Wireless Networking Complete pdf pdf

Wireless Networking Complete
Pei Zheng
Feng Zhao
David Tipper
Jinmei Tatuya
Keiichi Shima
Yi Qian
Larry L. Peterson
Lionel M. Ni
D. Manjunath
Qing Li
Joy Kuri
Anurag Kumar
Prashant Krishnamurthy
Leonidas Guibas
Vijay K. Garg
Adrian Farrel
Bruce S. Davie

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Exception: Chapter 10 is © 2004 by Adrian Farrel. All rights reserved.
Material in the work originally appeared in Smart Phone & Next Generation Mobile Computing by Pei Zheng
and Lionel Ni (Elsevier Inc. 2006), Computer Networks, Fourth Edition, by Larry Peterson and Bruce Davie
(Elsevier Inc. 2007), Wireless Communication & Networking, by Vijay Garg (Elsevier Inc. 2007), Wireless
Networks, by Anurag Kumar, D. Manjunath, Joy Kuri (Elsevier Inc. 2008), Wireless Sensor Networks, by Feng
Zhao and Leonidas Guibas (Elsevier Inc. 2004), The Internet and Its Protocols, by Adrian Farrel (Farrel 2004),
IPv6 Advanced Protocols, by Qing Li, Keiichi Shima, and Jinmei Tatuya (Elsevier Inc. 2007), and Information
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Contents
About This Book .................................................................................................xv

About the Authors ............................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Supporting Wireless Technologies ..........................................................1
1.1 The Frequency Spectrum ..................................................................................1
1.1.1 Public Media Broadcasting ....................................................................4
1.1.2 Cellular Communication ........................................................................4
1.1.3 Wireless Data Communication ..............................................................5
1.1.4 Other Fixed or Mobile Wireless Communications ................................6
1.2 Wireless Communication Primer ......................................................................6
1.2.1 Signal Propagation .................................................................................6
1.2.2 Modulation .............................................................................................9
1.2.3 Multiplexing .........................................................................................11
1.3 Spread Spectrum .............................................................................................12
1.3.1 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum ......................................................13
1.3.2 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum .................................................13
1.3.3 Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing.....................................14
1.4 Global System for Mobile and General Packet Radio Service .......................15
1.4.1 Global System for Mobile....................................................................15
1.4.2 General Packet Radio Service ..............................................................20
1.5 Code-Division Multiple Access ......................................................................24
1.5.1 Code-Division Multiple Access Concept.............................................24

1.5.2 IS-95.....................................................................................................25
1.5.3 Software Handoff .................................................................................26
1.5.4 Road to 4G ...........................................................................................27
1.6 GSM Versus CDMA........................................................................................28
1.7 3G Cellular Systems ........................................................................................29
1.7.1 UMTS/WCDMA Versus cdma2000 ....................................................30
1.7.2 UMTS/WCDMA..................................................................................30
1.7.3 cdma2000 .............................................................................................31
1.7.4 4G Cellular Systems ............................................................................33
1.8 2G Mobile Wireless Services ..........................................................................34
1.8.1 WAP and iMode ...................................................................................34
1.8.2 Short Message Service .........................................................................35
vii

viii

Contents

1.9 Wireless Technologies Landscape .................................................................36
1.10 802.11 Wireless LANs...................................................................................37

1.10.1 Architecture and Protocols .................................................................38
1.10.2 Frame Format .....................................................................................41
1.10.3 Beacon Frame ....................................................................................43
1.10.4 Roaming in a Wireless LAN ..............................................................43
1.10.5 IEEE 802.11 Family...........................................................................45
1.10.6 Security in Wireless LANs ................................................................47
1.11 Bluetooth ........................................................................................................47
1.11.1 Architecture and Protocols .................................................................47
1.11.2 Bluetooth Overview ...........................................................................47
1.11.3 Bluetooth Architecture .......................................................................48
1.11.4 Radio and Baseband...........................................................................49
1.11.5 L2CAP and Frame Format .................................................................51
1.11.6 RFCOMM ..........................................................................................52
1.11.7 SDP ....................................................................................................52
1.11.8 Bluetooth Evolution ............................................................................53
1.12 Ultra-Wideband .............................................................................................53
1.12.1 UWB Standards .................................................................................55
1.12.2 UWB Applications .............................................................................55
1.13 Radio-Frequency Identification .....................................................................56
1.13.1 RFID System......................................................................................56

1.13.2 RFID Applications .............................................................................58
1.14 Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks ..........................................................60
1.14.1 Wireless Broadband: IEEE 802.16 ....................................................61
1.14.2 WiMax ...............................................................................................62
1.15 Satellite ..........................................................................................................64
1.15.1 Satellite Communication....................................................................64
1.15.2 Satellite Systems ................................................................................64
1.16 Wireless Sensor Networks .............................................................................65
1.16.1 WSN Applications .............................................................................66
1.16.2 Wireless Sensor Node ........................................................................67
1.16.3 Self-Organized Networks ...................................................................68
1.16.4 ZigBee ................................................................................................69
1.17 Standardization in the Wireless World ..........................................................70
1.17.1 Cellular Standard Groups...................................................................71
1.17.2 IEEE Standards ..................................................................................71
1.17.3 Standards War ....................................................................................73
1.18 Summary........................................................................................................73
Further Reading .................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 2 Wireless Networks .............................................................................77
2.1 Bluetooth (802.15.1) ......................................................................................79

2.2 Wi-Fi (802.11) ...............................................................................................81
2.2.1 Physical Properties .............................................................................81
2.2.2 Collision Avoidance ...........................................................................82

Contents ix

2.2.3 Distribution System .......................................................................... 83
2.2.4 Frame Format .................................................................................... 85
2.3 WiMAX (802.16) ..........................................................................................86
2.4 Cell Phone Technologies ...............................................................................87
Further Reading .....................................................................................................90
Chapter 3 An Overview of Wireless Systems ........................................................93
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................93
3.2 First- and Second-Generation Cellular Systems............................................94
3.3 Cellular Communications from 1G to 3G .....................................................97
3.4 Road Map for Higher Data Rate Capability in 3G ......................................100
3.5 Wireless 4G Systems ...................................................................................103
3.6 Future Wireless Networks ...........................................................................106
3.7 Standardization Activities for Cellular Systems ..........................................107
3.8 Summary......................................................................................................109

Problems ..............................................................................................................109
References ........................................................................................................... 109
Chapter 4 Wireless Application Protocol ............................................................111
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................111
4.2 WAP and the World Wide Web (WWW).....................................................111
4.3 Introduction to Wireless Application Protocol ............................................112
4.4 The WAP Programming Model ...................................................................113
4.4.1 The WWW Model..............................................................................114
4.4.2 The WAP Model ................................................................................114
4.5 WAP Architecture ........................................................................................116
4.5.1 Wireless Application Environment ....................................................117
4.5.2 Wireless Telephony Application ........................................................118
4.5.3 Wireless Session Protocol ..................................................................119
4.5.4 Wireless Transaction Protocol ...........................................................120
4.5.5 Wireless Transport Layer Security.....................................................121
4.5.6 Wireless Datagram Protocol ..............................................................121
4.5.7 Optimal WAP Bearers ........................................................................122
4.6 Traditional WAP Networking Environment ................................................123
4.7 WAP Advantages and Disadvantages ..........................................................124
4.8 Applications of WAP ...................................................................................126

4.9 imode ...........................................................................................................127
4.10 imode Versus WAP ......................................................................................128
4.11 Summary......................................................................................................129
Problems ..............................................................................................................129
References ........................................................................................................... 130
Chapter 5 Wireless Local Area Networks...........................................................131
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................131
5.2 WLAN Equipment.......................................................................................134
5.3 WLAN Topologies.......................................................................................135
5.4 WLAN Technologies ...................................................................................136

x

Contents

5.4.1 IR Technology ....................................................................................136
5.4.2 UHF Narrowband Technology ...........................................................137
5.4.3 Spread Spectrum Technology ............................................................138
5.5 IEEE 802.11 WLAN....................................................................................139
5.5.1 IEEE 802.11 Architecture ................................................................139

5.5.2 802.11 Physical Layer (PHY) ..........................................................141
5.5.3 IEEE 802.11 Data Link Layer .........................................................153
5.5.4 IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control .............................................153
5.5.5 IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer ............................................................159
5.6 Joining an Existing Basic Service Set .........................................................161
5.7 Security of IEEE 802.11 Systems................................................................163
5.8 Power Management .....................................................................................164
5.9 IEEE 802.11b—High-Rate DSSS ...............................................................164
5.10 IEEE 802.11n...............................................................................................165
5.11 Other WLAN Standards ..............................................................................168
5.11.1 HIPERLAN Family of Standards ....................................................168
5.11.2 Multimedia Access Communication—High-Speed
Wireless Access Network ................................................................173
5.12 Performance of a Bluetooth Piconet in the Presence of IEEE
802.11 WLANs............................................................................................175
5.12.1 Packet Error Rate (PER) from N Neighboring Bluetooth
Piconets ............................................................................................176
5.12.2 PER from M Neighboring IEEE 802.11 WLANs............................177
5.12.3 Aggregated Throughput ...................................................................177
5.13 Interference Between Bluetooth and IEEE 802.11 ......................................178

5.14 IEEE 802.16.................................................................................................181
5.15 World Interoperability for MicroAccess, Inc. (WiMAX) ............................183
5.15.1 WiMAX PHY ..................................................................................186
5.15.2 WiMAX Media Access Control (MAC) ..........................................187
5.15.3 Spectrum Allocation for WiMAX....................................................188
5.16 Summary......................................................................................................189
Problems ..............................................................................................................189
References ............................................................................................................191
Chapter 6 Fourth-Generation Systems and New Wireless Technologies ..................193
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................193
6.2 4G Vision .....................................................................................................195
6.3 4G Features and Challenges ........................................................................195
6.4 Applications of 4G.......................................................................................197
6.5 4G Technologies ..........................................................................................200
6.5.1 Multicarrier Modulation...................................................................200
6.5.2 Smart Antenna Techniques ..............................................................201
6.5.3 OFDM–MIMO Systems ..................................................................205
6.5.4 Adaptive Modulation and Coding with Time-Slot Scheduler..........205
6.5.5 Bell Labs Layered Space Time (BLAST) System ...........................206

Contents xi

6.5.6 Software-Defined Radio...................................................................209
6.5.7 Cognitive Radio ...............................................................................211
6.6 Summary......................................................................................................212
Problems ..............................................................................................................212
References ............................................................................................................213
Chapter 7 Mesh Networks: Optimal Routing and Scheduling ................................215
7.1 Overview......................................................................................................215
7.2 Network Topology and Link Activation Constraints ...................................216
7.2.1 Link Activation Constraints .............................................................216
7.3 Link Scheduling and Schedulable Region ...................................................219
7.3.1 Stability of Queues...........................................................................222
7.3.2 Link Flows and Link Stability Region .............................................226
7.4 Routing and Scheduling a Given Flow Vector.............................................229
7.5 Discussion....................................................................................................235
7.6 Maximum Weight Scheduling .....................................................................236
7.6.1 Multicommodity Flow Criteria ........................................................238
7.6.2 Lyapunov Stability of a Network of Queues....................................238
7.6.3 The Algorithm and Its Analysis .......................................................239
7.6.4 Discussion ........................................................................................245
7.7 Routing and Scheduling for Elastic Traffic .................................................245
7.7.1 Fair Allocation for Single Hop Flows ..............................................249
7.7.2 Fair Allocation for Multihop Flows .................................................252
7.8 Discussion....................................................................................................257
7.9 Notes on the Literature ................................................................................259
Problems .......................................................................................................................... 260
References .......................................................................................................................261

Chapter 8 Ad Hoc Wireless Sensor Networks .....................................................263
8.1 Overview......................................................................................................265
8.2 Communication Coverage ...........................................................................265
8.3 Discussion....................................................................................................266
8.4 Sensing Coverage ........................................................................................267
8.5 Discussion....................................................................................................273
8.6 Localization .................................................................................................274
8.6.1 Convex Position Estimation .............................................................276
8.7 Discussion....................................................................................................279
8.7.1 Routing.............................................................................................279
8.7.2 Attribute-Based Routing ..................................................................284
8.8 Function Computation .................................................................................286
8.9 Discussion....................................................................................................293
8.10 Scheduling ...................................................................................................294
8.10.1 S-MAC ............................................................................................ 295
8.10.2 IEEE 802.15.4 (Zigbee) .................................................................. 297
8.11 Notes on the Literature ............................................................................... 298

xii

Contents

Problems ............................................................................................................. 299
References ............................................................................................................300
Chapter 9 Sensor Network Platforms and Tools ..................................................303
9.1 Sensor Node Hardware ............................................................................... 304
9.1.1 Berkeley Motes ............................................................................... 305
9.2 Sensor Network Programming Challenges................................................. 307
9.3 Node-Level Software Platforms ................................................................. 309
9.3.1 Operating System: TinyOS ............................................................. 310
9.3.2 Imperative Language: nesC ............................................................ 313
9.3.3 Dataflow-Style Language: TinyGALS ............................................ 319
9.4 Node-Level Simulators ............................................................................... 324
9.4.1 The ns-2 Simulator and Its Sensor Network Extensions ................ 326
9.4.2 The Simulator TOSSIM .................................................................. 327
9.5 Programming Beyond Individual Nodes: State-Centric Programming ...... 328
9.5.1 Collaboration Groups ...................................................................... 329
9.5.2 PIECES: A State-Centric Design Framework ................................ 332
9.5.3 Multitarget Tracking Problem Revisited ......................................... 335
9.6 Summary..................................................................................................... 340
References ............................................................................................................340
Chapter 10 Mobile IP .....................................................................................345
10.1 The Requirements of Mobile IP ................................................................. 345
10.2 Extending the Protocols .............................................................................. 347
10.3 Reverse Tunneling ...................................................................................... 349
10.4 Security Concerns ....................................................................................... 351
Further Reading .................................................................................................. 351
Chapter 11 Mobile IPv6 ...................................................................................353
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 353
11.2 Mobile IPv6 Overview ............................................................................... 354
11.2.1 Types of Nodes................................................................................ 355
11.2.2 Basic Operation of Mobile IPv6 ..................................................... 356
11.3 Header Extension ........................................................................................ 360
11.3.1 Alignment Requirements ................................................................ 361
11.3.2 Home Address Option..................................................................... 361
11.3.3 Type 2 Routing Header ................................................................... 362
11.3.4 Mobility Header .............................................................................. 364
11.3.5 Mobility Options ............................................................................. 372
11.3.6 Neighbor Discovery Messages........................................................ 375
11.3.7 ICMPv6 Messages .......................................................................... 377
11.4 Procedure of Mobile IPv6........................................................................... 381
11.4.1 Protocol Constants and Variables.................................................... 381
11.4.2 Home Registration .......................................................................... 381

Contents xiii

11.4.3 Bi-Directional Tunneling ................................................................ 385
11.4.4 Intercepting Packets for a Mobile Node ......................................... 387
11.4.5 Returning Home .............................................................................. 387
11.5 Route Optimization..................................................................................... 390
11.5.1 Return Routability........................................................................... 391
11.5.2 Sending Initial Messages ................................................................ 391
11.5.3 Responding to Initial Messages ...................................................... 392
11.5.4 Computing a Shared Secret............................................................. 394
11.5.5 Verifying Message .......................................................................... 395
11.5.6 Security Considerations .................................................................. 396
11.5.7 De-Register Binding for Correspondent Nodes .............................. 397
11.5.8 Backward Compatibility ................................................................. 397
11.6 Movement Detection .................................................................................. 399
11.7 Dynamic Home Agent Address Discovery................................................. 399
11.8 Mobile Prefix Solicitation/Advertisement .................................................. 400
11.9 Relationship with IPsec .............................................................................. 404
References ............................................................................................................406
Chapter 12 Security and Survivability of Wireless Systems ..................................407
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 407
12.2 Background................................................................................................. 408
12.3 Current Security Approaches in Wireless Networks .................................. 411
12.4 Current Survivability Approaches in Wireless Networks ........................... 412
12.5 Framework for Wireless Network Survivability and Security.................... 413
12.6 Interaction Between Survivability and Security in Wireless Networks...... 417
12.6.1 Extending the Framework to Include Interactions Between
Security and Survivability ................................................................418
12.6.2 Case Study I: Idle Handoffs ............................................................ 421
12.6.3 Case Study II: Key Management in Heterogeneous
Sensor Networks ..................................................................... ........422
12.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 429
References .......................................................................................................... 430
Index ..............................................................................................................433

About This Book
All of the elements about wireless networking are here together in a single resource written
by the best and brightest experts in the field. This book consolidates both introductory and
advanced topics, thereby covering the gamut of wireless networking—from wireless systems
overview to fundamental wireless application protocols to wireless sensor networks and
security in wireless systems.
Wireless Networking Complete expertly combines the finest wireless networking material
from the Morgan Kaufmann portfolio, with individual chapters contributed by a select group
of authors. The chapters have been combined into one comprehensive book in a way that
allows it to be used as a reference work for those interested in new and developing aspects of
wireless networking. This book represents a quick and efficient way to unite valuable content
from leaders in the wireless networking field, thereby creating a definitive, one-stop-shopping
opportunity to access information you would otherwise need to round up from disparate
sources.

xv

About the Authors
Pei Zheng (Chapter 1) was an Assistant Professor in the Computer Science Department at
Arcadia University and a consultant working in the areas of mobile computing and distributed
systems during the writing of this book. Dr. Zheng received his Ph.D. degree in Computer
Science from Michigan State University in 2003. He was a Member of Technical Staff in Bell
Laboratories, Lucent Technologies. He joined Microsoft in 2005. His research interests include
distributed systems, network simulation and emulation, and mobile computing. He is also a
co-author of Smart Phone and Next Generation Mobile Computing, published by Elsevier, 2005.
Feng Zhao (Chapter 9) is a senior researcher at Microsoft, where he manages the Networked
Embedded Computing Group. He received his Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering and Computer
Science from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and has taught at Stanford
University and Ohio State University. Dr. Zhao was a principal scientist at Xerox PARC
and directed PARC’s sensor network research effort. He is serving as the editor-in-chief of
ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks. He is also a co-author of Wireless Sensor Networks,
published by Elsevier, 2004.
David Tipper (Chapter 12) is an Associate Professor of Telecommunications, with a
secondary appointment in Electrical Engineering, at the University of Pittsburgh. He is a
senior member of IEEE, and has served as both the Technical Program Chair of the Fourth
International IEEE Design of Reliable Communication Networks Workshop and as a
co-guest editor of the Journal of Network and Systems Management. He is also a co-author
of Information Assurance: Dependability and Security in Networked Systems, published by
Elsevier, 2007.
Jinmei Tatuya (Chapter 11) is a research scientist at Corporate Research & Development
Center, Toshiba Corporation. He had been a core developer of the KAME project since the
launch of the project through its conclusion. In 2003, he received a Ph.D. degree from Keio
University, Japan, based on his work at KAME. He is also a co-author of IPv6 Advanced
Protocols, published by Elsevier, 2007.
Keiichi Shima (Chapter 11) is a senior researcher at Internet Initiative Japan Inc. He was a core
developer of the KAME project from 2001 until the end of the project and developed Mobile
IPv6/NEMO Basic Support protocol stack. He is now working on the new mobility stack
xvii

xviii About the Authors
(the SHISA stack) for BSD operating systems. He is also a co-author of IPv6 Advanced
Protocols, published by Elsevier, 2007.
Yi Qian (Chapter 12) is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering at the University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez. Prior to joining UPRM, he worked
for several companies as a Technical Advisor and a Senior Consultant in the areas of network
optimization and network planning. He has been on numerous conference committees,
and has most recently served as the General Chair of the 2007 International Symposium
on Wireless Pervasive Computing. He is also a co-author of Information Assurance:
Dependability and Security in Networked Systems, published by Elsevier, 2007.
Larry L. Peterson (Chapter 2) is Professor and Chair of Computer Science at Princeton
University. He is Director of the Princeton-hosted PlanetLab Consortium and Chair of
the planning group for NSF’s GENI Initiative. His research focuses on the design and
implementation of networked systems. Peterson is a Fellow of the ACM. He received his
Ph.D. degree from Purdue University in 1985. He is also a co-author of Computer Networks:
A Systems Approach, published by Elsevier, 2007.
Lionel M. Ni (Chapter 1) is Professor and Head of the Computer Science Department at
the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Dr. Ni earned his Ph.D. degree in
Electrical and Computer Engineering from Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, in 1981. He
was professor in Computer Science and Engineering Department at Michigan State University,
where he started his academic career in 1981. He has been involved in many projects related to
wireless technologies, 2.5G/3G cellular phones, and embedded systems. He is also a co-author
of Smart Phone and Next Generation Mobile Computing, published by Elsevier, 2005.
D. Manjunath, Ph.D. (Chapters 7 and 8) is a Professor in the Department of Electrical
Engineering of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay. He previously served on the
faculty at IIT Kanpur. He is also a co-author of Wireless Networks, published by Elsevier, 2008.
Qing Li (Chapter 11) is a senior architect at Blue Coat Systems, Inc. leading the design and
development efforts of the next-generation IPv6-enabled secure proxy appliances. Qing holds
multiple US patents and is the author of multiple books on networked and embedded systems.
He is also a co-author of IPv6 Advanced Protocols, published by Elsevier, 2007.
Joy Kuri, (Chapters 7 and 8) is an Associate Professor at the Center for Electronics Design
and Technology at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. He is also a co-author of
Wireless Networks, published by Elsevier, 2008.
Anurag Kumar, Ph.D. (Chapters 7 and 8) is a Professor in the Department of Electrical
Communication Engineering, and chair of the Electrical Sciences Division in the Indian
Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore. Previously, he was with AT&T Bell Laboratories,
Holmdel, New Jersey. Professor Kumar was also the coordinator at IISc of the Education and

About the Authors xix
Research Network Project (ERNET), India’s first wide-area packet network. He is an IEEE
Fellow. He is also a co-author of Wireless Networks, published by Elsevier, 2008.
Prashant Krishnamurthy (Chapter 12) is an Associate Professor with the Graduate Program
in Telecommunications and Networking at the University of Pittsburgh, PA. At Pitt, he
regularly teaches courses on wireless communication systems and networks, cryptography,
and network security. His research interests are wireless network security, wireless data
networks, position location in indoor wireless networks, and radio channel modeling for
indoor wireless networks. He has had funding for his research from the National Science
Foundation and the National Institute of Standards and Technology. He is the co-author
of the book Principles of Wireless Networks: A Unified Approach and Physical Layer of
Communication Systems (Prentice Hall; 1st edition, December 11, 2001). He served as
the chair of the IEEE Communications Society, Pittsburgh Chapter, from 2000–2005. He
obtained his Ph.D. in 1999 from Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA. He is also
a co-author of Information Assurance: Dependability and Security in Networked Systems,
published by Elsevier, 2007.
Leonidas Guibas (Chapter 9) heads the Geometric Computation group in the Computer
Science Department of Stanford University, where he works on algorithms for sensing,
modeling, reasoning about, rendering, and acting on the physical world. He is well-known for
his work in computational geometry, computer graphics, and discrete algorithms. Professor
Guibas obtained his Ph.D. from Stanford; has worked at PARC, MIT, and DEC/SRC; and
was recently elected an ACM Fellow. He is also a co-author of Wireless Sensor Networks,
published by Elsevier, 2004.
Vijay K. Garg (Chapters 3, 4, 5, and 6) has been a Professor in the Electrical and Computer
Engineering Department at the University of Illinois at Chicago since 1999, where he
teaches graduate courses in Wireless Communications and Networking. Dr. Garg was a
Distinguished Member of Technical Staff at the Lucent Technologies Bell Labs in Naperville,
Illinois from 1985 to 2001. He received his Ph.D. degree from the Illinois Institute of
Technologies, Chicago, IL in 1973 and his MS degree from the University of California at
Berkeley, CA in 1966. Dr. Garg has co-authored several technical books including five in
wireless communications. He is a Fellow of ASCE and ASME, and a Senior Member of
IEEE. Dr. Garg is a registered Professional Engineer in the state of Maine and Illinois. He is
an Academic Member of the Russian Academy of Transport. Dr. Garg was a Feature Editor
of Wireless/PCS Series in IEEE Communication Magazine from 1996–2001. He is also the
author of Wireless Communications and Networking, published by Elsevier, 2007.
Adrian Farrel (Chapter 10) has over two decades of experience designing and developing
communications protocol software. At Old Dog Consulting he is an industry-leading
freelance consultant on MPLS, GMPLS, and Internet routing, formerly working as MPLS
Architect for Data Connection Ltd., and as Director of Protocol Development for Movaz

xx About the Authors
Networks, Inc. He is active within the Internet Engineering Task Force, where he is co-chair
of the CCAMP working group responsible for GMPLS, the Path Computation Element
(PCE) working group, and the Layer One VPN (L1VPN) working group. Adrian has
co-authored and contributed to numerous Internet Drafts and RFCs on MPLS, GMPLS, and
related technologies. He is also the author of The Internet and Its Protocols: A Comparative
Approach, published by Elsevier, 2004.
Bruce S. Davie (Chapter 2) joined Cisco Systems in 1995, where he is a Cisco Fellow. For
many years he led the team of architects responsible for Multiprotocol Label Switching
and IP Quality of Service. He recently joined the Video and Content Networking Business
Unit in the Service Provider group. He has 20 years of networking and communications
industry experience and has written numerous books, RFCs, journal articles, and conference
papers on IP networking. He is also an active participant in both the Internet Engineering
Task Force and the Internet Research Task Force. Prior to joining Cisco, he was director of
internetworking research and chief scientist at Bell Communications Research. Bruce holds
a Ph.D. in Computer Science from Edinburgh University and is a visiting lecturer at MIT.
His research interests include routing, measurement, quality of service, transport protocols,
and overlay networks. He is also a co-author of Computer Networks: A Systems Approach,
published by Elsevier, 2007.

CHAPTE R 1

Supporting Wireless Technologies
Pei Zheng
Lionel M. Ni

This chapter provides extensive coverage of existing mobile wireless technologies. Much of the
emphasis is on the highly anticipated 3G cellular networks and widely deployed wireless local
area networks (LANs), as the next-generation smart phones are likely to offer at least these two
types of connectivity. Other wireless technologies that either have already been commercialized or
are undergoing active research and standardization are introduced as well. Because standardization
plays a crucial role in developing a new technology and a market, throughout the discussion
standards organizations and industry forums or consortiums of some technologies are introduced.
In addition, the last section of this chapter presents a list of standards in the wireless arena.

1.1 The Frequency Spectrum
The fundamental principle of wireless communication is electromagnetic wave transmission
between a transmitter and a receiver. Signals are characterized by their frequencies in use.
Multiple signals or noises of the same frequency will cause interference at the receiver.
To avoid interference, various wireless technologies use distinct frequency bands with
well-controlled signal power which are portions of the so-called frequency spectrum. As
a scarce public resource, the frequency spectrum is strictly regulated by governments of
countries around the world. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) has the responsibility of regulating civil broadcast and electronic communications,
including the use of the frequency spectrum, and the National Telecommunications and
Information Administration (NITA) administers the frequency use of the federal government.
In Europe, the frequency spectrum is managed on a national basis, and the European Union
(EU) members coordinate via the European Conference of Post and Telecommunications
Administrations (ECPT) and the Electronic Communications Committee (ECC). Worldwide
unified regulation of wireless communication is understandably difficult to achieve for
various technological, economic, and political reasons. To this end, the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) has been formed as an international organization of the
United Nation. The ITU allows governments and private sectors to coordinate development
Copyright © 2006, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Chapter 1

of telecommunication systems, services, and standards. In almost all countries, portions of
the frequency spectrum have been designated as “unlicensed,” meaning that a government
license is not required for wireless systems operating at these bands. In effect, wireless
system manufacturers and service providers are required to obtain an exclusive license for
a frequency band from regulatory bodies or resort to the use of the unlicensed spectrum.
In either case, the emitted power of the wireless systems must comply with the power
constraints associated with the regulations in question. In addition, frequency allocations of a
country may change over time. (For the latest information regarding frequency allocation in
the United States, see http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.html.)
A radio signal is characterized by wavelength and frequency. In vacuum, the product of
wavelength and frequency is the speed of light (about 3  108 m/sec); in general, a higher
frequency means shorter wavelength. For example, visible light is in the frequency band
of 4.3  1014 to 7.5  1014 Hz, with wavelengths ranging from 0.35 to 0.9 µm. Frequency
modulation (FM) radio broadcasts operate within the frequency range of 30 to 300 MHz at
wavelengths between 10 and 1 m.
The frequency spectrum can be divided into the following categories: very low frequency
(VLF), low frequency (LF), medium frequency (MF), high frequency (HF), very high
frequency (VHF), ultra-high frequency (UHF), super-high frequency (SHF), extremely high
frequency (EHF), infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma-ray, and cosmic ray,
each of which represents a frequency band. Figure 1.1 shows the frequency spectrum up to
the visible light band. Notice that in the context of electronic communication, there are two
categories of transmission medium: guided medium (e.g., copper coaxial cable and twisted
pair) and unguided medium (for wireless communication in the air). The guided medium
carries signals or waves between a transmitter and a receiver, whereas the unguided medium
typically carries wireless signals between an antenna and a receiver (which may also be
an antenna). Nevertheless, each medium operates at a specific frequency band of various
bandwidth determined by its physical characteristics. For example, coaxial cable uses many
portions of frequencies between 1 KHz and 1 GHz for different purposes: television channels
2, 3, and 4 operate at frequencies from 54 to 72 MHz; channels 5 and 6 from 76 to 88 MHz;
and channels 7 to 13 from 174 to 216 MHz. The optical fiber uses visible or infrared light as
the carrier and operates at frequencies between 100 and 1000 THz.
Wireless communication operates at frequencies in the so-called radio spectrum, which is
further divided into VLF, LF, MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF. In addition, infrared data
association (IrDA) is also used for short-range wireless communication. The following text
discusses frequency bands at which existing mobile wireless technologies operate; notice that
very often the frequency regulations enforce emitted power restrictions to avoid interference
among wireless devices operating at the same frequency band.

Supporting Wireless Technologies
30 Hz

300 Hz

ELF

3 kHz

VF

30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz

VLF

Voice and sound wave

LF

MF

HF

VHF

UHF

EHF

Microwave,
terrestrial, and
satellite

Radio

AM
radio

SHF

Visible
light

FM radio
and TV

Unlicensed
ISM

Digital TV