Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue5.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1998] 2 0 3 –2 2 4 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

The knowledge base for re-engineering schools:

multiple functions and internal ef fectiveness

Yin Cheong Cheng

Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n, Tai Po , Ho ng Ko ng

Numerous school reforms have failed to pursue educa-tional effectiveness and quality in different parts of the world because of the ignorance of the multiplicity of school functions in the rapidly changing environment and the lack of understanding of the internal school process. This paper aims to propose a framework for developing a new knowledge base for re-engineering schools. The framework requests new knowledge about multiple school func-tions including technical/eco-nomic, human/social, politi-cal, cultural, and educational functions at the individual, institutions, community, society, and international levels in the new century. The understanding of these func-tions and their inter-relafunc-tions is necessary for policy devel-opment and formulation.

This paper is one of the reports from the research project on school-based management that is sup-ported by a Competitive Earmarked Research Grant of the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong. The author would like to acknowledge the award of the council to this project. Part of materials in this paper are drawn heavily from Cheng (1996a) and Cheng (1997a) and elabo-rated from a different per-spective focusing on the knowledge framework for school reforms.

Introduction

E d u ca t ion en v ir on m en t s in t h e Asia -P a cifi c r e gion h ave b een ch a n ged q u ick ly, r es p on d -in g t o t h e r a p id ch a n ges a n d d evelop m en t s -in econ om y in t h e 1980s a n d 1990s. In or d er t o cop e w it h t h e ch a llen ges a r is in g in t h e 1990s a n d t h e 21s t cen t u r y, n u m er ou s ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s a n d sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g m ovem en t s h ave b een goin g on t o p u r su e ed u ca t ion a l effect iven es s a n d s ch ool d evelop m en t n ot on ly in t h e West su ch a s Ca n a d a , USA, a n d t h e UK, bu t a lso in t h e Asia -P a cifi c r e gion s su ch a s Au s t r a lia , N ew Zea la n d , m a in la n d Ch in a , Sin ga p or e, Ma lay sia a n d H on g Kon g. T h e sea r ch of effect ive sch ools, t h e sh ift t o sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t , t h e em p h a s is on d evelop m en t p la n n in g in s ch ool, t h e a s su r -a n ce of s ch ool ed u c-a t ion q u -a lit y, -a n d t h e im p lem en t a t ion of n ew cu r r icu lu m p r ogr a m s a r e t y p ica l exa m p les of effor t s on r efor m m ovem en t s (Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s, 1992; Ch en g, 1996a ; 1996b ; H a r gr eaves a n d H op k in s, 1991; M u r p h y a n d Beck , 1995; Rey n old s a n d Cu t t a n ce, 1992; Sch eer en s, 1992).

E ven t h ou gh t h er e a r e s om e a dva n ces in k n ow led ge p a r t icu la r ly in t h e a r ea s of sch ool effect iven es s a n d s ch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t in t h ese yea r s, t h ey a r e s t ill t oo s m a ll a n d n ot su fficien t t o su p p or t effect ive ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ges a n d sch ool r efor m s, w h en com p a r ed w it h t h e h u ge sca les in r es ou r ces in ves t m en t a n d in volvem en t of sch ools, s t a ff, a n d st u -d en t s. T h e t r a -d it ion a l k n ow le-d ge of sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess is s t ill so s im p lis t ic a n d su p er fi cia l (Ch en g, 1996c; 1997a ; Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g, 1996). It is n ot s u r -p r is in g t h a t n u m er ou s s ch ool r efor m s h ave fa iled t o p u r s u e ed u ca t ion a l effect iven es s a n d q u a lit y in d iffer en t p a r t s of t h e wor ld b eca u s e of t h e ign or a n ce of t h e m u lt ip licit y of s ch ool fu n ct ion s in t h e r a p id ly ch a n gin g en v ir on -m en t a n d t h e la ck of u n d er s t a n d in g of t h e in t er n a l s ch ool p r ocess. M os t of t h em w it h focu s on fr a gm en t a r y im p r ovem en t a n d r em ed ia l t r ea t m en t , a r e n ot su fficien t t o b r in g h olis t ic sch ool d evelop m en t a n d lon g-t er m effecg-t iven es s. T h er e is a sg-t r on g n eed for a n ew a n d com p r eh en sive k n ow led ge b a s e t o su p p or t s ch ool r es t r u ct u r in g m ovem en t s. T h is p a p er a im s t o p r op os e a fr a m ewor k for d evelop in g a n ew k n ow led ge b a s e for

r e-en gin eer in g s ch ools in H on g Kon g a n d in t er n a t ion a l con t ext s.

School functions and internal

school process

In p la n n in g sch ool r efor m , on e sh ou ld con -sid er t h e follow in g b a sic q u est ion s: • K n ow led ge of sch ool fu n ction s. In t h e n ew

cen t u r y, w h a t fu n ct ion s a n d r oles sh ou ld sch ools p lay t o m eet t h e ch a llen ges a n d exp ect a t ion s fr om t h e ch a n gin g a n d d em a n d in g ed u ca t ion a l en v ir on m en t ? T h is q u est ion is clos ely r ela t ed t o t h e goa ls of t h e sch ool sy st em a n d t h e d ir ect ion of sch ool r efor m . Wit h ou t clea r u n d er st a n d in g of sch ool fu n ct ion s, w e d o n ot k n ow h ow effet ive sch ools a r e in p er for m in g effet h eir fu n c-t ion s a n d in w h a c-t d ir ecc-t ion w e sh ou ld im p r ove t h em . We for es ee t h a t t h e ed u ca -t ion a l en v ir on m en -t w ill b e in cr ea sin gly ch a n gin g a n d m or e d em a n d in g a n d ou r sch ools h ave t o p lay m u lt ip le r oles a n d fu n ct ion s t o m eet t h e ch a llen ges in t h e n ew cen t u r y (Da lin a n d Ru st , 1996; Bea r e a n d Sla u gh t er, 1993; Ch en g, 1997a ). Bu t m a n y on goin g ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s a r e oft en con d u ct ed w it h a ver y n a r r ow b elief a b ou t sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d goa ls. Ign or a n ce of m u lt ip le a n d com p lex s ch ool fu n ct ion s in ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s ca n n ot b r in g ou t effect ive seffect r a effect e gies effect o su p p or effect sch ool d evelop -m en t (Ch en g, 1996a ).

• K n ow led ge of in ter n a l sch ool p r ocess. H ow ca n t h e in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess b e r e-en gi-n eer ed so t h a t t h e sch ool a s a w h ole ca gi-n p lay t h e a b ove m en t ion ed fu n ct ion s a n d r oles su ccessfu lly ? T h is q u est ion is r ela t ed t o t h e in t er n a l effect iven ess of sch ools. As w e k n ow, t h e s ch ools a r e oft en st r ict ly b ou n d ed by lim it ed r esou r ces in p u t , t igh t t im e fr a m e for im p lem en t a t ion , p oor k n ow led ge a n d t ech n ology in ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t , a n d r igid ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l st r u ct u r a l con t r ol. T h ey a r e n ot em p ow er ed a n d la ck op p or t u n it ies t o lea r n , d evelop, a n d a d a p t in t h e ch a n gin g a n d d iver se en v ir on m en t . To a gr ea t ext en t , t h e cu r r en t sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t m ove-m en t s t r y t o fa cilit a t e sch ools t o over coove-m e t h ese con s t r a in t s. Bu t , d u e t o t h e sim p list ic

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Yin Che o ng Che ng The kno wle dge base fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls: multiple func tio ns and inte rnal e ffe c tive ne ss Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 0 3 –2 2 4

d ecen t r a liza t ion t o t h e s it e-level w it h ou t s u p p or t of m or e s op h is t ica t ed k n ow led ge a n d t ech n ology of m a n a gem en t a n d ed u ca -t ion , -t h e effec-t s of -t h ese r efor m s a r e of-t en p r oblem a t ic (Ch en g a n d Ch eu n g, 1997). H ow ca n a s ch ool b e r e-en gin eer ed t o m a xim ize it s in ter n a l effect iven es s in s ch ool p r ocess in a con t ext of d iffer en t t y p es of con st r a in t s a n d m a xim ize it s ex ter n a l effect iven es s in a ch iev in g m u lt ip le s ch ool fu n ct ion s in a ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion a l en v ir on m en t ? T h es e t wo q u es t ion s a r e r ea lly cr u cia l t o t h e for m u la t ion a n d im p lem en t a t ion of s ch ool r efor m s t o en h a n ce sch ool effect iven es s a n d ed u ca t ion a l q u a lit y. Bu t t h eir a n sw er s d em a n d a n ew s et of p r in cip les t o r e-en gin eer ou r sch ools in st ea d of fr a gm en t a r y r em ed ia l m ea s u r es. Ba s ed on m y r ecen t r es ea r ch a n d t h in k in g on s ch ool effect iven es s a n d s ch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t (Ch en g, 1996a , 1996ool-b, 1996d , 1997a ), a fr a m ewor k ca n b e p r op os ed for d evelop in g a n ew k n ow led ge b a s e of s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d in t er n a l p r ocess for en gin eer in g sch ools in b ot h H on g Kon g a n d in t er n a t ion a l con t ext s.

T h is fr a m ewor k is com p os ed of t wo s u b -fr a m ewor k s: k n ow led ge -fr a m ewor k of m u lt i-p le sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d k n ow led ge fr a m e-wor k of in t er n a l p r ocess. T h ey a r e exp la in ed in t h e follow in g p a r t s of t h e p a p er.

Knowledge framework of multiple

school functions

Bor r ow in g t h e k n ow led ge fr om d iscip lin es s u ch a s p sych ology, s ociology, p olit ica l s cien ce, econ om ics, fu t u r ism , a n d or ga n iza -t ion a l s-t u d ies, -t h e p o-t en -t ia l sch ool fu n c-t ion s m ay b e cla ss ifi ed in t o fi ve t y p es, p a r t icu la r ly in t h e n ew cen t u r y : t ech n ica l/ econ om ic fu n t ion s, h u m a n / socia l fu n ct ion s, p olit ica l fu n c-t ion s, cu lc-t u r a l fu n cc-t ion s, a n d ed u ca c-t ion a l fu n ct ion s, a t t h e in d iv id u a l, in st it u t ion a l, com m u n it y, societ a l, a n d in t er n a t ion a l levels, a s s h ow n in Ta ble I ( Ch en g, 1996a ).

New knowledge of technical/ economic functions

In p la n n in g sch ool r efor m , w e n eed t h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t w h a t sch ools ca n con t r ibu t e t o t h e t ech n ica l or econ om ic d evelop m en t s a n d n eed s a t d iffer en t levels. We ca n exp ect s ch ools t o h elp st u d en t s t o a cq u ir e k n ow led ge a n d s k ills n ecessa r y t o s u r v ive a n d com p et e in a com p et it ive econ om y, a n d p r ov id e s t a ff w it h job t r a in in g a n d op p or t u n it y. Sch ools a r e s er v ice or ga n iza t ion s p r ov id in g q u a lit y s er v ice; a ls o t h ey s er ve a s a life p la ce or wor k p la ce for s t a ff a n d a ll t h os e con cer n ed . Also, s ch ools s er ve t h e econ om ic or in s t r u m en t a l n eed s of t h e loca l com m u n it y, s u p p ly q u a lit y

la b or for ces t o t h e econ om ic sy st em , m od ify or sh a p e econ om ic b eh av ior s of st u d en t s (McM a h on , 1987), a n d con t r ibu t e t o t h e d evel-op m en t a n d st a b ilit y of t h e m a n p ow er st r u c-t u r e of c-t h e econ om y (H in ch cliffe, 1987). Ac-t c-t h e in t er n a t ion a l level, s ch ool ed u ca t ion su p p lies t h e h igh q u a lit y for ces n ecessa r y in in t er n a -t ion a l com p e-t i-t ion s, econ om ic coop er a -t ion , ea r t h p r ot ect ion , a n d t ech n ology a n d in for -m a t ion exch a n ge.

New knowledge of human/ social functions We n eed t h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t t h e con t r i-bu t ion of s ch ools t o h u m a n d evelop m en t s a n d socia l r ela t ion sh ip s a t d iffer en t levels of soci-et y. Sch ools ca n b e exp ect ed t o h elp st u d en t s t o d evelop t h em selves p s ych ologica lly, socia lly, a n d p h y sica lly, a n d h elp t h em d evelop t h eir p ot en t ia l a s fu lly a s p ossible. A sch ool is a socia l en t it y or socia l sy st em com -p osed of d iffer en t h u m a n r ela t ion sh i-p s. Also sch ools s er ve t h e socia l fu n ct ion s of t h e loca l com m u n it y, su p p or t socia l in t e gr a t ion of m u lt ip le a n d d iver s e con st it u en cies of societ y, fa cilit a t e socia l m ob ilit y w it h in t h e exist in g cla s s st r u ct u r e, select a n d a lloca t e com p et en t p eop le t o a p p r op r ia t e r oles a n d p osit ion s, a n d con t r ibu t e t o socia l ch a n ge a n d d evelop m en t in t h e lon g r u n (Ch en g, 1995). It is p ossible t h a t sch ools r e p r od u ce t h e exist in g socia l cla s s st r u ct u r e a n d p er p et u a t e socia l in eq u a l-it y (Bla ck led ge a n d H u n t , 1985). Du e t o t h e gr ow in g glob a l con sciou sn ess (Bea r e a n d Sla u gh t er, 1993), sch ools a r e exp ect ed t o p lay a n im p or t a n t r ole in p r e p a r in g st u d en t s for in t er n a t ion a l h a r m on y, socia l coop er a t ion , glob a l h u m a n r ela t ion sh ip, a n d elim in a t ion of n a t ion a l, r e gion a l, r a cia l, a n d gen d er b ia ses a t t h e in t er n a t ion a l level.

New knowledge of political functions T h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t t h e con t r ibu t ion of sch ools t o t h e p olit ica l d evelop m en t s a t d iffer -en t levels of societ y is a ls o n ecessa r y in t h e for m u la t ion of sch ool r efor m p olicy. Sch ools a r e exp ect ed t o h elp st u d en t s t o d evelop p osi-t ive civ ic a osi-t osi-t iosi-t u d es a n d sk ills osi-t o exer cise osi-t h e r igh t s a n d r es p on sib ilit ies of cit izen sh ip. Sch ools a ct a s a p la ce for sy st em a t ica lly socia lizin g st u d en t s in t o a s et of p olit ica l n or m s, va lu es a n d b eliefs, or for cr it ica lly d iscu ssin g a n d r efl ect in g on t h e exist in g p olit ica l even t s. Sch ools p lay a n im p or t a n t r ole t o ser ve t h e p olit ica l n eed s of t h e loca l com m u n it y a n d t h e societ y, le git im ize t h e a u t h or it y of t h e exist in g gover n m en t , m a in -t a in -t h e s-t a b ili-t y of p oli-t ica l s-t r u c-t u r e, p r o-m ot e aw a r en ess a n d o-m oveo-m en t of d eo-m ocr a cy, a n d fa cilit a t e t h e p la n n ed p olit ica l d evelop m en t s a n d ch a n ges (T h om a s, 1983). T h e gr ow -in g aw a r en ess of -in t er n a t ion a l d e p en d en ce r ein for ces t h e n eed for t h e con t r ibu t ion of

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Table I

Kno wle dge frame wo rk o f multiple sc ho o l func tio ns

Knowledge of technical/ Knowledge of human/ Knowledge of Knowledge of cultural Knowledge of educational

economic functions social functions political functions functions functions

Individual (students, • Knowledge and skills training • Psyc hologic al developments • Development of c ivic attitudes • Ac c ulturation • Learning how to learn

staff, etc.) • Career training • Soc ial developments and skills • Soc ialization with values, and develop

• Job for staff • Potential developments norms, and beliefs • Learning how to teac h and help

• Professional development

Institutional • As a life plac e • As a soc ial entity/ system • As a plac e for politic al • As a c entre for c ultural • As a plac e for learning • As a work plac e • As a human relationship soc ialization transmission and and teac hing • As a servic e organization • As a politic al c oalition reproduc tion • As a c entre for

• As a plac e for politic al disc ourse • As a plac e for c ultural disseminating knowledge or c ritic ism re-vitalization and integration • As a c entre for educ ational

c hanges and developments

Community • Serving the ec onomic or • Serving the soc ial needs of • Serving the politic al needs • Serving the c ultural needs • Serving the educ ational instrumental needs of the the c ommunity of the c ommunity of the c ommunity needs of the c ommunity c ommunity

Society • Provision of quality labor • Soc ial integration • Politic al legitimization • Cultural integration and c ontinuity • Development of the forc es • Soc ial mobility/ soc ial c lass • Politic al struc ture • Cultural reproduc tion educ ation professions • Modific ation of ec onomic perpetuation maintenanc e and c ontinuity • Produc tion of c ultural c apital • Development of educ ation

behavior • Soc ial equality • Democ rac y promotion • Cultural revitalization struc tures

• Contribution to the • Selec tion and alloc ation • Fac ilitating politic al developments • Dissemination of knowledge manpower struc ture of human resourc es and reforms and information

• Soc ial development and c hange • Learning soc iety

International • International c ompetition • Global village • International c oalition • Apprec iation of c ultural diversity • Development of global • Ec onomic c ooperation • International friendship • International understanding • Cultural ac c eptanc e ac ross educ ation

• International trade • Soc ial c ooperation • Peac e/ against war c ountries/ regions • International educ ation • Tec hnology exc hange • International exc hanges • Common interests • Development of global c ulture exc hanges and c ooperation • Earth protec tion • Elimination of national/ • Elimination of c onflic ts • Educ ation for the whole • Sharing information regional/ rac ial/ gender biases world

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s ch ool ed u ca t ion t o in t er n a t ion a l u n d er st a n d in g, glob a l com m on in t er es t , in t er n a t ion a l coa lit ion s, p ea ce m ovem en t s a ga in s t w a r, a n d elim in a t ion of con fl ict s b et w een r e gion s a n d n a t ion s.

New knowledge of cultural functions Th e sch ool r e-en gin eer in g n eeds t h e n ew k n ow ledge of t h e con t r ibu t ion of sch ools t o t h e cu lt u r a l t r a n sm ission a n d developm en t a t differ en t levels of societ y. Sch ools a r e expect ed t o h elp st u den t s t o develop t h eir cr ea t ivit y a n d a est h et ic aw a r en ess a n d t o be socia lized w it h t h e su ccessfu l n or m s, va lu es, a n d beliefs of societ y. Sch ools a ct a s a pla ce for syst em a t ic cu lt u r a l t r a n sm ission t o a n d r epr odu ct ion of t h e n ext gen er a t ion , cu lt u r a l in t e gr a t ion a m on g t h e m u lt iple a n d diver se con st it u en -cies, a n d cu lt u r a l r e-vit a liza t ion fr om t h e ou t da t ed poor t r a dit ion s. Also sch ools oft en ser ve a s a cu lt u r a l u n it ca r r yin g t h e explicit n or m s a n d expect a t ion s of t h e loca l com m u -n it y, t r a -n sm it a ll t h e im por t a -n t va lu es a -n d a r t ifa ct s of t h e societ y t o st u den t s, in t e gr a te t h e diver se su bcu lt u r es fr om differ en t ba ck -gr ou n d, a n d r evit a lize t h e st r en gt h s of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e. Bu t it is a lso possible t h a t sch ools r epr odu ce a n d per pet u a t e cu lt u r a l in equ a lit y w it h in t h e societ y (Apple, 1982; Ch en g, 1995; Collin s, 1971; Gir ou x, 1981). Sch ools ca n be expect ed t o en cou r a ge a ppr eci-a t ion of cu lt u r eci-a l diver sit y eci-a n d eci-a cce pt eci-a n ce of differ en t n or m s, t r a dit ion s, va lu es, a n d beliefs in differ en t cou n t r ies a n d r e gion s, a n d fi n a lly con t r ibu t e t o t h e developm en t of globa l cu l-t u r e l-t h r ou gh in l-t e gr a l-t ion of differ en l-t cu ll-t u r es.

New knowledge of education functions T r a d it ion a lly, sch ools a r e a s s u m ed t o p lay t h e m a jor r ole a s ed u ca t ion p r ov id er. In ev it a b ly, t h e n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t t h e con t r ibu t ion of s ch ools t o t h e d evelop m en t a n d m a in t en a n ce of ed u ca t ion a t t h e d iffer en t levels of societ y is n ecess a r y for s ch ool r efor m . Du e t o t h e r a p id d evelop m en t a n d ch a n ge in n ea r ly ever y a s p ect of t h e wor ld , p eop le b e gin t o a cce p t ed u ca t ion in it self a s a n im p or t a n t va lu e or goa l (Ch a p m a n , 1996). Sch ools a r e exp ect ed t o h elp st u d en t s t o lea r n h ow t o lea r n a n d h elp t ea ch er s t o lea r n h ow t o t ea ch . Also, fa cilit a t in g t ea ch er s' p r ofes sion a l d evel-op m en t is on e of t h e k ey ed u ca t ion fu n ct ion s. Sch ools s er ve a s a p la ce for s y s t em a t ic lea r n -in g, t ea ch -in g, a n d d is s em -in a t -in g k n ow led ge, a n d a s a cen t r e for s y s t em a t ica lly exp er i-m en t in g a n d ii-m p lei-m en t in g ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ges a n d d evelop m en t s (Cou sin s, 1996). Sch ools p r ov id e s er v ice for d iffer en t ed u ca -t ion a l n eed s of -t h e loca l com m u n i-t y, fa cili-t a -t e d evelop m en t s of ed u ca t ion p r ofes sion s a n d ed u ca t ion st r u ct u r es, d iss em in a t e k n ow led ge a n d in for m a t ion t o t h e n ext gen er a t ion , a n d

con t r ibu t e t o t h e for m a t ion of a lea r n in g societ y. In or d er t o en cou r a ge m u t u a l u n d er -st a n d in g a m on g n a t ion s a n d bu ild u p “a glob a l fa m ily ” for t h e you n ger gen er a t ion , sch ools ca n con t r ibu t e t o t h e d evelop m en t of glob a l ed u ca t ion , in t er n a t ion a l exch a n ge a n d coop er a t ion in ed u ca t ion .

Knowledge of long-term and short-term functions

In for m u la t in g policy on sch ool r efor m , we n eed t o k n ow wh a t t im e spa n t o be u sed in con sider in g sch ool fu n ct ion s. T h e a bove sch ool fu n ct ion s m ay be fu r t h er divided in t o t wo t ypes: lon g-t er m fu n ct ion s a n d sh or t -t er m fu n ct ion s. Lon g-t er m fu n ct ion s r efer t o t h e con t r ibu t ion s or effect s of sch ools t h a t h a ppen a n d con t in u e in a lon g t im e (e.g., m or e t h a n a few yea r s). T h ese fu n ct ion s a r e oft en ver y im por t a n t even t h ou gh t h ey m ay n ot be so obviou s t o people’s per cept ion . Sh or t -t er m fu n ct ion s r efer t o t h ose con t r ibu t ion s or effect s of sch ools t h a t occu r explicit ly in a sh or t t im e (e.g., a few m on t h s or less t h a n a few yea r s). In gen er a l, for ea ch t ype of t h e t ech n ica l/ econ om ic, h u m a n / socia l, polit ica l, cu lt u r a l, edu ca t ion a l fu n ct ion s, t h er e m ay exist bot h lon g-t er m a n d sh or t -t er m fu n ct ion s. Th e k n ow ledge of bot h lon gt er m a n d sh or t -t er m sch ool fu n c-t ion s a n d -t h eir r ela -t ion s, pa r t icu la r ly in a ch a n gin g en vir on m en t , is n ecessa r y in con sider in g t h e pr ior it ies, st r a te-gies a n d policies for sch ool r efor m s.

Knowledge about diverse emphasis on school functions

To d iffer en t p eop le or con st it u en cies, t h e exp ect a t ion s of sch ool fu n ct ion s a r e oft en d iffer en t a n d d iver se. Som e p eop le m ay b e m or e con cer n ed w it h t h e t ech n ica l a n d eco-n om ic fu eco-n ct ioeco-n s bu t ot h er s m or e w it h t h e p olit ica l fu n ct ion s. Som e p eop le m ay p ay a t t en t ion t o t h e fu n ct ion s a t t h e in d iv id u a l levels bu t ot h er s m ay focu s m or e on t h e fu n c-t ion s a c-t c-t h e com m u n ic-t y level or sociec-t y level. E ven t h ou gh in t h e p a st yea r s sch ool fu n c-t ion s a c-t c-t h e in c-t er n a c-t ion a l level m igh c-t n oc-t a t t r a ct m u ch a t t en t ion , t h er e seem s t o b e a gr ow in g con cer n a b ou t it in r ecen t yea r s (Bea r e a n d Sla u gh t er, 1993). T h e u n d er st a n d -in g of t h e d iver se em p h a ses on sch ool fu n c-t ion s a m on g sch ool sc-t a k eh old er s ca n p r ov id e a k n ow led ge b a se n ecessa r y for d evelop in g st r a t e gies a n d p olicies t o m a n a ge t h e p ot en -t ia l con fl ic-t s a n d d ilem m a s fr om d iver se in t er est s a n d t h e p ot en t ia l r es ist a n ces fr om d iver s e con st it u en cies in sch ool r efor m s.

Interdisciplinary knowledge about school functions

To d iffer en t a ca d em ic d iscip lin es, t h e em p h a -sis on t y p es a n d levels of sch ool fu n ct ion s

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m ay b e d iffer en t , t oo. For exa m p le, s ch ool fu n ct ion s a t t h e in d iv id u a l level m ay r eceive m or e a t t en t ion in ed u ca t ion a l p s ych ology. For sociology of ed u ca t ion , sch ool fu n ct ion s a t t h e s ociet y level, p a r t icu la r ly t h os e r ela t ed t o socia l m ob ilit y, eq u a lit y a n d cla s s s t r a t ifi ca -t ion , m ay a -t -t r a c-t m or e con cer n . Obv iou s ly, econ om ics of ed u ca t ion oft en focu ses on t h e econ om ic fu n ct ion s of sch ools a t d iffer en t levels. In t h e fi eld of sch ool m a n a gem en t or or ga n iza t ion a l b eh av ior, s ch ool fu n ct ion s a t t h e in st it u t ion a l level a r e in ev it a b ly t h e m a jor t op ic for sch ool r efor m . Obv iou s ly, d iffer en t a ca d em ic d iscip lin es h ave d iffer en t foci w h en t h ey a r e u sed t o s u p p or t p olicy for m u la t ion for s ch ool r efor m . In or d er t o a ch ieve a com p r eh en sive k n ow led ge b a s e for u n d er s t a n d in g m u lt ip le s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d su p p or t in g p olicy m a k in g on s ch ool r es t r u c-t u r in g, a n in c-t er d iscip lin a r y a p p r oa ch , if n oc-t m u lt ip le d is cip lin es, s h ou ld b e en cou r a ged t o d evelop k n ow led ge.

New knowledge of multiple school effectiveness and their relations In gen er a l, sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g a im s a t en h a n cin g sch ool effect iven es s for a ch iev in g exp ect ed s ch ool fu n ct ion s. T h e con ce p t a n d k n ow led ge of sch ool effect iven es s a r e r ea lly im p or t a n t t o t h e p olicy for m u la t ion on sch ool r efor m . F r om t h e a b ove s ch ool fu n ct ion s, w e m ay d efi n e s ch ool effect iven es s a s t h e ca p a c-it y of t h e s ch ool t o m a xim ize s ch ool fu n ct ion s or t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h e sch ool ca n p er for m sch ool fu n ct ion s, w h en given a fi xed a m ou n t of sch ool in p u t . Sin ce t h er e a r e fi ve t y p es of sch ool fu n ct ion s, sch ool effect iven es s m ay b e fu r t h er cla s s ifi ed in t o fi ve t y p es: t ech n ica l/ econ om ic effect iven es s, h u m a n / socia l effec-t iven es s, p olieffec-t ica l effeceffec-t iven es s, cu leffec-t u r a l effect iven es s, a n d ed u ca t ion a l effect iven es s. F u r t h er m or e, sin ce t h er e a r e fi ve levels of sch ool fu n ct ion s, sch ool effect iven es s m ay b e cla s sifi ed in t o fi ve levels: s ch ool effect iven ess a t t h e in d iv id u a l level, a t t h e in st it u t ion a l level, a t t h e com m u n it y level, a t t h e s ociet y level, a n d a t t h e in t er n a t ion a l level.

F r om a n in p u t -ou t p u t p er sp ect ive, w h en t h e d is cu ss ion is m a in ly in t er m s of n on -m on et a r y in p u et s or p r ocess es (e.g., n u m b er of et exet b ook s, cla s s r oom or ga n iza t ion , et c.), t h e com -p a r is on of ou t -p u t fu n ct ion t o n on -m on et a r y in p u t (or p r ocess) m ay b e ca lled “s ch ool effec-t iven es s”. If effec-t h e d iscu ssion is m a in ly in effec-t er m s of m on et a r y in p u t (e.g., 3000 d olla r s in p u t p er st u d en t , cost of b ook s, s a la r y, et c.), t h en t h e com p a r is on b et w een sch ool ou t p u t fu n ct ion a n d m on et a r y in p u t m ay b e ca lled “s ch ool efficien cy ”.

It is im p or t a n t t o p oin t ou t t h a t t h e r ela t ion -sh ip b et w een t h e fi ve t y p es of sch ool effect ive-n es s, b et w eeive-n t h e fi ve levels of sch ool

effect iven ess, a n d even b et w een effect iven ess a n d efficien cy, m ay b e ver y com p lica t ed , a n d n ot n ecess a r ily p osit ive. A s ch ool’s h igh t ech -n ica l effect ive-n ess a t t h e i-n d iv id u a l level d oes n ot n ecess a r ily p r om is e h igh t ech n ica l effec-t iven ess or socia l effeceffec-t iven ess a effec-t effec-t h e socieeffec-t y level, a lt h ou gh p eop le oft en a ss u m e t h e exis-t en ce of su ch a p osiexis-t ive r ela exis-t ion sh ip (Gr osin , 1994). F u r t h er m or e, m a n y s t u d ies fr om r a d i-ca l p er sp ect ives ch a llen ge t h e t r a d it ion a l b elief of sch ools’ “p os it ive” fu n ct ion s on socia l eq u a liza t ion by p oin t in g ou t t h a t sch ools d o n ot p r om ot e socia l eq u a lit y bu t p r ob a bly ca r r y on t h e in eq u a lit y of s ocia l cla ss (Bla ck led ge a n d H u n t , 1985; Ch en g, 1995). T h er efor e, even t h ou gh s ch ools h ave h igh er t ech n ica l effect iven ess a t t h e in st it u -t ion a l level, -t h ey d o n o-t n ecessa r ily h ave -t h e effect iven ess of p r om ot in g socia l eq u a lit y a s exp ect ed . To a gr ea t ext en t , t h e r ela t ion sh ip of t ech n ica l effect iven ess t o socia l effect ive-n ess or cu lt u r a l effect iveive-n ess is ver y coive-n t r o-ver sia l in t h e fi eld of s ociology of ed u ca t ion . Also, t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t ech n ica l effect iven ess a n d t ech n ica l efficien cy m ay n ot b e sim p le. It is oft en a h ot t op ic for r esea r ch in t h e fi eld of econ om ics of ed u ca t ion (Ch en g a n d N g, 1992; P sa ch a r op ou los, 1987).

In gen er a l, en h a n cem en t of on e t y p e of sch ool effect iven ess d oes n ot n ecess a r ily p r om ise in cr ea se in t h e ot h er fou r t y p es. Sim ila r ly, in cr ea sin g sch ool effect iven ess a t on e level d oes n ot cer t a in ly r esu lt in im p r ove-m en t of effect iven ess a t t h e ot h er levels. T h er e is a la ck of exis t in g st u d ies con cer n in g t h e in t er -effect iven ess r ela t ion sh ip s. In or d er t o d evelop effect ive p olicy for sch ool r est r u c-t u r in g, c-t h er e is a n u r gen c-t n eed c-t o d evelop a n ew k n ow led ge b a se a b ou t t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een d iffer en t s ch ool effect iven ess.

Shift to a new knowledge base on school functions

F r om t h e a b ove con ce p t ion of sch ool effec-t iven es s for m u leffec-t i-fu n ceffec-t ion s a effec-t m u leffec-t i-levels, a sh ift t o a n ew k n ow led ge b a se on sch ool fu n c-t ion s p r op osed for con sid er a c-t ion in fu c-t u r e r esea r ch , p olicy -m a k in g a n d p r a ct ice ca n b e su m m a r ized in Ta ble II.

T r a d it ion a lly, t h e d is cu ss ion of sch ool r est r u ct u r in g is oft en b a sed on t h e s im p list ic con ce p t ion of sch ool fu n ct ion s, in volv in g t ech n ica l/ econ om ic effect iven ess a n d socia l effect iven es s a t t h e in d iv id u a l or

in st it u t ion a l levels on ly. N e glect in g t h e m u lt i-p licit y a n d com i-p lexit y of s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect iven ess in ev it a b ly set s a gr ea t lim i-t a i-t ion for s ch ool r es i-t r u ci-t u r in g. T h er efor e, in t h e com in g s ch ool r efor m s, w e s h ou ld n eed a n ew k n ow led ge b a se on a w id er sp ect r u m of sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect iven ess, in clu d in g t ech n ica l/ econ om ic, h u m a n / socia l, p olit ica l,

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cu lt u r a l a n d ed u ca t ion a l d im en s ion s. Als o, n ot on ly t h e is su es a t t h e in d iv id u a l a n d in s t i-t u i-t ion a l levels a r e s i-t r on gly em p h a s ized , bu i-t t h ose a t t h e com m u n it y, s ociet y a n d in t er n a t ion a l levels s h ou ld r eceive su fficien t a t t en -t ion . T r a d i-t ion a lly, -t h e s h or -t --t er m effec-t ive-n es s is oft eive-n t h e m a jor focu s of sch ool r efor m s. In t h e n ew k n ow led ge b a s e, b ot h t h e s h or t -t er m a n d lon g-t er m effect s of s ch ool s h ou ld b e im p or t a n t for s ch ool r efor m s.

In t h e t r a d it ion a l k n ow led ge b a s e, p eop le u su a lly em p h a s ize m a in ly t h e t ech n ica l/ econ om ic or h u m a n / socia l effect iven es s a n d a s s u m e n o b ig d iffer en ce in exp ect a t ion s of d iffer en t con s t it u en cies a t d iffer en t levels

(e.g., p a r en t s, st u d en t s, t ea ch er s, a d m in ist r a -t or s, com m u n i-t y, econ om ic s ec-t or, socia l ser v ice sect or, p olicy -m a k er s, t h e p u blic, et c.). T h ey h ave ign or ed t h e p ot en t ia l d ilem m a s fr om d iffer en ces in t h e con st it u en cies’ exp ec-t a ec-t ion s on effecec-t iven ess. If w e a gr ee ec-t h a ec-t sch ools h ave m u lt ifu n ct ion s a n d t h e con -st it u en cies a t d iffer en t levels h ave d iver se exp ect a t ion s, w h a t k in d of m a n a gem en t sh ou ld w e em p loy t o en h a n ce s ch ool effect ive-n ess? T h e st u dy a ive-n d m a ive-n a gem eive-n t of t h ese d ilem m a s sh ou ld b e on e of t h e k ey con cer n s in cu r r en t m ovem en t s of s ch ool r efor m s. Obv iou sly, h ow t o d ecr ea se t h ese d ilem m a s a n d a llow s ch ools a cq u ir e t h e gr ea t est Table II

Ne w kno wle dge frame wo rk and traditio nal kno wle dge frame wo rk o f sc ho o l e ffe c tive ne ss in sc ho o l re fo rms

New knowledge framework on school Traditional knowledge framework on function and effectiveness school function and effectiveness Nature of • Based on multiple c onc eption of sc hool • Biased on simplistic c onc eption of school functions func tions: tec hnic al, soc ial, politic al, sc hool func tions, partic ularly on and effectiveness c ultural and educ ational tec hnic al and soc ial func tions only

• Conc eption at five levels: individual, • Conc eption only at one to two levels, institutional, c ommunity, soc iety and partic ularly at the individual or

international institutional levels

• Both short-term and long-term c onsiderations • Mainly short-term c onsideration Expectation of • To different c onstituenc ies, different types • Emphasizing mainly tec hnic al or soc ial school of sc hool effec tiveness are expec ted effec tiveness, assuming no big

effectiveness • Dilemmas exist differenc es in expec tations

• Dilemmas are ignored

Assumption about • Complic ated relationships between types • Positive relationships between types relationships • Complic ated relationships between levels • Positive relationships between levels

• Complic ated relationships between • Positive relationships between effec tiveness and effic ienc y effec tiveness and effic ienc y • Between-relationships not nec essarily • No strong need to study and manage

positive, need to be studied and managed between-relationships Disciplinary • Interdisc iplinary c ooperation and • Mainly single disc ipline is used;

knowledge to be efforts are needed separate efforts are made

used in reform

Focus of school • Multi-types of effec tiveness • Separate/ single type of effec tiveness reform effort • Multi-levels of effec tiveness • Separate/ single level of effec tiveness

• Relationships between types • Relationships between levels

· • Relationships between effec tiveness

and effic ienc y

Implications for • To maximize effec tiveness in • Mainly to maximize effec tiveness in management and multi-types at multi-levels separate types at single level

policy in school • To maximize effic ienc y in multi-types • Mainly to maximize effic ienc y in separate

reform at multi-levels types at single level

• Need to ensure c ongruenc e between • No need to ensure c ongruenc e between

types and between levels types and levels

· • Need to ensure c ongruenc e between • No need to ensure c ongruenc e between effec tiveness and effic ienc y effec tiveness and effic ienc y

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con gr u en ce b et w een levels a n d b et w een ca t e-gor ies of effect iven ess is a cr u cia l iss u e in t h is n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k .

T h e t r a d it ion a l k n ow led ge b a s e oft en a s su m es t h a t t h er e is a p os it ive r ela t ion sh ip b et w een ca t e gor ies of effect iven es s, b et w een levels of effect iven ess, or b et w een effect ive-n es s a ive-n d efficieive-n cy, a ive-n d it is ive-n ot ive-n ecess a r y t o m a n a ge t h ese in t er -r ela t ion sh ip s in t h e p r oces s of p olicy m a k in g a n d sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g. As w e h ave d iscu s s ed , ct h is a ss u m p t ion is ver y p r oblem a t ic. T h e in t er r ela t ion sh ip s m ay b e ver y com p lica t ed , n ot n ecess a r -ily p os it ive. T h e in cr ea sed s ch ool effect ive-n es s iive-n oive-n e ca t e gor y d oes ive-n ot p r om is e t h e ot h er. T h er efor e in t h e n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k , it is im p or t a n t t o s t u dy t h es e in t er -r ela t ion s h ip s if w e w a n t t o m a k e s en sible effor t s in p u r su in g sch ool effect iven es s. T r a -d it ion a lly, sch ool r efor m m ay in volve m a in ly on e s in gle d iscip lin e (e.g., ed u ca t ion a l p s y -ch ology ), or d e p en d on s e p a r a t e effor t of ea -ch d is cip lin e. Obv iou sly it is n ot s u fficien t for u n d er s t a n d in g t h e com p lexit y of s ch ool fu n c-t ion a n d effecc-t iven es s a n d s u p p or c-t in g p olicy for m u la t ion on sch ool r es t r u ct u r in g. In t h e n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k , w e sh ou ld en cou r a ge in t er -d is cip lin a r y coop er a t ion (e.g., in volv in g ed u ca t ion a l p s ych ology, eco-n om ics of ed u ca t ioeco-n , sociology of ed u ca t ioeco-n , a n t h r op ology, or ga n iza t ion a l t h eor ies, et c.) a n d effor t s t o u n d er s t a n d in g a n d en h a n cin g sch ool effect iven es s. T h e focu s of sch ool r efor m s sh ou ld in clu d e m u lt i-ca t e gor ies of effect iven es s a t m u lt i-levels, r ela t ion sh ip b et w een ca t e gor ies, r ela t ion sh ip b et w een levels, a n d r ela t ion sh ip b et w een effect iven es s a n d efficien cy. Mea n w h ile, w e n eed t o d evelop a com p r eh en sive t h eor y t o exp la in ea ch in t er -r ela t ion s h ip a n d p -r ov id e p -r a ct ica l gu id elin es for t h e en h a n cem en t of s ch ool effect iven es s.

In t h e t r a d it ion a l k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k , on ly s om e ca t e gor ies of s ch ool effect iven es s or efficien cy a t on e or t wo levels a r e s t r es s ed , t h e r est a r e n e glect ed , a n d lit t le is k n ow n a b ou t t h e im p or t a n ce of in t er level con gr u -en ce a n d t h e con gr u -en ce b et w e-en effect ive-n es s a ive-n d efficieive-n cy. N o woive-n d er m a ive-n y p olicy effor t s s eem n ot t o b e s o su cces sfu l for en h a n cin g sch ool effect iven es s, bu t r a t h er en d in fa ilu r e. Wh en w e u n d er st a n d t h a t t h er e is a m u lt ip licit y in sch ool effect iven es s, t h e fu t u r e d ir ect ion for s ch ool r e-en gin eer in g sh ou ld a im t o m a xim ize s ch ool effect iven es s a n d efficien cy of m u lt ca t e gor ies a t m u lt i-levels. H ow t o en su r e con gr u en ce a m on g ca t e gor ies, levels, a n d b et w een effect iven es s a n d efficien cy, h ow t o en h a n ce t h e over a ll sch ool effect iven es s a t a ll levels w it h ou t st r ess in g a p a r t icu la r ca t e gor y, a n d h ow t o solve t h e d ilem m a s fr om t h e d iffer en t exp ec-t a ec-t ion s of va r iou s con sec-t iec-t u en cies s h ou ld b e

cr it ica l issu es in t h e cu r r en t m ovem en t s of sch ool r efor m s for fu r t h er in vest iga t ion in t h e n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k .

Knowledge framework of internal

school process

As m en t ion ed p r ev iou sly, “H ow ca n t h e in t er -n a l sch ool p r oces s b e r e-e-n gi-n eer ed so t h a t t h e sch ool a s a w h ole ca n p lay t h e a b ove m en -t ion ed fu n c-t ion s a n d r oles?” is a n o-t h er b a sic q u est ion in t h e for m u la t ion a n d im p lem en t a -t ion of s ch ool r efor m p olicy. T h e a n sw er -t o t h is q u est ion n eed s a n ew k n ow led ge b a se a b ou t t h e in t er n a l sch ool p r oces s t h a t ca n in for m h ow a sch ool ca n m a xim ize t h e u se of in t er n a l r esou r ces t o a ch ieve op t im a l con d it ion s for op er a it ion a n d con it in u ou s d evelop -m en t in -m a n a ge-m en t , t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a n d h ow a sch ool ca n r ecogn ize t h e m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect iven ess a n d su c-cess fu lly m ob ilize a ll p oss ible effor t s t o a ch ieve t h em in su ch a ch a n gin g en v ir on -m en t p a r t icu la r ly in t h e n ew cen t u r y. T h er e is a n eed for k n ow led ge a b ou t h ow sch ools ca n con t in u ou sly d evelop t h em selves, p u r su e w id e a n d n ew sch ool fu n ct ion s, a n d en h a n ce effect iven ess t o ser ve t h e n eed s of d evelop -m en t of in d iv id u a ls, loca l co-m -m u n it y, societ y, a n d in t er n a t ion a l com m u n it ies.

In t e gr a t in g m y r ecen t r esea r ch a n d t h in k -in g on s ch ool effect iven ess a n d sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t (Ch en g, 1996a , 1996b, 1996d , 1997a ), t h e follow in g n ew k n ow led ge fr a m e-wor k of in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess ca n b e p r o-p osed t o gu id e sch ool r e-en gin eer in g, fr om w h ich sch ools in H on g Kon g a n d ot h er con -t ex-t s ca n fa cili-t a -t e con -t in u ou s lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en t of st u d en t s, st a ff a n d

t h em s elves, in cr ea se su p p or t of p a r en t s a n d com m u n it y, im p r ove t ech n ology in ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t , a n d p u r su e n ew fu n ct ion s a n d m ea n in gs m or e effect ively in t h e r a p id ly ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t .

T h is n ew k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k of in t er n a l sch ool p r ocess in clu d es t h e follow in g t y p es of k n ow led ge, a s su m m a r ized in Ta ble III: 1 Kn ow led ge of s ch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t 2 Kn ow led ge of s ch ool h ea lt h y fu n ct ion in g

p r ofi le

3 Kn ow led ge of s t r a t e gic m a n a gem en t 4 Kn ow led ge of m u lt i-level self m a n a gem en t

in sch ool

5 Kn ow led ge of dy n a m ic p r oces s 6 Kn ow led ge of layer m a n a gem en t 7 Kn ow led ge of con gr u en ce in sch ool 8 Kn ow led ge of t ot a l h om es ch ool colla b or a

-t ion a n d com m u n i-t y su p p or -t

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Table III

A kno wle dge frame wo rk o f inte rnal sc ho o l pro c e ss fo r re -e ngine e ring sc ho o ls

The new knowledge framework Key elements to be achieved of internal school process in school re-engineering

1. Knowledge of • Princ iple of equifinality • Sc hool autonomy and self-initiative school-based • Princ iple of dec entralization

management • Princ iple of self-managing system • Princ iple of human initiative

2 Knowledge of • A positive profile on: • Healthy and smooth sc hool func tioning healthy school – Sc hool mission

profile – Nature of sc hool ac tivities – Management strategies – Use of resourc es – Roles

– Human relations – Quality of administrator – Evaluation of effec tiveness • Monitoring educ ation quality in sc hool

3 Knowledge of • Inc luding c ritic al c omponents: • Continuous organizational learning and

strategic – Environmental analysis sc hool development

management – Planning and struc turing – Staffing and direc ting – Implementing

– Monitoring and evaluating – Partic ipation and leadership

• A c yc lic proc ess of c ontinuous learning, ac tion and development

4 Knowledge of • Sc hool self-management • Human initiative of individuals, groups, multi-level self- • Group self-management and the sc hool

management • Individual self-management

• Self-learning and development of individuals and groups

• Mutual influenc e and support among individuals, groups, and the sc hool

5 Knowledge of a • Awareness of unbalanc ed situation • Multiple effec tiveness on five sc hool dynamic process • Adaptability and flexibility to set up priority func tions

for multiple school • Maximizing effec tiveness on multiple effectiveness func tions in a long run

6 Knowledge of • Matrix of sc hool proc ess • Holistic sc hool educ ation and maximum layer • Layers: administrator, teac her and student opportunity for teac hing and learning management • Layer as c omprehensive unit

• Management, teac hing, and learning as holistic proc esses

• Development c yc les on layers

7 Knowledge of • Congruenc e in sc hool proc ess: • Reduc ing internal wastage, inc reasing congruence in – Ac ross ac tors, domains, and levels synergy and maximizing effec tiveness school process – Between-layer

– Within-layer

• Congruenc e in tec hnology: – Between-types

– Within-types • Congruenc e in c ulture:

– Between-types – Within-types

8 Knowledge of • Total parental involvement in sc hool • Provision of nec essary resourc es,

home-school educ ation ideas, and legitimac y in educ ation and

cooperation and • Total family educ ation as a strong partner management community support • Community support

9 Knowledge of • Shift to transformational leadership • Driving forc e for developing members transformational • Shift to multi-dimensions of leadership: and re-engineering sc hool

leadership struc tural, human, politic al, c ultural, and educ ational

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Knowledge of school-based management Sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t is on e of s a lien t wor ld -w id e ed u ca t ion r efor m s. Sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t m ea n s t h a t t h e s ch ool m a n a gem en t t a s k s a r e s et a ccor d in g t o t h e ch a r a ct er -is t ics a n d n eed s of t h e s ch ool it self a n d t h er e-for e sch ool m em b er s a n d s ch ools h ave a m u ch gr ea t er a u t on om y a n d r es p on s ib ilit y for t h e u s e of r es ou r ces t o solve p r oblem s a n d ca r r y ou t effect ive ed u ca t ion a ct iv it ies, for t h e lon g-t er m d evelop m en t of t h e s ch ool. Sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t a n d t r a d it ion a l ext er n a l con t r ol m a n a gem en t r efl ect d iffer en t m a n -a gem en t p r in cip les u sed by t h e cen t r -a l a u t h or it y t o m a n a ge t h e s ch ool sy s t em (Ca ld -w ell a n d Sp in k s, 1988; M u r p h y a n d Beck , 1995; Moh r m a n et a l., 1994). T h e m a jor d iffer en ces in k n ow led ge b a s e a b ou t ed u ca t ion a n d m a n -a gem en t -a r e s u m m -a r ized in T-a ble IV (Ch en g, 1993).

Assumptio ns abo ut e duc atio n

In s ch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t , ed u ca t ion a l goa ls a r e a s s u m ed a s m u lt ip le b a s ed on t h e exp ect a t ion s of m u lt ip le s ch ool con s t it u en -cies, a n d t h e ed u ca t ion a l en v ir on m en t is b elieved t o b e com p lex a n d ch a n gin g. T h er e-for e ed u ca t ion a l r ee-for m s or ch a n ges in s ch ool a r e in ev it a bly n eed ed t o a d a p t t o t h e ch a n gin g

en v ir on m en t , t o en h a n ce effect iven ess, a n d a ch ieve m u lt ip le ed u ca t ion a l goa ls. Princ iple o f e quifinality

Sch ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t is b a s ed on t h e p r in cip le of eq u ifi n a lit y, a ssu m in g t h a t t h er e m ay b e d iffer en t w ay s t o a ch ieve goa ls. F lexi-b ilit y is em p h a sized a n d sch ools h ave a m p le sp a ce t o m ove, d evelop a n d wor k ou t t h eir u n iq u e s t r a t e gies t o t ea ch a n d m a n a ge t h eir sch ools effect ively.

Princ iple o f de c e ntralizatio n

In t h e ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t , sch ool m a n a gem en t a n d t ea ch in g a ct iv it ies in ev it a bly h ave d ifficu lt ies a n d p r oblem s. T h er efor e, s u p p or t ed by t h e p r in cip le of d ecen t r a liza t ion , sch ools s h ou ld b e given t h e p ow er a n d r esp on sib ilit y t o solve p r oblem s effect ively w h er e t h e p r oblem s h a p p en a s soon a s p ossible a n d m a k e a gr ea t er con t r ibu t ion t o t h e effect iven ess of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n -in g a ct iv it ies.

Princ iple o f se lf-managing syste m

Wit h t h e su p p or t of t h e a b ove p r in cip les, it is n eces sa r y t o let sch ools b ecom e a self-m a n a g-in g sy st em u n d er s om e m a jor p olicies a n d st r u ct u r es, p oss essin g con sid er a ble a u t on om y t o d evelop t ea ch in g ob ject ives a n d m a n -a gem en t st r -a t e gies, d ist r ibu t e m -a n p ow er -a n d

Table IV

The kno wle dge base o f sc ho o l-base d manage me nt: ne w princ iple s

Knowledge base of Knowledge base of external

school-based management control management

Assumptions • Multiplic ity of educ ational goals • Unific ation of educ ational goals about • Complex and c hanging educ ational • Simple and nearly static educ ational

education environment environment

• Need for educ ational reforms • No need for educ ational reforms • Effec tiveness and adaptation-oriented • Standardization and stability-oriented

• Pursuit of quality • Pursuit of quantity

Principles used Princ iple of equifinality: Princ iple of standard struc ture: to manage • Many different ways to ac hieve goals • Standard methods and proc edures to

schools • Emphasizes flexibility ac hieve goals

• Emphasizes generalizability Princ iple of dec entralization: Princ iple of c entralization:

• Problems are inevitable, should be • Things big or small are c arefully c ontrolled solved at where they happen in time to avoid problems

• Looks for effic ienc y and problem-solving • Pursues proc edural c ontrol • Princ iple of self-managing system: Princ iple of implementing system:

• Self-managing • Externally c ontrolled

• Ac tively exploitative • Passively rec eptive

• Responsible • Not ac c ountable

Princ iple of human initiative: Princ iple of struc tural c ontrol: • Develops internal human resourc es • Enforc es external supervision • Wide partic ipation of sc hool members • Expansion of bureauc ratic system Source: Adapted from Cheng (1 9 9 3 )

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w it h in -t y p e con gr u en ce, a n d t h is m ay sh a p e t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r ocess in a con s is -t en -t p a -t -t er n a n d a ffec-t i-t s effec-t iven es s. In com in g ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s, t h e a b ove k n ow led ge of con gr u en ce in sch ool p r ocess, t ech n ology, a n d cu lt u r e, ca n p r ov id e a b a s ic gu id in g p r in cip le for r e-en gin eer in g sch ools a n d d ir ect in g in t er n a l sch ool a ct iv it ies of m a n a gem en t , t ea ch in g, a n d lea r n in g. In gen -er a l, t h e gr ea t -er t h e con gr u en ce in sch ool p r oces s, t ech n ology, a n d cu lt u r e, t h e gr ea t er t h e in t er n a l sy n er gy a n d effect iven es s.

Knowledge of total home-school cooperation and community support In fa cin g u n cer t a in t ies a n d ch a llen ges fr om t h e ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t a n d p u r s u in g n ew s ch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect ive-n ess, p a r eive-n t a l coop er a t ioive-n a ive-n d com m u ive-n it y su p p or t is n ecess a r y for ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s a n d s ch ool r een gin eer in g in t er m s of ed u ca -t ion , r es ou r ces, m a n a gem en -t , a n d le gi-t im a cy (Ch eu n g et a l., 1995). To con ce p t u a lize h om e-sch ool coop er a t ion a n d com m u n it y s u p p or t a n d effect ively d evelop t h em n eed s a n ew k n ow led ge b a se in t h is a r ea .

Accor d in g t o Ta m et a l. (1997), t h er e a r e t wo m ea n in gs t o t h e t ot a l h om es ch ool coop er a -t ion . F ir s -t , coop er a -t ion m ea n s -t h a -t -t h e fa m i-lies a r e in volved in s ch ool ed u ca t ion a n d s u p p or t t h e s ch ool t h r ou gh va r iou s m ea n s (Ch en g, 1991a ). On t h e ot h er h a n d , it a lso m ea n s t h a t t h e s ch ool em p ow er s or fa cilit a t es t h e fa m ilies t o s t r en gt h en t h eir fa m ily ed u ca -t ion a n d -t o p a r -t icip a -t e in s ch ool ed u ca -t ion . T h e k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k of t ot a l h om e-s ch ool coop er a t ion a n d com m u n it y e-s u p p or t ie-s illu st r a t ed in F igu r e 3.

T h e sch ool ed u ca t ion in clu d es a h olist ic ed u ca t ion p r ocess fr om t ea ch er / a d m in is t r a -t or layer -t o s -t u d en -t layer in volv in g -t h e a ffec-t ive, b eh av ior a l, a n d cogn iffec-t ive d om a in s a ffec-t ffec-t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p, a n d s ch ool levels ( F igu r e 3). In or d er t o fa cilit a t e s ch ool ed u ca t ion a n d m a xim ize it s effect iven es s, p a r en t s s h ou ld b e en cou r a ged t o b ecom e in volved in t h is h olis-t ic p r oces s. P a r en olis-t a l in volvem en olis-t in s ch ool ed u ca t ion m ay in clu d e fou r d iffer en t levels: p a r t icip a t ion in ed u ca t in g in d iv id u a l st u -d en t s, p a r t icip a t ion in p a r en t s or ga n iza t ion , p a r t icip a t ion in t h e d a ily op er a t ion s of t h e s ch ool, a n d p a r t icip a t ion in sch ool d ecision -m a k in g.

As s h ow n in F igu r e 3, fa m ily ed u ca t ion s h ou ld b e con ce p t u a lized a s t h e s t r on g p a r t -n er of s ch ool ed u ca t io-n , n volv n g a ls o m u lt i-levels a n d m u lt i-d om a in s. F a m ily ed u ca t ion a t t h e in d iv id u a l fa m ily level m ay in clu d e p a r en t s s u p er v isin g t h eir ow n ch ild r en in t h eir s t u d ies, sp en d in g t im e w it h t h em , lis -t en in g -t o w h a -t -t h ey -t h in k a n d feel, d evelop in g

a clos e r ela t ion sh ip, a n a ly zin g p r oblem s w it h t h em , d iscu ssin g fa m ily m a t t er s w it h t h em , a n d sh a r in g t h eir va lu es a n d b eliefs w it h t h em . F a m ily ed u ca t ion a t t h e gr ou p level m ay in clu d e fa m ilies w it h in t h e sa m e sch ool in t h e sa m e d ist r ict , or p a r en t s of st u d en t s of t h e sa m e cla ss or in t h e sa m e gr a d e, gr ou p in g t oget h er t o or ga n ize a ct iv it ies for ed u ca t in g ch ild r en . Som e exa m p les of t h ese a ct iv it ies m ay b e for m in g a su p p or t n et wor k , or ga n iz-in g st u dy gr ou p s, sem iz-in a r s a n d wor k sh op s, sh a r in g ch ild ca r e exp er ien ce a n d in sigh t s a m on g p a r en t s, a n d lea r n in g n ew con ce p t s a n d t ech n iq u es of fa m ily ed u ca t ion , et c. All t h ese a ct iv it ies a r e h elp fu l in su p p or t in g fa m ily ed u ca t ion in st r u m en t a lly a n d effec-t ively. F a m ily ed u ca effec-t ion a ceffec-t iv ieffec-t ies a effec-t effec-t h e gr ou p level m ay b e exp a n d ed t o t h e sch ool level, so t h a t a ll p a r en t s in t h e sch ool ca n p a r t icip a t e. F a m ily ed u ca t ion a ct iv it ies con -d u ct e-d a t m u lt i-levels ca n h elp p a r en t s t o b ecom e a st r on g sy n er get ic for ce a n d a la r ge r esou r ce p ool for t h em selves a n d t h e sch ool in ed u ca t in g t h eir ch ild r en (Ta m et a l., 1997).

Un d er t h e con st r a in t s of lim it ed r esou r ces, t igh t t im e fr a m ewor k , m u lt ip le con st it u en -cies, a n d ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t , t h e su p p or t a n d in volvem en t of t h e com m u n it y (in clu d in g t h e ed u ca t ion a u t h or it y, sp on sor in g b ody of t h e sch ool, p r ofession a l b od ies, a n d loca l or ga n iza t ion s) a r e ver y im p or t a n t t o t h e sch ool’s effor t in d evelop in g t ot a l h om e-sch ool coop er a t ion a n d p u r su in g m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s for ser v in g t h e loca l com m u n it ies, t h e societ y, a n d in t er n a t ion a l com m u -n it ies (Gold r i-n g a -n d Su lliva -n , 1996). I-n su m , t h e k n ow led ge of t ot a l h om es ch ool colla b or a -t ion a n d com m u n i-t y su p p or -t s h ou ld b e n eces-sa r y in for t h com in g ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s.

Knowledge of transformational leadership

T h e ch a llen ges fr om t h e ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion en v ir on m en t , t h e im p lem en t a t ion of ed u ca -t ion a l r efor m s, a n d -t h e p u r s u i-t of n ew sch ool fu n ct ion s a n d effect iven ess r eq u ir e ou r s ch ool lea d er s t o h ave a n ew set of lea d er sh ip b eliefs a n d com p et en ce t h a t ca n t r a n sfor m t h e old a n d t r a d it ion a l con st r a in t s, fa cilit a t e ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ges, a n d d evelop a p p r op r ia t e s ch ool en v ir on m en t for t ea ch er s a n d st u d en t s t o wor k , lea r n , a n d d evelop effect ively. T h er e-for e, t h e n ew k n ow led ge of t r a n se-for m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip sh ou ld b e a n im p or t a n t com p o-n eo-n t of t h e k o-n ow led ge b a s e for sch ool r e-en gin eer in g in t h e n ew ce-en t u r y.

In t h e p a st d eca d e, t h er e w er e som e im p or -t a n -t s-t u d ies of p r in cip a ls’ lea d er s h ip in H on g Kon g sch ools. T h e m a jor fi n d in gs of t en st u d -ies a r e su m m a r ized in Ta ble VII. N ea r ly a ll t h e fi n d in gs of t h e st u d ies su p p or t t h e

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im p or t a n ce a n d con t r ibu t ion of t h e p r in ci-p a l’s lea d er sh ici-p t o sch ool ci-p er for m a n ce, t ea ch er wor k p er for m a n ce, a n d s t u d en t ed u ca t ion a l p er for m a n ce. Sp ecifi ca lly, t h e follow -in g -in s igh t s ca n b e su m m a r ized fr om t h es e r es ea r ch p r oject s (Ch en g, 1997c, 1997d ): • Sch ool lea d er s ca n lea d t o op en s ch ool

clim a t e or p os it ive p r in cip a lt ea ch er r ela t ion -s h ip.

• Sch ool lea d er sh ip ca n d evelop t ea ch er s’ p r ofes s ion a lism , esp r it , a n d s en se of com -m u n it y.

• Sch ool lea d er s ca n in fl u en ce t ea ch er s’ or ga -n iza t io-n a l com m it m e-n t , job s a t is fa ct io-n , a n d wor k a t t it u d es.

• Sch ool lea d er sh ip ca n m a k e a d iffer en ce in s t u d en t s ’ lea r n in g a t t it u d es a n d a ffect ive a n d a ca d em ic lea r n in g ou t com es, even in a “low a ca d em ic a ch iever s ” s ch ool.

• A s t r on g a n d b a la n ced lea d er s h ip in t h e s t r u ct u r a l, h u m a n , p olit ica l, cu lt u r a l, a n d ed u ca t ion a l d im en s ion s is cr it ica l for s ch ool effect iven es s.

• Sch ool lea d er s n eed st r on g s u p p or t in lea d -er s h ip lea r n in g a n d d evelop m en t for p r ofes-s ion a l gr ow t h .

Som e of t h e a b ove r es ea r ch fi n d in gs in d ica t e a sh ift of lea d er sh ip con ce p t fr om a s im p list ic m od el t o a m or e com p r eh en sive a n d dy n a m ic

con ce p t ion . Recen t ly, t r a n sfor m a t ion a l lea d -er sh ip is s t r on gly em p h a sized (Ba ss, 1985; Ba ss a n d Avolio, 1994; Silin s, 1992, 1993). It is b elieved t h a t a sch ool lea d er is on e w h o n ot on ly a d a p t s h is/ h er b eh av ior t o t h e sit u a t ion bu t a lso t r a n sfor m s it . Sch ool lea d er sh ip is n ot on ly a p r oces s t o in fl u en ce t h e b eh av ior of sch ool m em b er s bu t a lso t h eir a t t it u d es, va lu es, a n d b eliefs; n ot on ly in d iv id u a l m em -b er s -bu t a lso t h e w h ole sch ool; n ot on ly t h e goa l a ch ievem en t bu t a lso goa l d evelop m en t a n d cu lt u r e bu ild in g in s ch ool (Leit h wood

et a l., 1996; Ch en g, 1996c; Ch en g a n d Yu en ,

1996).

T h e t r a d it ion a l con ce p t ion – d u a lit y of lea d er sh ip w it h t h e con cer n for p eop le a n d t h e con cer n for t a sk – m ay b e t oo sim p list ic a n d n ot s u fficien t t o p er for m t r a n sfor m a -t ion a l lea d er sh ip. Ba sed on Bolm a n a n d Dea l (1991a , 1991b ), Ser giova n n i (1984), a n d Ch en g (1994), a com p r eh en sive m od el of fi ve d im en -sion s of sch ool lea d er sh ip, in clu d in g h u m a n lea d er sh ip, st r u ct u r a l lea d er sh ip, p olit ica l lea d er sh ip, cu lt u r a l lea d er sh ip, a n d ed u ca -t ion a l lea d er sh ip ca n b e p r op osed -t o d evelop t r a n sfor m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip for r een gin eer -in g sch ools (Ch en g a n d Yu en , 1996). In sch ool r efor m s, t h e k n ow led ge of t r a n sfor m a t ion a l lea d er sh ip a n d fi ve d im en s ion a l lea d er sh ip sh ou ld b e em p h a sized .

individual

gro up

sc ho o l be havio ral affe c tive c o gnitive

te ac he rs/ administrato r

individual

gro up

sc ho o l be havio ral affe c tive c o gnitive

stude nts

individual

gro up

sc ho o l be havio ral affe c tive c o gnitive

pare nts

School Education Family Education

Pare nts

partic ipate Ho me -Sc ho o l c o o pe ratio n

Sc ho o l assists

support

Educ atio n Autho rity/ Sc ho o l Spo nso ring Bo dy/ Co mmunity/ Othe r Sc ho o ls

Source: adapte d fro m Tam e t al. 1 9 9 7

Figure 3

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Table VII

Researc h on the princ ipals’ leadership in Hong Kong sc hools

Research Principal’s

project Samples leadership studied Key findings

Cheng • 64 aided sec ondary • Relationship • Princ ipal’ s leadership is strongly related to (1991b) sc hools • Initiating struc ture organizational c limate and organizational

• 627 teac hers effec tiveness

• Higher relationship and higher initiating struc ture is preferable

Yuen and • 50 aided sec ondary • Eight types of • Both supportive leadership and instrumental

Cheng sc hools managerial behaviors leadership are related to teac her’ s affec tive

(1991) • 306 teac hers c ommitment to sc hool

• This relationship c an be moderated by the teac her’ s professional orientation and task signific anc e

Chanet al • 197 aided sec . • 20 managerial • Nearly all of the managerial behaviors are

(1991) sc hools behaviors strongly related to teac hers’ and princ ipals’

• 2,000 teac hers satisfac tion with the princ ipal-teac hers relationship in sc hool

Chan and • 60 aided sec ondary • Instruc tional • Instruc tional leadership of princ ipals is

Cheng sc hools leadership with 12 c harac terized by providing inc entives for

(1993) •756 teac hers dimensions learning, enforc ing ac ademic standard, and

and maintaining high visibility

• All the 12 instruc tional leadership dimensions are c orrelated with teac hers’ sense of effic ac y, sense of c ommunity, and professional interest • Public examination results are better in

sc hools of effec tive instruc tional leadership Cheng, et al. • 53 aided sec . • Instruc tional • Most instruc tional leadership dimensions are

(1994) sc hools leadership with strongly related to students’ ac ademic

• 1,500 teac hers 12 dimensions ac hievements (standard tests and public •35,000 students exams) and soc ial and personal developments

longitudinally

Cheng • 190 primary • Five dimensions of Strong leadership in the five dimensions is

(1994) sc hools leadership: struc tural, strongly related to:

• 678 c lasses human, politic al, • Organizational performanc e

• 21,600 students c ultural, and • Teac hers’ individual and group performanc e • 3,877 teac hers educ ational • Students’ individual and c lass performanc e Kwok et al. • 152 aided sec ondary • Five dimensions of • There seems to be three stages of princ ipal

(1997) sc hool princ ipals leadership development: new (1-2 yrs), slightly experienc ed

• Management (3-5 yrs), and experienc ed (6 yrs or above) diffic ulties • The development patterns of these three groups • Confidenc e, effic ac y, of princ ipals are different in terms of leadership

and satisfac tion dimensions, management diffic ulties, c onfidenc e, effic ac y, and satisfac tion • The slightly experienc ed princ ipals might feel

Conclusion

T h is p a p er p r op oses a fr a m ewor k for d evelop -in g a n ew k n ow led ge b a s e for r e-en g-in eer -in g s ch ools in H on g Kon g a n d in t er n a t ion a l con -t ex-t s. T h e fr a m ewor k r eq u es-t s n ew k n ow led ge a b ou t m u lt ip le sch ool fu n ct ion s in clu d -in g t ech n ica l/ econ om ic fu n ct ion ,

h u m a n / s ocia l, p olit ica l, cu lt u r a l, a n d ed u ca t ion a l fu n ct ion s a t t h e in d iv id u a l, in st it u -t ion s, com m u n i-t y, s ocie-t y, a n d in -t er n a -t ion a l levels in t h e n ew cen t u r y. T h e u n d er s t a n d in g of t h es e fu n ct ion s a n d t h eir in t er -r ela t ion s is n eces sa r y for p olicy d evelop m en t a n d for m u -la t ion t o r e-en gin eer s ch ools a n d en h a n ce t h eir effect iven es s in a ch a n gin g ed u ca t ion a l en v ir on m en t .

E ven t h ou gh d iffer en t d is cip lin es h ave b een u sed t o look a t som e a s p ect s of t h ese fu n c-t ion s s e p a r a c-t ely, m or e in c-t er -d is cip lin a r y effor t s sh ou ld b e con d u ct ed t o p r ov id e a com -p r eh en s ive k n ow led ge b a s e on m u lt i-p le s ch ool fu n ct ion s for s ch ool r efor m s. T h er e-for e, t h e k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k e-for s ch ool r efor m s h ou ld b e sh ift ed fr om t h e t r a d it ion a l s im p lis t ic con ce p t ion of sch ool effect iven es s w it h focu s on ly on t ech n ica l a n d s ocia l fu n c-t ion s a c-t c-t h e in d iv id u a l or in s c-t ic-t u c-t ion a l levels t o a m u lt ilevel a n d m u lt ica t e gor ica l con ce p -t ion of s ch ool effec-t iven es s.

T h e fr a m ewor k a ls o r eq u est s n ew k n ow l-ed ge fr a m ewor k of t h e in t er n a l sch ool

p r oces s, t h a t ca n b e u s ed t o en h a n ce t h e in t er -n a l s ch ool effect ive-n es s a -n d co-n t r ibu t e t o ext er n a l s ch ool effect iven es s. T h e n ecess a r y k n ow led ge fr a m ewor k sh ou ld in clu d e t h e t h eor y of sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t , t h e k n ow led ge of h ea lt h y sch ool p r ofi le, t h e t ech -n ology of s t r a t e gic m a -n a gem e-n t , t h e dy -n a m ic con ce p t of m a xim izin g m u lt ip le effect iven es s, t h e id ea of layer m a n a gem en t , t h e t h eor y of con gr u en ce in sch ool, t h e k n ow led ge of t ot a l h om e-s ch ool coop er a t ion a n d com m u n it y s u p p or t , a n d t h e n ew p a r a d igm of s ch ool lea d er s h ip.

H op efu lly, t h e fr a m ewor k p r op os ed in t h is p a p er p r ov id es a n ew con ce p t u a liza t ion of k n ow led ge b a s e t h a t is im p or t a n t t o r e-en gi-n eer igi-n g s ch ools igi-n d iffer egi-n t p a r t s of t h e wor ld .

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Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue5.1998:

The knowledge base for re-engineering schools:

multiple functions and internal ef fectiveness

Yin Cheong Cheng

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School functions and internal

school process

Knowledge framework of multiple

school functions

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school process

Conclusion

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