Designing recount instructional materials for senior high school students - USD Repository

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DESIGNING RECOUNT INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

A Thesis

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education

  By Anissa Mulya

  Student number: 021214012

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2007

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

  

To my beloved Mother, Father, Djay, and Bjonk,

I dedicate this thesis.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  I am aware that I would not have been able to complete this thesis without the help from many people. Therefore, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all people who have given their precious time, energy, ideas, and support during the completion of this thesis.

  My appreciation goes to my major sponsor, Dr. F. X. Mukarto, M.S. and Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd., M.Pd., my co-sponsor. I really appreciate their guidance, support, patience, and precious time during the completion of this thesis. I would also like to give my special thanks to J. B. Sumarsono and family for giving me an endless support in the completion of this thesis.

  I thank my best friends, Rika, Klara, and Bita, for their tremendeous care and support as well as the sweetest memories we have shared together. My sweet thanks are also directed to all my friends, especially Uni, Tina, Tony, Sari, Utik, Kiki, Amry, Ita, Cecil, Marinta, Lila, Titin, Mesha, Ardi, Septi, Haryana, Trias, Wahyu, Indah, and Ambu for their support and sincere helps. I thank Ryan, Mario, and Nico for always being there when I needed companions.

  I would also give my sincere grateful to the teachers and lecturers who have helped me evaluate the materials I have designed. Last but not least, I would like to send my deepest love to my late best friend indeed, Putra Binatara, for his constant support and encouragement in the past.

  Anissa Mulya

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................. i

  

APPROVAL PAGES ..................................................................................... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ............................................ iv

PAGE OF DEDICATION ............................................................................. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................... vii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... xii

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... xiii

ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................... xiv

  CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

  1.1 Research Background ................................................................................ 1

  1.2 Problem Formulation ................................................................................. 2

  1.3 Problem Limitation .................................................................................... 3

  1.4 Research Objective ..................................................................................... 3

  1.5 Research Benefits ....................................................................................... 4

  1.6 Definition of Terms .................................................................................... 4

  CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

  2.1 Theoretical Description .............................................................................. 6

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  2.1.1 Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) ................................. 6

  2.1.1.1 The Roles of Teachers in KTSP ............................................. 7

  2.1.1.2 The Roles of Students in KTSP .............................................. 7

  2.1.2 Communicative Competence ............................................................. 7

  2.1.3 Model of Language ............................................................................ 9

  2.1.3.1 Context ................................................................................... 10

  2.1.3.1.1 Context of Culture .................................................. 11

  2.1.3.1.2 Context of Situation ............................................... 11

  2.1.3.1.3 Text ........................................................................ 12

  2.1.3.2 The Language System ............................................................ 12

  2.1.4 Literacy Approach .............................................................................. 14

  2.1.4.1 Scaffolding ............................................................................. 14

  2.1.4.2 Stages ..................................................................................... 16

  2.1.4.3 Spoken and Written Language ............................................... 18

  2.1.5 Recount .............................................................................................. 20

  2.1.5.1 Definition of Recount ............................................................. 20

  2.1.5.2 Purpose of Recount ................................................................ 20

  2.1.5.3 Types of Recount ................................................................... 20

  2.1.5.4 Generic Structure of Recount ................................................. 21

  2.1.5.5 Lexicogrammatical Features of Recount ............................... 21

  2.1.5.6 Example of Recount Text ....................................................... 22

  2.1.6 Banathy’s Instructional Design Model ............................................... 23

  2.2 Theoretical Framework .............................................................................. 26

  PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

  3.1 Method ....................................................................................................... 29

  3.1.1 Research and Information Collecting ................................................ 29

  3.1.2 Planning ............................................................................................ 30

  3.1.3 Designing the Proposed Model of Recount Instructional Materials ............................................................................................ 31

  3.1.4 Evaluation ......................................................................................... 31

  3.1.5 Designed Materials Revision ............................................................ 32

  3.2 Research Participants ................................................................................. 32

  3.3 Research Instrument ................................................................................... 32

  3.4 Data Gathering Techniques ........................................................................ 33

  3.5 Data Analysis Techniques .......................................................................... 33

  3.6 Research Procedures .................................................................................. 34

  CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

  4.1 The Accountability of the Proposed Model of Recount Instructional Materials ...................................................................................................... 36

  4.1.1 Spoken Cycle ................................................................................... 36

  4.1.1.1 Stage 1: Building the Context .............................................. 37

  4.1.1.2 Stage 2: Modelling and Deconstructing the Text ................. 38

  4.1.1.3 Stage 3: Joint Construction of the Text ................................ 39

  4.1.1.4 Stage 4: Independent Construction of the Text .................... 40

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  4.1.2 Written Cycle ................................................................................... 40

  4.1.2.1 Stage 1: Building the Context .............................................. 41

  4.1.2.2 Stage 2: Modelling and Deconstructing the Text ................. 42

  4.1.2.3 Stage 3: Joint Construction of the Text ................................ 43

  4.1.2.4 Stage 4: Independent Construction of the Text .................... 44

  4.2 Feedback from the Participants .................................................................. 44

  CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

  5.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................ 47

  5.2 Suggestions ................................................................................................ 47

  

REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 49

APPENDICES

  APPENDIX 1: Permission Letter ............................................................ 52 APPENDIX 2: Questionnaire ................................................................. 53 APPENDIX 3: The Syllabus ................................................................... 57 APPENDIX 4: Lesson Plan .................................................................... 59 APPENDIX 5: Recount Instructional Materials ..................................... 63

  PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI LIST OF TABLES

  Table Page

  2.1 The Main Functions of Language and their Relationship to the Register Variables ................................................................................................... 12

  2.2 The Difference between Spoken and Written Language .......................... 18

  3.1 The Competency Standard, Basic Competency, and Indicators of the Proposed Model of Recount Instructional Materials ................... 30

  3.2 The Description of the Participants of the Evaluation ............................. 31

  3.3 The Description of the Participants’ Opinions on the Designed Materials ....................................................................................................

  33

  4.1 The Competency Standard, Basic Competency, and Indicators of Spoken Cycle ....................................................................................... 37

  4.2 The Competency Standard, Basic Competency, and Indicators of Written Cycle ........................................................................................

  41

  4.3 The Description of the Participants’ Opinions on the Designed Materials .................................................................................................... 44

  PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI LIST OF FIGURES

  Figure Page

  2.1 Schematic Representation of Communicative Competence ..................... 7

  2.2 The Model of Language and Context ........................................................ 9

  2.3 The Relationships between the Three Levels of Language ...................... 13

  2.4 The Changing Nature of the Collaboration between Teacher and Students in Response to Learners’ Progress ............................................................ 14

  2.5 Diagram of the Teaching and Learning Cycle .......................................... 15

  2.6 Identification and Characterization of Learning Task ............................. 24

  2.7 Banathy’s Instructional Design Model ...................................................... 25

  2.8 The Steps in Designing the Proposed Model of Recount Instructional Materials ....................................................................................................

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ABSTRACT

  Mulya, Anissa. 2007. Designing Recount Instructional Materials for Senior High

  

School Students . Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Programme,

Sanata Dharma University.

  Within Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP), literacy approach is adopted as the methodology to implement the text-based syllabus. It requires the students of Senior High School to learn several text-types which have more value in the context of schooling. Recount is one of the compulsory text-types the students of Senior High School have to learn. In order to help the students obtain the competence to create and interpret contextual spoken and written recounts, proper instructional materials are needed. Unfortunately, many teachers still have inadequate knowledge of KTSP. Consequently, many of them will not be able to plan proper instructional materials.

  This study was aimed at proposing a model of recount instructional materials for the first grade students of Senior High School which was based on

  

KTSP . In order to obtain the objective, educational research and development was

  used as the method in this study. The steps adapted from educational research and development were as follows: (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) designing the proposed model of recount instructional materials, (4) evaluation, and (5) designed materials revision.

  In designing the proposed model of recount instructional materials, four steps from Banathy’s instructional design model were adapted in this study. They were (1) formulation of the objective, (2) analysis of learning task, (3) design system, and (4) changes to improve.

  In this study, the objective of the evaluation was to obtain data to improve the designed materials. The instrument used in the evaluation was questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed to two English teachers of Senior High School and two lecturers of English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University.

  The designed materials consist of two cycles, namely spoken and written cycle. Each of the cycles consists of four similar stages, namely (1) building the context, (2) modelling and deconstructing the text, (3) joint construction of the text, and (4) independent construction of the text.

  Based on the result of the evaluation, the designed materials were considered suitable and appropriate to teach recount text to the first grade students of Senior High School. The final version of the designed materials is presented in Appendix 5.

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ABSTRAK

  Mulya, Anissa. 2007. Designing Recount Instructional Materials for Senior High

  

School Students . Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris,

Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Di dalam Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP), pendekatan literasi digunakan sebagai metodologi untuk mengimplementasikan silabus berbasis teks. Pendekatan literasi ini mewajibkan siswa Sekolah Menengah Umum (SMU) untuk mempelajari beberapa jenis teks yang mempunyai nilai lebih dalam konteks sekolah. Teks recount adalah salah satu dari jenis-jenis teks yang wajib dipelajari siswa SMU. Untuk membantu siswa mencapai kompetensi menciptakan dan menafsirkan teks lisan dan tertulis dalam konteks, dibutuhkan materi pengajaran yang sesuai. Sayangnya, masih banyak guru yang belum memiliki pemahaman yang cukup mengenai KTSP. Oleh karenanya, banyak dari mereka tidak akan mampu untuk menyusun materi pengajaran yang sesuai.

  Studi ini bertujuan untuk mengusulkan contoh materi pengajaran berbasis teks recount untuk siswa SMU tingkat pertama yang berdasarkan KTSP. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, penelitian dan pengembangan kependidikan, digunakan sebagai metode dalam studi ini. Lima langkah yang diadaptasi dari penelitian dan pengembangan kependidikan adalah sebagai berikut: (1) penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, (2) perencanaan, (3) penyusunan contoh materi pengajaran berbasis teks recount, (4) evaluasi, dan (5) perbaikan materi yang disusun.

  Dalam penyusunan contoh materi pengajaran berbasis teks recount, empat langkah dari model pengajaran Banathy diadaptasi dalam studi ini. Empat langkah tersebut adalah (1) perumusan tujuan, (2) analisis tugas pembelajaran, (3) penyusunan materi, dan (4) perubahan untuk perbaikan.

  Dalam studi ini, tujuan dari evaluasi adalah untuk memperoleh data untuk memperbaiki materi yang telah disusun. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam evaluasi adalah kuesioner. Kuesioner tersebut dibagikan kepada dua guru bahasa Inggris SMU dan dua dosen Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Materi yang disusun terdiri dari dua siklus, yaitu siklus lisan dan tertulis. Tiap siklus terdiri dari empat tahap yang sama, yaitu (1) membangun konteks, (2) membuat model dan menganalisa teks, (3) menyusun teks bersama, dan (4) menyusun teks sendiri.

  Berdasarkan hasil evaluasi, materi yang disusun cocok dan sesuai untuk mengajarkan teks recount kepada siswa SMU tingkat pertama. Versi akhir dari materi yang disusun dapat dilihat di Lampiran 5.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This study deals with developing recount-based instructional materials for Senior High School students. Seven major points will be presented in this first

  chapter to provide background information of the study. Those major points include the reason of choosing this particular topic, the problem that will be solved in this study, the objective that will be achieved, the advantages provided by this study, and the explanation of important terms used in this study.

1.1 Research Background

  Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) has been implemented

  since 2006. It gives opportunity to each school to develop and apply its own curriculum (Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan [BSNP], 2006: 5). It adopts literacy approach as the methodology to implement the text-based syllabus (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional [Depdiknas], 2003: 9). Literacy approach is a methodology which focuses on the development of the students’ ability to create and interpret contextual spoken and written texts (Depdiknas, 2003: 35). It determines the literacy target for Senior High School students. The Senior High School students are expected to achieve the informational level when they graduate from their study. The informational level demands the Senior High School students to be able to access the accumulated knowledge because they are expected to communicate for academic purposes such as listening to short

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  2 lectures, talking about serious matters, reading popular and scientific texts, and writing for different purposes (Agustien, 2005). Thus, the kind of texts they learn should include those they are mostly to encounter during their academic lives.

  Some texts to be taught in Senior High School are recount, narrative, procedure, descriptive, news item, report, analytical exposition, spoof, hortatory exposition, explanation, discussion, and review (BSNP, 2006).

  Some problems are found in the implementation of KTSP. In fact, the teachers’ quality and readiness towards this new curriculum are crucial to achieve the successful of the implementation of KTSP since they are given the freedom to develop the curriculum. However, some schools are not completely ready to develop their own curriculum as they still lack the teachers’ quality and readiness (Sudaryanto, 2006). Inadequate knowledge of KTSP might hinder the teachers to carry out their roles as the facilitator of the teaching and learning process.

  One of the roles of the teachers is to plan proper instructional materials to develop the students’ competence. Based on KTSP, the competence should be achieved by the students is discourse competence. Discourse competence is the ability to create and interpret spoken and written text in real communication (Agustien, 2005). In other words, the teachers are expected to plan text-based instructional materials to help students obtain the discourse competence.

1.2 Problem Formulation

  This study aims at answering one major problem, namely what is the proposed model of recount instructional material for Senior High School students?

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  1.3 Problem Limitation

  This study focuses on designing recount instructional materials for the first grade students of Senior High School. The designed materials will be divided into spoken and written cycle (Depdiknas, 2003: 19). Spoken cycle will be presented first. Each of the cycles includes four stages. According to Feez (1998: 28) those four stages are sequenced as follows: building the context, modelling and deconstructing the text, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text (Feez, 1998: 28).

  Recount is chosen as the main discussion in this study for at least two reasons. First, recount is one of the texts that have more value in the context of schooling (Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 191). Second, recount is classified as the simplest story text (Feez, 1998: 86). Using the story text which has the simplest generic structure and language features to teach genre in early stage might give meaningful basic knowledge to learn more complicated text-types. In other words, the features the students already know from the previous text scaffold the learning of a new text-type since there are common features within several text-types (Feez, 1998: 91).

  1.4 Research Objective

  The objective of this study is to answer the problem stated in the problem formulation, namely to propose a model of recount instructional materials for Senior High School students.

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  1.5 Research Benefits

  This study will hopefully be beneficial for English teachers and future researchers who want to design a set of English instructional materials focusing on text-type. They may find this study as a useful resource and continue to do further research and elaborate a more effective and complete design to achieve more successful teaching English for Senior High School students.

  1.6 Definition of Terms

  This study employs some terms that are defined to avoid misunderstanding.

  1. Design Hutchinson and Waters (1994: 106) state that designing is creating a new set of materials that fits the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learners. In this study, designing means creating a set of recount-based materials for the first grade students of Senior High School based on KTSP.

  2. Recount Recount means a series of events that is written or spoken in the time order in which it occurs and it has specific generic structure and lexicogrammatical features to differ recount from other texts (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 146, Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 194). In this study, recount refers to spoken and written texts used as the basic materials to design the instructional materials.

  3. Instructional Materials Instructional materials are materials planned by the teachers for instruction

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  5 (Dick and Reiser, 1989: 3). In this study, instructional materials are a set of materials which are used by the teacher and the students as a useful means of discussion in teaching and learning activity.

  4. Recount Instructional Materials In this study, recount instructional materials refer to a set of written and spoken recount-based materials used by the teacher and the students as a means of discussion in teaching and learning activity (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 146; Dick and Reiser, 1989: 3; Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 194)

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Two major points will be discussed in this chapter, namely theoretical

  description and theoretical framework. In theoretical description, six major areas of concern, namely Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP), communicative competence, language model, literacy approach, recount, and instructional design model will be discussed. In theoretical framework, the relation between those six major areas of concern will be presented.

2.1 Theoretical Description

  This part presents a discussion on the theories related to the development of recount instructional materials. It includes KTSP, communicative competence, model of language, literacy approach, recount, and instructional design model.

2.1.1 Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP)

  KTSP is a curriculum which demands each school to develop and apply its

  own curriculum (BSNP, 2006: 5). Within KTSP, literacy approach is adopted as the methodology to implement the text-based syllabus (Depdiknas, 2003: 9) . It adopts English texts as the basic materials to help students obtain a certain competency. KTSP requires different roles of teachers in the learning and teaching processes. On the other hand, the roles of students are similar to the previous curriculum.

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  2.1.1.1 The Roles of Teachers in KTSP

  The teachers are expected to develop and apply their own curriculum (BSNP, 2006: 5). The role of the teachers is to become the facilitator whose duty is to create conducive atmosphere for learning (Mulyasa, 2003: 188). The teachers are expected to be creative in designing the proper instructional materials.

  2.1.1.2 The Roles of Students in KTSP

  The students are treated as the center of the learning process (BSNP, 2006: 5). They are considered as the subjects of every activity in class. They are expected to be active and critical during class and to find other source of the materials will be discussed.

2.1.2 Communicative Competence

  Theoretically, communicative competence means the competence which is required for language communication (Agustien, 2005: 1). The term was coined by Del Hymes in 1966, reacting against the inadequacy of Noam Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance. In 1995, Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell proposed a communicative competence model (Depdiknas, 2003: 1).

  The Indonesia government decides to adopt the communicative competence proposed by Celce-Murcie et al. within KTSP since it helps the teachers see what competences are required to develop the students’ communicative competence (Agustien, 2005: 1). The figure of communicative competence proposed by Celce-Murcie et al. is presented in Figure 2.1.

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  8 Sociocultural

  

competence

Discourse

competence

Actional

  Linguistic competence competence

Strategic

competence

Figure 2.1 Schematic Representation of Communicative Competence

  

(Adopted from Celce-Murcia et al., 1995: 10 as cited in Depdiknas, 2004: 51)

  In Figure 2.1, discourse competence is placed at the center of the communicative competence. Discourse competence is the ability to create and interpret texts both spoken and written contextually (Agustien, 2005). It can only be achieved if the supporting competences have been acquired. Those supporting competences are as follows:

  1. Linguistic competence This competence means the ability to use the grammar, vocabulary, intonation, punctuation, etc, of a language (Depdiknas, 2004: 52).

  2. Actional competence It refers to the ability to do something using language both spoken and written to convey certain message (Depdiknas, 2004: 54).

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  3. Sociocultural competence This competence means the ability to communicate in the way native speakers of the language do based on the culture where the language is used (Depdiknas, 2004: 58).

  4. Strategic competence This competence covers the ability to maintain the process of communication when one meets deficiencies. This competence is realized in spoken language (Depdiknas, 2004: 61). In order to acquire communicative competence, language users have to activate the sociocultural, actional, linguistic, and strategic competence to shape the discourse competence.

2.1.3 Model of Language

  The functional model of language is adopted in this study. The main concepts of the functional model of language are as follows (Feez, 1998: 5):

  1. Language is considered as a resource to make meaning,

  2. The resource of language consists of interrelated systems,

  3. Language users draw on this resource each time they use language,

  4. Language users create and interpret texts to make meaning,

  5. Texts are shaped by the social context, 6. Language users shape the social context.

  The relationships between the main concepts can be represented graphically in Figure 2.2.

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  10 Context of Culture

  

GENRE

Context of Situation

REGISTER

Field

  Activity Topic

Discourse Semantics

TEXT

  Mode Channel Tenor Distance

  Status

Ideational meanings

Contact

Lexicogrammar

  

CLAUSE

Interpersonal Textual meanings meanings

Expression

  

PHONEME/

GRAPHEME

Figure 2.2 The Model of Language and Context

  

(Adopted from Martin and Mattheison 1991 as cited in Feez 1998: 8)

2.1.3.1 Context

  Language occurs within a context. When people communicate, the language choices they make are influenced and determined by the context in which the communication occurs (Depdiknas, 2003: 4). Language is used for three main functions (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 96) namely:

  1. Ideational function This is the use of language to express ideas and to communicate information.

  2. Interpersonal function It reflects the way language is used to build the social relation among others.

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  3. Textual function It is concerned with the form of the text whether it is spoken or written.

  A context is distinguished into two important aspects. These are the context of culture and situation (Depdiknas, 2003: 4).

  2.1.3.1.1 Context of Culture

  The largest circle in Figure 2.2 represents context of culture. Particular human’s social purpose determines the patterns of generic structure and lexicogrammatical features within texts (Feez, 1998: 6). The patterns are developed within the context of culture. The patterns are called genres. Particular culture determines the types of texts or genres which are produced.

  2.1.3.1.2 Context of Situation

  The second circle in Figure 2.2 represents context of situation. Within context of culture, there are different context of situation which is characterized by particular register of language. The register of any context of situation is a combination of three variables (Gerot and Wignell, 1994: 11):

  1. Field Field refers to what is being talked or written about within the text (Feez, 1998: 6).

  2. Tenor Tenor refers to the social relation between people who are involved within the text (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 97).

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  3. Mode Mode refers to the channel of communication being used, whether it is spoken or written (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 97).

2.1.3.1.3 Text

  The third circle in Figure 2.2 represents texts. A text can be defined as spoken or written language which is held together by the three strands of meaning in a language, namely logical (ideational), interpersonal, and textual meaning (Feez, 1998: 4). People create texts when they are speaking and writing, they interpret texts when they are listening and reading (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 97).

2.1.3.2 The Language System

  The language system is the resource which supplies all the language choices made by language users each time they use language to communicate (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 97). The language choices consist of grammatical patterns, words, sounds, and symbols to make meanings. The patterns of language choices can be distinguished at three levels (Feez, 1998: 6).

  1. Meaning or discourse semantic The combination between the layer of meaning and the register variables constructs the three main functions of language (Feez, 1998: 6). The discourse semantic is related to the generic structure of text (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 98). The meaning and their relationships to the register are

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  13 outlined in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 The Main Functions of Language and their Relationship to the Register

  Variables (Adopted from Feez, 1998: 7) Ideational

  Language represents the world logically through experiential and logical meanings.

  These meanings are reflection of field. Interpersonal

  Language builds relationships through interpersonal meanings.

  These meanings are a reflection of tenor. Textual

  Language organizes meanings into spoken or written text through textual meanings.

  These meanings are a reflection of mode.

  2. Words and structure or lexicogrammar The words and structure or lexicogrammar is realized through the pattern of grammar applied within the clauses, groups, and words (Feez, 1998: 7).

  3. Expressions or phonological and graphological The words and structure or lexicogrammar level is expressed through spoken and written language (Feez, 1998: 7). The expression of spoken language requires sounds, sounds in combination, intonation patterns, and stress. On the other hand, the expression of written language requires alphabets, letters combination (spelling), punctuation, and layout (Board of Studies New South Wales, 1994: 98). The relationship of the three levels of language is presented in Figure 2.3.

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  14 Discourse semantics (Texts) Lexicogrammar (Words and Structure)

  Expression (Sounds and Writing)

Figure 2.3 The Relationship between the Three Levels of Language

  (Adopted from Eggins, 1994: 21 as cited in Feez, 1998: 7)

2.1.4 Literacy Approach

  Literacy approach is an approach to language learning focuses on the development of the students’ ability to create and interpret contextual spoken and written texts (Depdiknas, 2003: 35). Literacy approach is the methodology to implement a text-based syllabus (Depdiknas, 2003: 9). This approach values the interaction between teacher and students in the process of learning language. Based on this approach, the process of learning language is divided into stages and emphasizes the differences between spoken and written language.

2.1.4.1 Scaffolding

  The term scaffolding is used to describe the learning collaboration between the teacher and the students with the teacher facilitates the students’ transition from assisted to independent performance (Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Feez, 1998: 26). According to Roehler and Cantlon (1996) as cited in Hogan and Presley (1997) the transition from assisted to independent performance is as

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  15 follows: at first, the teacher controls and guides the students’ activities. Next, the teacher and the students share the responsibility with the students taking the lead. The teacher continues to guide the students’ emerging understanding by providing assistance as needed. Finally, the teacher gives the students the full responsibility by removing all assistance. The distance between the assisted and independent performance is called the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Feez, 1998: 26).

  Scaffolding Learner Progress

  Independent learner performance with Potential performance no contribution from teacher Diminishing contribution from Zone of proximal development teacher as learner’s independent contribution increases

  Significant contribution from teacher to support dependent contribution from learner

  Learner’s entry level assessed by the Existing independent functioning teacher

Figure 2.4 The Changing Nature of the Collaboration between Teacher and

  Students in Response to Learners’ Progress (Adopted from Vygotsky, 1978 as cited in Feez, 1998: 26)

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2.1.4.2 Stages

  Based on literacy approach, teaching genres can be described as moving in a cycle. This cycle involves four main stages, namely building the context, modelling and deconstructing the text, joint construction of the text, and independent construction of the text (Feez, 1998: 28). The cycle is presented in Figure 2.5.

• cultural context
• shared experience
• control of relevant vocabularies
• cultural context
• social function
• schematic structure
• linguistic features
• grammatical patterns Student Class Teacher Class Teacher Student Student Teacher Class Student Student Student Teacher Modelling of text:
• using spoken language to focus on written text Independent construction of text:
• schematic structure
• linguistic features
• knowledge of field
• linguistic features
• knowledge of field Joint construction of text:
• schematic structure

Figure 2.5 Diagram of the Teaching and Learning Cycle

  (Adopted from Hammond et. al., 1992 as cited in Depdiknas, 2003)

  

Increasing

approximation

control of spoken

and written texts

  Student Building the context:

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  17 Further explanation of the four stages will appear in the following discussion (Feez, 1998):

  1. Stage 1. Building the context In this stage, the students are introduced to the context of culture, context of situation, and the social purpose of the authentic model of text-type being studied (Feez, 1998: 28).

  2. Stage 2. Modelling and deconstructing the text This stage is intended to introduce the generic structure and lexicogrammatical features of the text (Feez, 1998: 29). The teacher exposes the students to a number of authentic models of the text being discussed in order to develop the students’ ability in understanding and gaining controls over the aspects of the text-type.

  3. Stage 3. Joint construction of the text Jointly constructing the whole text can be done by the teacher and the whole class or by a small group of students. The teacher’s contribution to the text construction is gradually decreased as the students are able to construct the whole text independently (Feez, 1998: 30). A small group of students together constructs a text may develop their confidence in doing the independent construction.

  4. Stage 4. Independent construction of the text Having the experience of constructing a text jointly, the students now work independently with the text (Feez, 1998: 31).

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2.1.4.3 Spoken and Written Language

  The definition of literacy includes oracy and literacy (Depdiknas, 2003: 4) therefore this curriculum explicitly emphasizes the spoken and written language through the division of learning process into spoken and written cycle. Each cycle includes four stages and has different objective. For example the target text-type is recount, at the end of the first cycle that is spoken cycle, the students are expected to retell events orally and perform conversations that have to do with retelling events. On the other hand, the second cycle that is written cycle demands the students to write recount texts independently at the end of the second cycle. The learning cycle gradually moves from spoken to written for the reason that language learning is naturally acquired from spoken language and written language will be difficult to improve if spoken language has not been acquired (Depdiknas, 2003: 5).

  According to Halliday (1985), written language uses more lexical items within the clause or in other words, it is said to be a language of high lexical density. Written language employs more complex noun groups, such as noun phrases. Spoken language, on the other hand, employs more clauses within a clause complex. Thus, it is a language with greater grammatical intricacy. The following example from Halliday (1985) may illustrate the point.

  1. Investment in rail facility implies a long-term commitment. (written language)

  2. If you invest in rail facility, this implies that you are going to be committed

  for a long term . (spoken language)

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  19 The subject and object of the written language are realized as two quite complex noun phrases. The subject noun phrase consists of the noun investment that is postmodified by the prepositional in rail facility that contains the noun facility which is premodified by the noun modifier rail. The object noun phrase consists of the noun commitment that is premodified by the article a and the noun modifier

  

long-term . The adjunct of the spoken language is realized as the conditional clause

if you invest in rail facility , the object is realized as the nominal clause that you

are going to be committed for a long-term . Thus, whereas the written sample

  consists of just one simple clause with complex noun phrases, the spoken sample contains three clauses that form a clause complex.

Table 2.2 The Difference between Spoken and Written Language

  (Adopted from Eggins, 1994: 57 as cited in Depdiknas, 2004: 41) Spoken language Written language

• Turn taking organization • Monologue organization
• Context dependent • Context independent
• Dynamic structure (interactive • Synoptic structure (theoretical staging; open ended) staging; losed; finite)
• Spontaneity phenomena • “Final draft” (polished: indications

  (hesitations, interruptions, of earlier drafts removed) incomplete clauses)

• Everyday lexis • “Prestige” lexis
• Non-standard grammar • Standard grammar
• Grammatical complexity • Grammatical simplicity
• Lexical sparse • Lexically dense

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2.1.5 Recount

  This part elaborates a discussion of recount as the subject matter in this study. The discussion includes definition, purpose, types, generic structure, lexicogrammatical features, and the example of recount text.

  2.1.5.1 Definition of Recount