995, the effect was similar to green chile yield. Drip irrigation increased dry red chile
yield (both total and marketable yields; p 0.05), and there was no difference between
the daily and 3-day drip irrigation under the same infestation level. However, in 1996,
there was no significant difference among the three irrigation methods (Figs. 1 and 2) on
dry red chile yield.
The response of combined yields to irrigation methods was similar to green chile yield.
Daily and the 3-day drip irrigation increased total as well as marketable combined yield
as compared to the alternate row furrow irrigation. There was no difference in yield
between drip irrigation treatments (Figs. 1 and 2). Drip irrigation increased both total and
marketable combined yield by 42% in 1995 and 20% in 1996.
Fig. 1. Total green (A), red (B), and combined (C) chile yields for each treatment in 1995 and 1996. Id Daily drip
irrigation; It 3-day drip irrigation; If Alternate row furrow irrigation; P0 Non-infested with P. capsici;
P1 Infested with P. capsici. Yields under three irrigation methods were compared at 95% confidence level.
Fig. 2. Marketable green (A), red (B), and combined (C) chile yields for each treatment. Id Daily drip irrigation;
It 3-day drip irrigation; If Alternate row furrow irrigation; P0 Non-infested with Phytophthora;
P1 Infested with Phytophthora. Yields under three irrigation methods were compared at 95% confidence level.
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
135
3.2. Influence of Phytophthora infestation on chile yields
In 1995, total green yield (11.6 t haÿ1) and combined yield (24.1 t haÿ1) under the noninfested furrow irrigated treatment were higher than yields (5.2 t haÿ1 for green,
15.2 t haÿ1 for combined) under the infested furrow-irrigated treatment (Fig. 1). The
infestation treatment decreased alternate row furrow-irrigated green chile yield by 55%
and combined yield by 36%. However, there was no difference in yields between infested
and non-infested treatments for the daily and 3-day drip irrigations at a 90% confidence
level. Total dry red chile yield did not show any difference between infested and noninfested treatments for all irrigation treatments at the 90% confidence level. In 1996, the
infested treatments did not reduce yield among the three irrigation treatments.
In 1995, an unexpected epidemic of curly top virus prevailed in the field and affected
green and combined yields (p < 0.05). The final incidence of this disease in the field
ranged from 25 to 46% among treatments. The yield loss caused by the curly top virus
could be seen in the field. The plants with the virus were stunted, chlorotic, and bore
small or no fruit.
3.3. Disease incidence
In 1995, the plants showed no sign of Phytophthora disease incidence in the treatments
without inoculum, regardless of irrigation method. In infested plots, the final disease
incidence was 3.3% for daily drip irrigation, 1.5% for 3-day drip irrigation, and 36.8% for
alternate row furrow irrigation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Disease incidence in chile plots inoculated with P. capsici under different irrigation methods (1995).
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Fig. 4. Estimated CWSI under different irrigation methods during several irrigation cycles in August 1995. The
irrigated dates were 10, 13, 23, 25, 28, and 31 August for 3-day drip irrigation; 10, 18, and 25 August for
alternate row furrow irrigation.
In the growing season of 1996, the Phytophthora disease was not found in either the
infested or uninfested treatments regardless of the irrigation method.
3.4. Estimated CWSI, moisture content in soil profile, and rainfall
Alternate row furrow irrigation had the highest CWSI among the three irrigation
methods in several irrigation cycles measured in August 1995 (Fig. 4), indicating that the
plants grown on the alternate row furrow-irrigated plots suffered greater water stress than
those grown on the drip-irrigated rows. The difference in CWSI between alternate row
furrow irrigation and drip irrigation was significant (p < 0.05) among the irrigation cycles
except on 27 August. The average CWSI was 0.65 for alternate furrow irrigation, 0.20 for
daily drip irrigation, and 0.25 for 3-day drip irrigation in August.
Average soil moisture content was lower under alternate row furrow irrigation than
under daily and 3-day irrigation (Fig. 5). Since only the available water around the root
zone is important in terms of crop use, soil water depletion level, difference between the
field capacity (FC) and soil water content in percentage of FC, in the root zone would be
a better way to evaluate whether the plants suffer water stress. The depletion level for the
alternate row furrow irrigation, in general, was higher than for drip irrigation throughout
the growing season, indicating that less available water occurred for furrow irrigation than
for drip irrigation in the root zone (Table 1).
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
137
Fig. 5. Average soil moisture content in profile and rainfall distribution.
Heavy rainfall is one of the important factors causing severe root rot in chile (Shannon,
1989; Ristaino, 1991). Heavy rainfall is considered an event greater than 20 mm (Ristaino,
1991). However, rainfall did not play an important role in this experiment, because only
120 mm cumulative rainfall and three events greater than 20 mm occurred in 1995, and
140 mm cumulative rainfall and two events greater than 20 mm occurred in 1996 (Fig. 5).
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J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
Table 1
Water depletion level in % of field capacitya for chile peppers grown in sandy loam soil
Month
May
June
July
August
September
October
a
b
c
Rooting
Daily ETb
1995
depthb (cm) (mm dayÿ1)
Furrow
Daily
3-day
Furrow
Daily
3-day
25
37
66
93
100
100
13
18
17
16
20
±
14
7
10
7
12
±
±
30
34
25
34
35
±
14
12
10
14
16
±
19
21
6
18
21
2
4
7
8
4
1
10
20
32
39
34
±
MADc
1996
25
20
20±25
25
35
>40
Depletion level (%) (FCÿWC)/FC. FC Field capacity; WC Measured water content.
Rooting depth and average daily evapotranspiration (ET) were from AZSCHED model, (Fox et al., 1992).
MAD Management allowed depletion level. Source: Doneen and Westcot (Rev., 1984).
4. Discussion
4.1. Influence of irrigation methods on chile yield
Seasonal crop evapotranspiration (ETc) had a positive linear relationship with yield
(Sammis and Samani, 1991). Wierenga and Hendrickx (1985) found that a maximum
yield of green chile (`New Mexico 6±4', 33.2 t haÿ1) grown in Las Cruces, NM in 1981
was obtained with a seasonal ETc of 861 mm under drip irrigation. This yield was higher
than total green yield (23.0 t haÿ1) in our experiment of 1995 for drip irrigation although
the water applied that year reached 120 cm. The 2 years had similar weather conditions,
with the cumulative heat units of 17098C in 1995 during the growing season and of
17778C in 1981 during the same period based on the maximum and minimum daily
temperature with the base temperature of 30.58C (if the daily maximum temperature was
greater than 30.58C, 30.58C replaced it) and cut-off temperature of 58C (if the minimum
daily temperature was lower than 58C, 58C replaced it) for the chile plant (Fox et al.,
1992). Fertilizer stress was not a limiting factor for both drip and alternate furrow
irrigation with a total 384 kg haÿ1 of NO3±N for the drip irrigation and 397 kg haÿ1 of
NO3±N for alternate furrow irrigation. However, only 130 kg N haÿ1 was taken up by the
plants based on a harvest index of 0.61 and a concentration of N in the plants of chile (AlJamal, 1995). Phosphorous was also unlikely to have been a limiting factor since
67.3 kg haÿ1 P2O5 was applied which was 1.5 times the recommended rate for a furrow
irrigation system (Glover and Baker, 1990). The drip yield in the study was also 1.5 times
the average furrow-irrigated yields for Dona Ana County, NM (Gore and Wilken, 1995).
High incidence of curly top virus during the season of 1995 could have contributed to
the yield loss as compared with Wierenga and Hendrickx's result (1985). CWSI indicated
that the plants under the drip irrigation suffered 20 (daily) to 25% (3-day) water stress
(Fig. 4) even though the water applied was in excess of maximum ET obtained by
Wierenga and Hendrickx (1985). Due to the high incidence of curly top virus, the plants
chosen for canopy temperature measurement had the virus infection. The curly top virus
would decrease transpiration and water use of chile plants, resulting in water stress of
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
139
plants. This explained the high CWSI under drip irrigation. The curly top virus could also
reduce the capability of photosynthesis of chile plants due to small and wilted leaves,
which caused yield loss. Consequently, curly top disease in 1995 might be the factor
responsible for the reduction of chile yield under drip irrigation.
In 1996, the average green chile yield (30.3 t haÿ1) under drip irrigation was
compatible with the maximum yield (33.2 t haÿ1) obtained by Wierenga and Hendrickx
(1985), indicating plant growth was not limited by fertilizer, soil water or disease factors.
In both years, drip irrigation increased chile yield as compared with the alternate row
furrow irrigation. CWSI can indicate whether plants suffer water stress or not. The
increase in CWSI from 0.22 for the drip to 0.65 for the furrow in 1995 indicated that the
furrow-irrigated plants suffered an additional 43% decrease in ET due to soil moisture
stress. The estimated seasonal ET for furrow irrigation was 300 mm [86 cm (1 ÿ 0.65)]
based upon CWSI. This ET resulted in an estimated green chile yield of 8.0 t haÿ1 based
upon Wierenga and Hendrickx's water production function (1985), which agreed with the
yield in this study (11.6 t haÿ1) under non-Phytophthora treatment.
4.2. Disease incidence
Drip irrigation controlled root rot caused by P. capsici in 1995 (Fig. 2). This was
probably due to a lack of wet±dry cycles for sporangia formation and zoospore discharge.
The life cycle of Phytophthora requires moist soil for sporangia production but saturated
conditions for zoospore release (Duniway, 1976, 1979, 1983; MacDonald and Duniway,
1978; Bernhardt and Grogan, 1982). However, drip irrigation, especially light frequent
application such as the daily treatment in our experiment, usually would not create saturated
conditions in the soil except in the vicinity of the emitter during irrigation. The soil matric
potential is lower the farther the soil volume is from the emitter (Goldberg et al., 1976).
In the present experiment, it is reasonable to speculate that the soil layer of 5 cm depth
at which the inoculum was applied could not be saturated because of the buried depth of
drip tubing (20 cm below soil surface) and low emitter discharge rate (5.0 l hÿ1 mÿ1). As
a result, the life cycle of P. capsici might be interrupted at the stage of zoospore release
under the daily drip irrigation, causing decreased secondary inoculum production and
dispersal which is a major route for multiple infection of plants (Bernhardt and Grogan,
1982; Duniway, 1983).
The distribution of soil moisture under 3-day drip irrigation is similar to that under
daily drip irrigation. Although the time of operation was three times that of daily drip
irrigation, the soil layer of 5 cm depth was likely to be unsaturated during the irrigation
operation because of low emitter discharge rate. Again, the 3-day drip irrigation could not
create saturation to implement zoospore discharge in the experiment of 1995. However,
our finding that drip irrigation controlled Phytophthora disease in 1995 contradicted
Ristaino's results (1991). She found that more frequent drip irrigation (3 times per week
for 4 h duration) increased root and crown rot significantly as compared with less
frequent drip-irrigated treatment when greater than 2.0 cm of rainfall occurred only twice
during the growing season. The distance between drip tubing and the application site of
the inoculum might explain the difference. In Ristaino's research (1991), the inoculum
was applied at the same depth as drip tubing was buried (10 cm below soil surface), and
140
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
likely provided saturated conditions for the zoospore release during irrigation, whereas,
the drip tubing was buried at 20 cm depth and the inoculum was applied at less than 5 cm
depth in our experiment. Although our experiment suggested that the Phytophthora
disease could be controled by both daily and 3-day drip irrigation, less frequent drip
irrigation was recommended for practical implication because the distribution of the
pathogen was likely to be relatively uniform in the field with a history of Phytophthora,
and inoculum density was greater near the drip line (Ristaino et al., 1992). Less frequent
drip irrigation could provide less saturation periods.
In 1995, the alternate row furrow-irrigated chile had a disease incidence (Fig. 3) which
agreed with other research on various furrow-irrigated plants, such as walnut (Matheron
and Mircetich, 1985), processing tomatoes (Ristaino et al., 1988), cherry (Wilcox and
Mircetich, 1985b), Fraser fir seedlings (Kenerley et al., 1984), and pepper (Bowers and
Mitchell, 1990). The occurrence of the disease caused by flooding irrigation could be
explained by the favorable condition for zoospore release of Phytophthora. The
prolonged duration of flooding increased the occurrence of root rot in cherry (Wilcox and
Mircetich, 1985a) and Fraser fir seedlings (Kenerley et al., 1984). We observed 4±5 h
standing water occurring in the furrows after each application, which was likely to favor
zoospore release of P. capsici.
As discussed in the previous section, furrow irrigation usually caused the problem of
water stress. Increasing the frequency of furrow irrigation would relieve the stress;
however, the number of wet±dry cycles would increase correspondingly. The possible
resultant could be more disease.
Farmers have choices of irrigation methods. Drip irrigation is likely to be the optimal
method to control P. capsici disease and to maintain high yield. However, farmers using
furrow irrigation need to choose either decreasing the frequency of irrigation to control
the disease but increasing water stress or increasing the frequency of irrigation to
decrease water stress but increasing disease incidence. Both water stress and the disease
cause yield loss. If furrow irrigation is selected, the problem is how to obtain a balance
between water stress and disease occurrence.
No disease developed in the field in 1996 under furrow irrigation, even in the infested
treatment. The reason could be low inoculum units without re-infesting the field.
5. Conclusions
Chile yield could be increased greatly and root rot caused by P. capsici could be
controlled by the drip irrigation designed in the present experiment. In practice, less
frequent drip irrigation might be a better method to control the disease, because the
inoculum near the emitters would be exposed to a lesser saturation period (Ristaino et al.,
1992). Although alternate row furrow irrigation might be a good way to limit disease
incidence as indicated by Biles et al. (1992), the frequency of alternate row irrigation
should be considered to prevent crop water stress. Limiting the frequency or duration of
furrow irrigation and preventing plants from undergoing water stress still remains an
interesting issue. Profit and cost of the drip system still needs to be evaluated when chile
growers anticipate controlling the disease by using drip irrigation.
J. Xie et al. / Agricultural Water Management 42 (1999) 127±142
141
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