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AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON THE GRAMMAR ACCURACY

OF THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENTS ’ SPEAKING

  

PRODUCTION

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

  By Yosephine Nugroho Utami

  Student Number: 081214038

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2013

  

AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON THE GRAMMAR ACCURACY

OF THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENTS’ SPEAKING

PRODUCTION

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

  

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

  By Yosephine Nugroho Utami

  Student Number: 081214038

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

2013

  A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on

  AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON THE GRAMMAR ACCURACY OF THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENTS ’ SPEAKING PRODUCTION

  By Yosephine Nugroho Utami

  Student Number: 081214038 Approved by

  Sponsor Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. July 3, 2013 ii

  iii A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on

  

AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON THE GRAMMAR ACCURACY

OF THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENT’S SPEAKING

  

PRODUCTION

  By Yosephine Nugroho Utami

  NIM : 081214038 Defended before the Board of Examiners on August 15, 2013 and Declared Acceptable

  Board of Examiners Chairperson : C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. __________________ Secretary : Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. __________________ Member : C. Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd.. __________________ Member : Dr. Ant. Herujiyanto, M.A. __________________ Member : Drs. Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. __________________

  Yogyakarta, August 15, 2013 Faculty of Teachers Training and Education Sanata Dharma University Dean, Rohandi, Ph.D

  

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

  I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

  Yogyakarta, August 15, 2013 The Writer

  Yosephine Nugroho Utami 081214038 iv

  

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PIBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

  Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Yosephine Nugroho Utami Nomor Mahasiswa : 081214038

  Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberitahukan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

  

AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON THE GRAMMAR ACCURACY

OF THE FOURTH SEMESTER STUDENT’S SPEAKING

PRODUCTION

  beserta perangkat yang diperlukan. Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas dan mempublikasikanya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

  Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 15 Agustus 2013 Yang menyatakan Yosephine Nugroho Utami v

  

ABSTRACT

  Nugroho Utami,Yosephine. (2013). An Error Analysis on the Grammar Accuracy

  of the Fourth Semester Students’ Speaking Production. Yogyakarta: English

  Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.

  Speaking is one of the skills of English which is highly demanded by the English learner. This high demand occurs perhaps because the learners’ view of language. Spoken language sees language as a tool of communication which means the accuracy will not matter as long as the learner can deliver an understandable speech to communicate or deliver their ideas. However, when the language is seen as a tool of communication, the learners’ motivation to achieve communication, motivation where the learner wants to deliver the communication to the others, may exceed motivation to produce grammatically correct sentences (Richards.1971).

  This study is aimed to analyze errors on the grammar accuracy of s tudents’ speaking production on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B offered in semester four in the Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris of Sanata Dhama University.

  This study concerns with two problems. First problem is what the students’ common grammatical errors in their speaking productions on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B offered in semester four in the Pendidikan

  

Bahasa Inggris of Sanata Dhama University are. Second problem is why those

  common grammatical errors in the students’ speaking productions on the Critical Listening Speaking, class B occur.

  The researcher applied document analysis to analyze the data. In order to gather the data, the researcher recorded the speaking productions of the students of the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B. The researcher also held questionnaire about the students’ opinion, hours of practice, and difficulties in speaking.

  The interview held to find the students’ opinion of speaking and reasons why the students produce those errors. The participants of the interview were ten students selected based on their errors levels. Furthermore, the common grammatical errors are analyzed using an error analysis theory in line with speaking theory, grammar rules and use, contrastive analysis hypothesis, non- contrastive approach, the questionnaire

  ’s result, and interview ‘s result. The researcher finds out that the common grammatical errors found in the students’ speaking productions on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B are the missing

• –s or –es suffix and the incorrect verbs sequence on past tense. The

  possible reasons for the occurrence of those errors are the students’ nervousness when speaking, students’ understanding of applying English grammar, lack of practice, the students’ high tolerance of errors, mixing Indonesian language rules with English, the students’ fear of producing errors while speaking and also the confusion of the verbs changes in past tense.

  

Keywords: speaking, error analysis, grammar accuracy, fourth semester students

  vi

  

ABSTRAK

  Nugroho Utami,Yosephine. (2013). An Error Analysis on the Grammar Accuracy

  of the Fourth Semester Students’ Speaking Production. Yogyakarta: Program

  Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Berbahasa lisan adalah salah satu keterampilan bahasa Inggris yang banyak diminati. Permintaan yang tinggi tersebut dikarenakan oleh cara pandang pelajar terhadap bahasa. Bahasa lisan memposisikan bahasa sebagai suatu alat komunikasi yang berarti mengesampingkan ketepatan tata bahasa sejauh para pelajar dapat berkomunikasi dengan bahasa yang dapat dimengerti. Sayangnya, saat bahasa diposisikan sebagai alat komunikasi, motivasi pelajar untuk berkomunikasi melebihi motivasi mereka untuk berbicara dengan bertata bahasa benar (Richards.1971).

  Studi ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa kesalahan tata bahasa pada bahasa lisan para murid di Critical Listening and Speaking kelas B yang ditawarkan pada semester empat di Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, perguruan tinggi Sanata Dharma. Studi ini memberikan perhatian kepada dua masalah. Masalah pertama, apa kesalahan umum dari para murid di Critical Listening and Speaking kelas B yang ditawarkan pada semester empat di Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma? Masalah kedua, mengapa kesalahan umum pada bahasa lisan para murid di Critical Listening and Speaking kelas B dapat muncul?

  Penulis menggunakan metode analisa dokumen untuk menganalisa data. Dalam pengumpulan data, penulis merekam hasil berbahasa lisan para murid. Penulis membagikan kuisioner tentang opini para murid, banyaknya jam berlatih, dan kesulitan mereka dalam berbahasa lisan. Wawancara diadakan untuk mengetahui opini para murid dan alasan mengapa para murid menghasilkan kesalahan tersebut. Para peserta wawancara adalah sepuluh murid yang dipilih berdasarkan tingkatan kesalahan mereka. Selanjutnya, kesalahan umum tersebut dianalisa menggunakan teori analisa kesalahan, bersama dengan teori berbahasa lisan, penggunaan dan aturan tata bahasa Inggris, contrastive analysis hypothesis, non-contrastive approach , dan hasil dari kuisioner maupun wawancara.

  Penulis menemukan bahwa kesalahan tata bahasa umum pada para murid di Critical Listening and Speaking kelas B adalah hilangnya akhiran

• –s atau –es,

  dan ketidaktepatan rangkaian kata kerja pada tensis lampau. Kemungkinan munculnya kesalahan tersebut dapat dikarenakan kegugupan para murid pada saat berbicara, pengertian para murid akan pengunaan bahasa Inggris lisan, kurangnya latihan, tingginya toleransi kesalahan pada murid, bercampurnya tata bahasa Indonesia dan Inggris, ketakutan para murid akan produksi kesalahan saat berbicara, dan juga kebingungan dalam perubahan kata kerja dalam tensis lampau.

  

Kata kunci : bahasa lisan/ berbicara, analisa kesalahan, keakuratan tata bahasa,

  murid semester empat vii

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  My deepest gratitude is to all of them who have helped, supported and facilitated this thesis. Personally, I would like to express my gratitude to My Lord,

  

Jesus Christ. Because of His blessing and strength I could finish my thesis and

study.

  For the beneficial feedback and encouragement, I would like to express my gratitude to my sponsor, Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. She has given me her break time to guide and discuss my thesis in order to be improved and developed. Without her comments, I could have lost in confusion of my undeveloped discussion.

  I also would like to address my gratitude to miss Adesti Komalasari,

  

S.Pd., M.A. whose class I have interrupted to be my subject of my study. I am

really in debt to her because she has always spent her break time for my thesis.

  She has also given me a lot of time to discuss many problems regarding my thesis patiently. Without those discussions probably I would never know that I have made many undeveloped discussions. I also thank her for letting me know that my thesis has given a positive contribution regarding the evaluation of her class.

  My immeasurable gratitude is addressed to my mother, Yenny Setyawati. She has patiently and confusedly listened to my sighs, and annoying comments regarding the questions about the development of my thesis. I thank her because she has always taken care of me very well until now that I could finish my thesis and my study. viii

  I give my sincere gratitude to my family and my sister, Yoanita Nugroho

  

Utami, S.Pd. who is very active asking me about my thesis. I also would like to

  express my gratitude to my best friends, Irma Enliyani, S.S., and Fenny Octavia

  

Halim, S.T., who have always supported me during my study. I also would like to

  thank Mrs. Malya Lalita, who lends me her library and books. Her books help me to find the right theories I really need to have to slice my subject. I also would like to thank my students, Nadia, Richard, Mathew, Angela, and Abel for their distractions which keep me alive and happy during my thesis. I thank them for making me laugh and recharging my energy to finish my jobs as a private tutor and a student.

  The last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to my dearest one, Edwin Pranata Laban, S.Ked. I thank him for listening to all my complaints and sighs even though he has many things to do. He has also encouraged me to do my best and supported me every time.

  Yosephine Nugroho Utami

  ix

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

  Page TITLE PAGE........................................................................................................ i APPROVAL PAGES............................................................................................ ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY..................................................... iv

  PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI

  ….................................................. v ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................... vi

  

ABSTRAK .............................................................................................................. vii

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.................................................................................. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................... x LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................ xiii LIST OF APPENDICES....................................................................................... xiv CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................

  1 A. Research Background .....................................................................................

  1 B. Research Problems ..........................................................................................

  5 C. Problem Limitation..........................................................................................

  6 D. Research Objectives.........................................................................................

  6 E. Research Benefits.............................................................................................

  6 F. Definition of Terms …...................................................................................... 7 x

  CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE........................................................

  9 A. Theoretical Description....................................................................................

  9 1. Public Speaking.................................................................................................

  9

  a. Important Elements in Producing Speaking Accuracy ……………….............. 9

  2. Grammar Rules and Use.................................................................................... 11

  a. Minimum Grammar Requirement...................................................................... 11 b. Tenses................................................................................................................

  12

  c. English Verbs..................................................................................................... 12

  d. Plural and Singular............................................................................................. 13

  3. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis....................................................................... 13 4. Non Contrastive Approach................................................................................

  14

  a. Over

• – Generalization........................................................................................ 14 b. False Concepts Hypothesized............................................................................

  15 B. Theoretical Framework.....................................................................................

  15 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY.......................................................................

  18 A. Research Method..............................................................................................

  18 B . Research Setting…………………….….…….…………………...……….….. 19 C. Research Participants........................................................................................

  19 D. Instruments and Data Gathering.......................................................................

  19

  1. Recording........................................................................................................... 19 2. Questionnaires...................................................................................................

  19

  3. Interview …........................................................................................................ 20 xi

  E. Data Analysis Technique..................................................................................

  20 1. Recording…...................................................................................................... 20 2. Instruments........................................................................................................

  23 F. Research Procedure ..........................................................................................

  26 1. Permission…………......................................................................................... 26

  2. Data Gathering................................................................................................... 26

  CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS A ND DISCUSSION…….…….......... 28 A. The Discussion on the Classification of the Grammatical E rrors………..…... 28 B. The Discussion on the Occurrence of the Errors

  ……………………………... 30 C. The Discussion on the Common Grammatical Errors......................................

  36

  1. Discussion on the Missing

• –s and –es suffixes……………………….............. 36

  2. Discussion on the Incorrect Verbs Sequence on Past Tense ……………..…… 39 CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS.....................................

  43 A . Conclusions…................................................................................................... 43 B. Suggestions.......................................................................................................

  46 1. Suggestions for English Teachers.....................................................................

  46

  2. Suggest ions for Students…............................................................................... 47

  3. Suggestions for Further Researches..................................................................

  47 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................

  48 xii

  

LIST OF TABLES

  Page

Table 3.1. The first classifications of the error on the transcription found on the

  21 Critical Listening and Speaking’ students, class B......................

Table 3.2. The revised classifications of the error on the transcription found on the

  Critical Listening and Speaking’ students, class B......................... 21 Table 3.3. The table of the questionnaire’s result (Blank)...…………….……........... 24 Table 3.4. The table of the interview’s result (Blank).............................................. 24

Table 4.1. The classifications of the grammatical errors found on the

  Critical Listening and Speaking’ students, class B......................... 29

Table 4.2. The result of the questionnaire of the

  Critical Listening and Speaking’ students, class B….............. 30 xiii

  

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDICES......................................................................................................

  50 APPENDIX 1 Research Permission Letter fr om Sanata Dharma University….. 51 APPENDIX 2 The Result of the Questionnaire...................................................

  53 APPENDIX 3 The Result of the Interview..........................................................

  56 APPENDIX 4 The Recording Transcription ......................................................

  63 APPENDIX 5 The Common Grammatical Errors...............................................

  94 APPENDIX 6 The Uncommon Grammatical Errors........................................... 103 xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In this chapter, the researcher is going to provide basic information of the

  research relating to the subject matter. There are five major concerns presented in this chapter. Those are research background, research problem, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, definition of terms.

A. Research background

  Speaking is one of the skills of English, which is highly demanded by the English learner. However, many people and learners of English, often seek for fluency rather than accuracy. Mostly they want to be able to speak and communicate, and usually ignore the accuracy. In order to understand the difference between about of fluency and accuracy, BBC (2003) states that:

  Speaking English fluently is a goal for many learners of English. Fluency means being able to communicate your ideas without having to stop and think too much about what you are saying. However, many learners also have the goal of spoken accuracy. Speaking accurately means that you speak without errors of grammar and vocabulary. Which is more important

• – and more difficult – for you? It might depend on how you have learnt.

  One of the factors of this popularity is the view of language. Spoken language sees language as a tool of communication which means it is important to be able to communicate with understandable language. From this point of view, fluency is important in communicating our ideas. The grammar matter or accuracy will not be the focus of the learning because as long as the learner can deliver an understandable speech the goal is achieved. Kianiparsa, et al. (2010) in their

  2 journal also agree with the fact that conversational situation is more popular and seen to be more important, as it is stated below;

  Generally speaking, most of the English learners believe that their knowledge in English is nearly assessed by the way they can interact in the target language. They maintain that their linguistic knowledge and their abilities in other skills

  —reading, writing, and listening—are not that much important. What is significant is their ability in conversational situations.

  Richards (1971, p. 177) also supports Kianiparsa (2010) about the interest of communication rather than mastery on grammar accuracy. Richards states that the second language learners are also the second language learners of English who are interested perhaps primarily in communication. In this study the second language learners include the students of the Critical Listening and Speaking,

  However, when the Critical Listening and Speaking, stated as CLS, students are prepared to be teachers, they should not eliminate the grammar accuracy, even though it is not wrong to see language as a tool of communication. According to Richards (1971)

  ―when the language is seen as a tool of communication, the learner ‘s motivation to achieved communication, motivation where the learner wants to deliver the communication to the others, may exceed motivation to produce grammatically correct sentences

  ‖ (p. 177). Based on Richards‘s statement, it is wise to say that as the students who are prepared to be teachers, they should not only see the language as a tool communication but also as a teaching tool, and a role model.

  BBC (2003) also states the important of accuracy or grammar when they want to deliver their ideas even though they have good fluency,

  3 You may be someone who really likes to talk, and you are willing to try out language even though you produce some grammatical errors. This can help make you sound very fluent. However, if you produce too many errors which you do not stop to correct, you can find that it is difficult to make others understand your ideas. Although the English learners have good fluency in speaking, that is not enough because if they ignore the accuracy or grammar continuously, the others may not understand what they talk about. If the motivation to achieve communication exceeds the motivation to produce correct sentences continuously occur, it will increase the numbers of error in the learners‘ speech. If the errors are ignored, the English learners can certainty get confidence and fluency easier but they will be lack of grammar accuracy. Furthermore, one of the important factors to teach good English for the students on the Language Art and Department prepared to be English teachers and professional educators is grammar accuracy.

  Based on this phenomenon, an error analysis is needed because by learning an error, ―it provides evidence of the system of the language .that he is using (i.e. has learned) at a particular point in the course.

  ‖ (Corder, 1967, p. 26). The reason why the researcher analyzes error and not mistake is because errors and mistakes are different. A mistake is a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc. and therefore can be readily self-corrected (Corder in Larsen, 1992, as stated by Ruspita, 2011). Moreover, a mistake can be corrected by the learner because they know they make that mistake. In contrast with the meaning of mistake, Larsen (1992) as stated by Ruspita (2011) says that :

  4 An error is a noticeable deviation, reflecting the competence of the learner. It is a systematic deviation made by the learner who has not yet mastered the rules of the target language. The learner cannot self-correct an error because it is a reflective product of his or her current stage of L2 development, or underlying competence. According to Larsen (1992), an error cannot be self-corrected because it can occur for many reasons and in many conditions. The English learner can self-correct a mistake they made, but they cannot self-correct an error.

  In this study, the researcher is studying errors that occur in the CLS class B. The researcher chooses to study errors because as Corder (1967) has stated that ―learners‘ errors provide evidence of system of the language that he is using (i.e. has learned) at particular point in the course (and it must be repeated that he is using some system, although it is not yet the right system).

  ‖ Based on that significance on studying errors, there are some benefits of analyzing errors. Firstly, it is for the learners of English, especially the CLS students of Sanata Dharma University. The benefit for the students is that they will be able to improve their verbal English. Secondly, for the English teachers, they can improve their teaching materials that can increase the students‘ grammar accuracy when the students give speech. The errors that occur on the students‘ production also can help the teachers to analyze their teaching materials.

  The Critical Listening and Speaking, class B is offered in semester three and four in the Sanata Dharma University.

  The ―critical‖ in Critical Listening and Speaking is named to propose students

  ‘ disagreement with others as long as they can give arguments and proofs. This class is aimed to encourage the students to be active in speaking and to argue rather than only reporting. They are also expected

  5 to present opinions with evidences, development and elaboration in their speaking.

  The elaboration can be the 5W 1H Questions (what, why, where, when, who, and how).

  The students of the CLS also had already taken the listening, speaking, critical reading and writing, and structure class. The students of the CLS can be assumed to have a good understanding of English since they have been exposed to English actively for four semesters. Moreover, they also took the structure class before and during the CLS class. This condition should help the students to apply their English knowledge when they are in the condition where they need to actively speak English.

  The students of the CLS, class B, who are prepared to be English teachers and professional educators should not only see and use English language as the tool of communication, but also as a teaching tool or a role model for the students. When they are prepared as the English teachers, their spoken English will be the role models for their students. In order to be good role models of English, they should be able to produce good spoken English with also good fluency and accuracy.

B. Research Problems

  In this thesis, the researcher has two research problems. Those research problems are:

  1. What are students‘ common grammatical errors in their speaking productions on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B offered in semester four in the

  Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris of Sanata Dhama University?

  6 2. Why did those common grammatical errors in the students‘ speaking productions on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B occur?

  C. Problem Limitation

  In this research, the limitation of the accuracy is on the grammar accuracy on the students‘ speaking production. The minimum grammar requirements are also included. The researcher also examines, observes, and makes a transcription of the students‘ production on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B, offered in semester four in the Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris of Sanata Dharma University. The researcher analyzes students‘ speaking production in order to find the common grammatical errors in their speech and the possible reasons of the occurrence of the common grammatical errors. The possible reasons mean than the researcher is not going to find out the exact reasons but to find the predictions about the occurrences of error.

  D. Research Objectives

  The objectives of this research are: 1.

  To find the common grammatical errors of the fourth students‘ speaking production on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B offered in semester four in the Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris of Sanata Dhama University.

  2. To find the possible reasons of the occurrence of the common grammatical errors found on the fourth students‘ speaking production on the Critical Listening and Speaking, class B offered in semester four in the Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris of Sanata Dhama University.

  7 E.

   Research Benefits

  This research wants to give benefits to the students, English teachers, and the researcher. The benefits are aimed to improve the speaking production, particularly in the fourth semester students in the Sanata Dharma University.

  1. The students The students will be able to know their grammar accuracy and they can increase their speaking performances.

  2. The teachers The teachers may know students

  ‘ grammar accuracy that may help teachers to develop the materials.

  3. The researcher This research can help the researcher improves the researcher‘s speaking production in order to be a good role model.

F. Definition of Terms

  There are some terms that need to be clarified in this study: 1. Accuracy

  Accuracy is the use of correct forms of grammar, vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. In an accuracy activity, teachers and learners typically focus on using and producing language correctly. (University of Cambridge local examinations syndicate, 2011). In this study, accuracy is seen only on the use of correct grammar sentences while speaking.

  8 2. Grammar

  Formal grammar is a systematic way of accounting for and predicting an ideal speaker‘s or hearer‘s knowledge of the language. This is examined by a set of rulers or principles that can be used to generate all well-formed or grammatical utterances in the language (Purpura, 2004). In this study, grammar is seen as a set of principle to produces correct sentences in English language.

3. Error Analysis Error analysis is an activity to reveal errors found in writing and speaking.

  Those are the learners‘ error which can be observed, analyzed and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learners led to a surge of study of learners‘ error, called ‗error analysis. (Brown, 1987 as stated by Sanal, 2008). In this study, an error analysis is revealing errors found in speaking recording that has been transcribed. The students‘ errors are observed, analyzed and classified under certain labels.

  4. Awareness Awareness that is used in this study is the awareness that has relationship with language. Furthermore, language awareness is defined a learner‘s understanding of the rules of how language works and his or her ability to notice language. (University of Cambridge local examinations syndicate, 2011). In this study, awareness is the language awareness: awareness that is concerned about the students‘ understanding of the rules of language and their ability to notice errors in English language.

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this chapter, the researcher is going to provide basic information of the

  research relating to the subject matter. There are two major concerns presented in this chapter. Those are research theoretical description and theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical description

  In this study, the researcher uses some theories as the guideline. This section is divided into four parts. The first part is public speaking, which contains the important elements in producing speaking accuracy. The second is grammar rules and use, the third is contrastive analysis hypothesis and the last is non-contrastive approach.

1. Public Speaking

  In this study, the researcher will examine the function of accuracy more on the public speaking. Wilson, et.al. (1990) define public speaking or public speech as a speech that occurs when person(s) assumes special communicative responsibilities to others

• – whether the participants number few or many, whether the speaking is performed on a podium, an easy chair, or under a tree. In short, a speech can be said as public speaking when somebody gives a speech and where there are listeners.

  a.

  Important Elements in Producing Speaking Accuracy The first element is confidence which is the majorly influenced by audiences.

  In public speaking if the speakers do not have confidence, they surely will not be

  9

  10 able to deliver their ideas fluently. If they do not have confidence, they will also produce more errors compared with those who have confidence when speaking in public. In many cases of public speaking, the major distraction is the audiences.

  The audiences usually wait the speakers to deliver their speech by staring continuously at them. Pittenger as stated by Carnegie (1905) also explains the unpleasant atmosphere in front of the audiences: There is a strange sensation often experienced in the presence of an audience. It may proceed from the gaze of the many eyes that turn upon the speaker, especially if he permits himself to steadily return that gaze. All researchers have borne testimony to the power of a speaker's eye in impressing an audience. This influence which we are now considering is the reverse of that picture

  — the power their eyes may exert upon him, especially before he begins to speak.

  —William Pittenger, Extempore Speech. As stated by Carnegie (1905).

  The second important element which has relation with confidence is the concentration on delivering ideas. The speakers who do not have confidence may not be able to concentrate their delivering ideas. This condition will trigger many distractions when they deliver their speech. One of the distractions can be from the uncooperative audiences during the speech. Another distraction, which is also important, is when the speakers continuously think about the sentence followed when they are talking.

  ―When they keep doing this, the possibility is they will produce more errors or fillers ‖ (Carnegie, 1905).

  Carnegie (1905) advises that while speaking one sentence, it is better not to think of the sentence to follow. When the speakers can concentrate in delivering their ideas and overcome the distractions, they will be able to perform a good speech with fewer errors.

  11 Those two factors are important because they are the basic elements of public speaking. Confidence and concentration help the speakers of public speaking to maintain their language and their speech‘s content.

2. Grammar Rules and Use

  Grammar theory is important for the English learner because having a correct grammar understanding will help the learners of English understand the language.

  Besides understanding the language, it helps the learner to use the language and increase their language awareness. However, having low a grammar understanding might lead the learners to confusion. Formal grammar is defined as a systematic way of accounting for and predicting an ideal speaker‘s or hearer‘s knowledge of the language. This is done by a set of rules or principles that can be used to generate all well-formed or grammatical utterances in the language (Purpura, 2004). The rules of grammar are: a.

  Minimum grammar requirement In grammar, spoken or written, the minimum requirements are the same. Every sentence needs at least one finite, independent clause. If either of those two parts, subject or predicate, were missing, the sentence would not be complete (Close, 1975). Therefore a sentence may not have object, but it should have at least a subject and a predicate. (e.g.: she sleeps).

  1) Subject-verb agreement

  When the subjects are ―he, she, and it‖, the verbs should be added with –s or –

  es , but when the subjects are

  ―I, you, we and they‖, the verbs remain the same,

  12 without

• –s or –es. This condition is called as subject-verbs agreement, the subject affects the verbs. This condition only appears in present tense.

  b.

  Tenses Tenses are used to express events, in the past, present or future. English has three tenses; past tense, present tense and future tense. Using tenses properly is important since the use of tenses affects the meaning of what the speakers want to inform.

  1) Present tense

  Present tense expresses events or situations that exist always, usually, habitually; they exist now, have existed in the past, and probably will exist in the future (Azar, 1993) 2)

  Past tense Past tense indicates the activities or situations begin and end at particular time in the past (Azar, 1993). The formula for this tense changes the verbs into the simple past form.

  c.

  English Verbs 1) English regular verbs English regular verbs are the verbs which simple past‘s and past participle‘s forms are added with

• –ed. The verb forms do not change, but they are added with

  –ed. (e.g.: play played) to indicate that the actions are already done in the past.

  2) English irregular verbs E nglish irregular verbs are the verbs which simple past‘s form and past participle‘s forms are different. This kind of verbs may have two or three forms.

  13 The example of verbs that has two forms is ‗sell’. The simple past‘s and past participle‘s form of ―sell‖ is ―sold‖. The example of verbs that has three forms is

  ―ring‖. The simple past of ring is ‗rang’, and the past participle‘s form is ―rung‖.

  d.

  Plural and Singular 1)

  Singular The verbs after singular nouns should be added with suffixes -s or

• –es for

  present tense. Moreover, the linking verbs ―be‖ should be changed into ―is‖ for present tense and ―was‖ for past tense. e.g.: My friend lives / lived in Boston; this is/ was my bag.

  2) Plural

  The verbs after plural nouns should not be added with suffixes -s or

• –es for present tense.

  The linking verbs ―be‖ should also be changed into ―are‖ for present tense and ―were‖ for past tense. e.g.: My friends live/ lived in Boston; these are/ were my books. Moreover, the nouns themselves should be added with suffixes -s or

• –es. However, in some cases the plural nouns have special forms,

  such as ―mouse‖ which has plural form ―mice‖ and not ―mouses‖ 3.

   Contrastive analysis hypothesis

  Contrastive analysis hypothesis is used to help the researcher to examine the similarities or differences of the first language, Indonesian and the second language, English. This theory helps to find possible reasons outside the grammatical and public speaking area.

  There are three versions of contrastive analysis hypothesis. However, in this research, the researcher will use the weak version of contrastive analysis

  14 hypothesis. In the weak version, contrastive analysis hypothesis starts with the learner

  ‘s errors and explains at least a subset of them by pointing to the similarities and differences between the two languages. (Slar, p. 57 as stated by Hagopian.) The history and theoretical origin of this contrastive analysis in behaviorist psychology are that one