Gyeke et al Paper 1 Vol 17 4
WORKERS’ RELIGIOUS AFFILIATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOUR: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Seth Ayim Gyekye
Mohammad Haybatollahi
ABSTRACT
The increased and sustained importance of religion in the workplace has made
religiosity an important area of interest in organizational psychology. The current study
examined the impact of religion on organizational behaviour among three Ghanaian
religious groups: Christianity, Islam, and Traditional African Religion. Workers
affiliated with these groups were assessed with standardized research instruments that
measured their perceptions of workplace safety, compliance with safety management
procedures (safety behaviour), perceived organizational support (POS), job satisfaction,
and participation in organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB). Their accident
involvement during the past 12 months was also examined. Preliminary analyses with
ANOVA indicated that workers affiliated with the Christian faith had the best
perspectives on the organizational variables under study. Chi-square and MANOVA
revealed that the results were due more to education and socio-economic factors than
religious affiliation. After controlling for these confounding effects via multiple
regressions, workers of all three religious groups indicated identical scores on the
measured items. The results have implications for organizational behaviour and are
discussed.
Keywords: Religiosity, educational background, job satisfaction, organizational
citizenship behaviour, organizational safety perceptions, perceived organizational
support, accident frequency, social exchange theory.
INTRODUCTION
Religiosity and social behaviour
Fem (1963), in An encyclopedia of religion, defines religion to be a set of behaviours or
meanings which are connected to the actions of a religious person (p. 647). Religion is such
an integral part of life and culture that the essential role it plays in human behaviour has
inspired researchers to investigate the potential relationship between various forms of
religiosity and social behaviour. This relationship has intrigued both earlier (Allport 1953)
and contemporary researchers (Ntalianis & Darr 2005; Lynn et al. 2011). For example,
religious commitment and participation have consistently emerged as significant contributors
in Quality of Life (QOL) indicators such as life satisfaction, happiness, and meaning in life
(Poloma & Pendleton 1990). Poloma and Pendleton’s comprehensive review of the literature
indicated that religiosity was an important predictor of general life satisfaction, existential
well-being, and overall happiness. Additionally, it has been linked with outcomes including
physical health and psychological well-being (Hayward & Elliott 2009), fewer depressive
symptoms (Kutcher et al. 2010) and workplace accident frequency (Holcom et al. 1993;
Gyekye & Salminen 2007).
Gyekye Ayim Seth (GAS) (gas.gyekye@bucks.ac.uk) is a Senior Lecturer in Occupational and Organizational
Psychology in the Dept. of Psychology, Buckinghamshire New University, UK; Mohammad Haybatollahi,
(mohammad.haybatollahi@gmail.com) is a Statistical Analyst in the Dept. of Surveying and Planning, Aalto
University, Espoo, Finland.
International Journal of Organisational Behaviour, Volume 17 (4), 1-18
(©) GA Seth & M Haybatollahi
ISSN 1440 5377
Workers’ Religious Aaffiliations and
Organizational Behaviour: An Exploratory Study
GA Aymin & M Haybatollahi
Religiosity and organizational behaviour
During the last decade, religious diversity in the workplace has made religiosity an attractive
field for organizational research, and has received both theoretical and empirical attention
from organizational scholars. According to the literature on psychology of religion, religion
produces both formal and informal norms and provides adherents with certain prescribed
behaviour (Allport 1953). Several studies that have systematically investigated the underlying
dynamics of religiosity in organizational behaviours have found a link between religious
affiliation and workplace behaviour. Strong positive correlations have been discovered
between people’s religiosity and their job attitudes (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005; Kutcher et al.
2010), and ethical decision-making in organizations (Weaver & Agle 2002; Fernando &
Jackson 2006). Greater religiosity was associated with higher job satisfaction and was a
significant predictor of organizational commitment (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005). Fernando and
Jackson (2006) suggest that the traditions of the world’s major religions have endured the test
of time and note that the values inherent in those religions may be relevant to the management
of modern organizations. Most religions and the consequent religious beliefs incorporate
strong teachings about appropriate ethical behaviours. These have often guided organizational
managers on the moral and ethical guidelines needed in order to resolve ethical dilemmas
their organizations faced (Weaver & Agle 2002; Turnipsed 2002). Additionally, religious
individuals have indicated higher scores on work centrality, demonstrating that work held a
more central role in their lives than their non-religious counterparts (Harpaz 1998). Extant
research therefore considers religion as an important mechanism for increased organizational
performance, and a spiritually minded workforce as having better work attitudes (Chusmir &
Koberg 1988; Lynn et al. 2011).
Work ethic, a religious oriented concept, reflects a constellation of attitudes and beliefs
pertaining to work behaviour. Organizational scholars—Kidron (1978) and recently,
Sikorska-Simmons (2005)—both found that the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE), measured by
the commitment to the values of hard work was positively correlated with organizational
commitment and dedication. Organizational commitment reflects being cognitively and
emotionally attached to one’s organization. An individual displaying a high work ethic would
place great value on hard work, fairness, personal honesty, accountability, and intrinsic values
of work. Contemporary theorists who have examined the PWE have concluded that the PWE
is no longer a Protestant issue, as all religious groups espouse the importance of work and,
hence, share to the same degree the attributes associated with the work ethic (e.g., Miller et al.
2001; Yousef 2001). For example, the views of Islam about the workplace are denoted under
Islamic Work Ethic (ISE), and preach commitment, accountability, and dedication to one’s
organization (Yousef 2001). Other religious views like Hinduism and Buddhism also propose
hard work and devotion as the tools for the modification and total enrichment of life, the soul
and work (Jacobson 1983). For Traditionalists, it is more of teamwork, interdependence,
co-responsibility, integrity, and respect for hierarchical order at home and at work (Fisher
1998). Adherents who are committed to their religious ideals have been inspired to show
positive work attitudes such as co-operation and loyalty, obedience, commitment and
dedication to their organizations (Ntalianis & Raja 2002), exhibited more pro-organizational
behaviours (Gyekye & Salminen 2008; Kutcuher et al. 2010) and limited antisocial or
counterproductive work behaviour (Ntalianis & Raja 2002).
In the accident and organizational safety literature, workers' religiosity was found to be
closely associated with risk taking behaviours (Kouabenan 1998; Peltzer & Renner 2003),
causality and responsibility attributions for industrial accidents (Gyekye & Salminen 2007),
2
Volume 17 (4)
International Journal of Organisational Behaviour
traffic accidents (Peltzer & Renner 2003), and accident frequency (Gyekye & Salminen 2007;
Holcom et al. 1993). According to these reports, workers affiliated with Islam and Traditional
African religions, more than their Christian counterparts, tend to be more fatalistic in their
causality and responsibility explanations for industrial and traffic accidents, as they
emphasized more spiritual influence on the accident process. By contrast, other findings (e.g.,
Hood et al. 1996; Kumza et al. 1973) did not indicate any association between religious
affiliation and organizational behaviours. Kumza and his associates (1973) found that religion
was not a significant factor in traffic violations and accidents.
Religious beliefs and values have also been predictive of organizational commitment and job
satisfaction (e.g., Veechio 1980). Veechio (1980) found that religious affiliation, after
controlling for occupational prestige, accounted for a significant proportion of variance in job
satisfaction. Additionally, he noted that religious affiliation was significantly related to
organizational commitment, with Protestants displaying higher commitments than Catholics.
Membership or affiliation with religious groups provides a mechanism by which individuals
establish a highly valued social network (Myers 2000), which is important for the shaping of
societal values and norms, and for ethical decision making at the workplace (Weaver & Agle
2002). Allport and Ross (1967) have distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic religious
membership. According to these experts, intrinsically oriented persons truly believe in their
religious beliefs, internalize them, and use the doctrines to guide them in all other aspects of
their life. They view and experience religion as a master motive with all aspects of life
referenced to it. In contrast, extrinsically oriented individuals have a utilitarian approach and
view religion only as a meaningful source of social status.
Current study and hypothesis
Despite the attention to religiosity and workplace behaviour, this relationship is less clear and
ambiguous. The current empirical study is a necessary exploratory study that aims to examine
the influence of religion on organizational behaviour in Ghana’s work environment. It
investigated workers affiliated with the three main religious groups: Christianity, Islam and
Traditional African Religion, and their perceptions and participations in organizational
activities. This examination is of relevance due to the great symbolic significance that
religious institutions have in Ghana. Official figures released by the Ghana Statistical
Services in 2010 put Christians at 65%, Moslems at 20%, Traditionalists at 10%, and people
of other or no religions at 5%. Belief in God, Allah, or gods is thus widespread, with many
people often deferring to or using theology in their interpretations of social reality. It is
therefore not uncommon in Ghanaian workplaces to hear workers cite their religious
convictions, among other reasons for behaving in certain ways.
The analyses compared workers of these three religious groups on the following:
(i) perceptions of workplace safety, (ii) compliance with safety management procedures,
(iii) accident frequency, (iv) perceptions of organizational support (POS), (v) commitment to
organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB), and (vi) job satisfaction. These six
organizational variables were chosen because of their close interconnection and relevance to
workplace safety. For example, OCBs have been positively associated with workplace safety
perception, job satisfaction, safe work practices (e.g., Gyekye, Salminen & Ojajarvi 2012),
and negatively associated with accident frequency (e.g., Christian et al., 2009). Similarly,
POS has also been positively linked with outcomes such as job satisfaction (Eisenberger et al.,
2001; DeJoy et al., 2010), workers' compliance with safe work practices (Gyekye & Salminen
2009; Hofmann & Morgeson 1999), and negatively associated with accident frequency
3
Workers’ Religious Aaffiliations and
Organizational Behaviour: An Exploratory Study
GA Aymin & M Haybatollahi
(DeJoy et al. 2010; Gyekye & Salminen 2009). As documented in the literature on
psychology of religion, most religions encourage altruistic values and behaviours, and
discourage anti-social behaviours. Given the observation that religious doctrines tend to
influence considerably devotees’ behaviour (Ntalianis & Raja 2002; Chusmir & Koberg
1988), it is our contention that religious workers’ organizational behaviour will be affected in
a positive and constructive way by their relgious tenets. Thus:
Hypothesis: Despite the absence of ample evidence that bears directly on these relationships,
it is anticipated that workers of the three religious groups would display positive and identical
organizational behaviours.
METHODOLOGY
Participants were 320 Ghanaian industrial workers from underground mines (n = 102) and
factories (n = 218). The factory workers were mainly from textiles, breweries, food
processing plants and timber and saw-mill plants. Participants had the following
characteristics: 65% (n = 208) were male and 35% (n = 112) female. Subordinate workers
made up 75% (n = 240) and supervisors 25% (n = 80). Forty-two percent (42%, n = 135) of
the participants were married and 58% (n = 185) were unmarried. Christians comprised 66%
(n = 211), Muslims, 22% (n = 70), Traditionalists, 9% (n = 29) and workers affiliated with
other religious groups such as Buddhism, Shintoism, and Hinduism 3% (n = 10). Their
educational background was as follows: 50% (n = 160) had basic education, 30% (n = 96)
secondary education, 17% (n = 54) professional education, and 3% (n = 10), university
education.
Procedure. During lunch break, participants responded to a questionnaire in English, which
took 15–20 minutes to complete. Supervisors were educationally sound and completed the
questionnaire unaided. For illiterate or semi-literature respondents who had difficulty
understanding written English, the local language was used via the interpretation of a research
assistant. All were assured that their responses would remain anonymous and confidential and
without disclosure even to their line managers.
Measures
Religious affiliation. Participants were requested to mark the option that corresponded to the
religious group to which they belong or adhere. Response options were: (a) Christianity
(b) Islam (c) Traditional African Religion and (d) Other.
Religiosity is an indicator of participants’ degree of religiousness. The more value they have
for and involve themselves in religious gatherings and activities, the higher their religiosity. It
was assessed with a single item measure of frequency of attendance at religious meetings (in
church, mosques, and shrines). Response options were: (a) Very Regular (b) Regular
(c) Sometimes (d) Seldom (e) Never.
Perceptions of workplace safety were measured with the 50-item Work Safety Scale (WSS)
developed by Hayes et al. (1998). This instrument assesses employees’ perceptions on work
safety and measures 5 distinct constructs, each with 10 items: (i) job safety (sample item:
‘Safety programs are effective’: α = .96), (ii) co-workers safety (sample item: ‘Pay attention
to safety rules’: α =.80), (iii) supervisor safety (sample item: ‘Enforces safety rules’: α = .97),
(iv) management's commitment to safety (sample item: ‘Responds to safety concern’: α = .94),
4
Volume 17 (4)
International Journal of Organisational Behaviour
(v) satisfaction with safety program (sample item: ‘Effective in reducing injuries’: α = .86). The
total coefficient alpha score was .89.
Safety compliance denotes the fundamental and essential activities that employees need to
carry out to maintain workplace safety. Items for safety compliance were pooled from the
extant literature. Sample items were: ’Follow safety procedures regardless of the situation’: α
= .78 and ’Use appropriate tools and equipment’: α = .82.
Accident frequency was measured by participants' responses to the question that asked them
to indicate the number of times they have been involved in accidents in the past 12 months.
All cases were accidents that had resulted in three or more consecutive days of absence and
therefore classified as serious by the safety inspection authorities.
Perceived organizational support refers to the workers’ general perception of their
organizations’ contributions and concern for their well-being (Eisenberger et al. 2001). It was
measured with the short version of Eisenberger et al’s. (1990) survey of POS. The scale
consisted of eight items and assesses workers' evaluations of organizational/management
concern for their well-being. Sample items were: ‘The organization values my contribution to
its well-being’: α = .79, ‘The organization takes pride in my accomplishments’: α = .88, and
‘Help is available from the organization when l have a problem’: α = .82. Responses to this
scale produced a satisfactory reliability of .97.
Organizational citizenship behaviours refer to discretionary behaviours that go beyond
those formally prescribed by the organization and for which there are no direct rewards
(Organ 1994). OCB was measured with an adapted version of Van Dyne, Graham and
Dienesch’s scale (1994). It consisted of 6, 7 and 7 items each on obedience, loyalty and
participation respectively. Each of these three categories included items that describe specific
behaviour relevant to each category: obedience (sample item: ‘Always on time at work,
regardless of circumstances’: α = .76); loyalty (sample item: ‘Volunteers for overtime work
when needed’: α = .92, and participation (sample item: ‘Searches for new ideas to improve
operations’:α = .92. Total coefficient alpha score was .92.
Job satisfaction denotes the degree at which a worker experiences positive affection towards
his/her job. It was measured with Porter and Lawler's (1968) one-item global measure of job
satisfaction. This measure was chosen because single-item measures of overall job
satisfaction have been considered to be as robust as scale measures (Dolbier et al. 2005;
Wanous et al. 1997), and has been used extensively in the organizational behaviour literature
(e.g., Nagy 2002; Gyekye 2005; Gyekye & Salminen 2006). Participants responded to all the
above scales on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = very much.
RESULTS
IBM SPSS 20 was used for assessing the psychometric properties of the measures and the
descriptive statistics. In the first analysis, ANOVA indicated differences of statistical significance
in the mean scores on the Workplace Safety Scale (WSS), (F (3, 299) = 7.96, p
BEHAVIOUR: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Seth Ayim Gyekye
Mohammad Haybatollahi
ABSTRACT
The increased and sustained importance of religion in the workplace has made
religiosity an important area of interest in organizational psychology. The current study
examined the impact of religion on organizational behaviour among three Ghanaian
religious groups: Christianity, Islam, and Traditional African Religion. Workers
affiliated with these groups were assessed with standardized research instruments that
measured their perceptions of workplace safety, compliance with safety management
procedures (safety behaviour), perceived organizational support (POS), job satisfaction,
and participation in organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB). Their accident
involvement during the past 12 months was also examined. Preliminary analyses with
ANOVA indicated that workers affiliated with the Christian faith had the best
perspectives on the organizational variables under study. Chi-square and MANOVA
revealed that the results were due more to education and socio-economic factors than
religious affiliation. After controlling for these confounding effects via multiple
regressions, workers of all three religious groups indicated identical scores on the
measured items. The results have implications for organizational behaviour and are
discussed.
Keywords: Religiosity, educational background, job satisfaction, organizational
citizenship behaviour, organizational safety perceptions, perceived organizational
support, accident frequency, social exchange theory.
INTRODUCTION
Religiosity and social behaviour
Fem (1963), in An encyclopedia of religion, defines religion to be a set of behaviours or
meanings which are connected to the actions of a religious person (p. 647). Religion is such
an integral part of life and culture that the essential role it plays in human behaviour has
inspired researchers to investigate the potential relationship between various forms of
religiosity and social behaviour. This relationship has intrigued both earlier (Allport 1953)
and contemporary researchers (Ntalianis & Darr 2005; Lynn et al. 2011). For example,
religious commitment and participation have consistently emerged as significant contributors
in Quality of Life (QOL) indicators such as life satisfaction, happiness, and meaning in life
(Poloma & Pendleton 1990). Poloma and Pendleton’s comprehensive review of the literature
indicated that religiosity was an important predictor of general life satisfaction, existential
well-being, and overall happiness. Additionally, it has been linked with outcomes including
physical health and psychological well-being (Hayward & Elliott 2009), fewer depressive
symptoms (Kutcher et al. 2010) and workplace accident frequency (Holcom et al. 1993;
Gyekye & Salminen 2007).
Gyekye Ayim Seth (GAS) (gas.gyekye@bucks.ac.uk) is a Senior Lecturer in Occupational and Organizational
Psychology in the Dept. of Psychology, Buckinghamshire New University, UK; Mohammad Haybatollahi,
(mohammad.haybatollahi@gmail.com) is a Statistical Analyst in the Dept. of Surveying and Planning, Aalto
University, Espoo, Finland.
International Journal of Organisational Behaviour, Volume 17 (4), 1-18
(©) GA Seth & M Haybatollahi
ISSN 1440 5377
Workers’ Religious Aaffiliations and
Organizational Behaviour: An Exploratory Study
GA Aymin & M Haybatollahi
Religiosity and organizational behaviour
During the last decade, religious diversity in the workplace has made religiosity an attractive
field for organizational research, and has received both theoretical and empirical attention
from organizational scholars. According to the literature on psychology of religion, religion
produces both formal and informal norms and provides adherents with certain prescribed
behaviour (Allport 1953). Several studies that have systematically investigated the underlying
dynamics of religiosity in organizational behaviours have found a link between religious
affiliation and workplace behaviour. Strong positive correlations have been discovered
between people’s religiosity and their job attitudes (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005; Kutcher et al.
2010), and ethical decision-making in organizations (Weaver & Agle 2002; Fernando &
Jackson 2006). Greater religiosity was associated with higher job satisfaction and was a
significant predictor of organizational commitment (Sikorsa-Simmons 2005). Fernando and
Jackson (2006) suggest that the traditions of the world’s major religions have endured the test
of time and note that the values inherent in those religions may be relevant to the management
of modern organizations. Most religions and the consequent religious beliefs incorporate
strong teachings about appropriate ethical behaviours. These have often guided organizational
managers on the moral and ethical guidelines needed in order to resolve ethical dilemmas
their organizations faced (Weaver & Agle 2002; Turnipsed 2002). Additionally, religious
individuals have indicated higher scores on work centrality, demonstrating that work held a
more central role in their lives than their non-religious counterparts (Harpaz 1998). Extant
research therefore considers religion as an important mechanism for increased organizational
performance, and a spiritually minded workforce as having better work attitudes (Chusmir &
Koberg 1988; Lynn et al. 2011).
Work ethic, a religious oriented concept, reflects a constellation of attitudes and beliefs
pertaining to work behaviour. Organizational scholars—Kidron (1978) and recently,
Sikorska-Simmons (2005)—both found that the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE), measured by
the commitment to the values of hard work was positively correlated with organizational
commitment and dedication. Organizational commitment reflects being cognitively and
emotionally attached to one’s organization. An individual displaying a high work ethic would
place great value on hard work, fairness, personal honesty, accountability, and intrinsic values
of work. Contemporary theorists who have examined the PWE have concluded that the PWE
is no longer a Protestant issue, as all religious groups espouse the importance of work and,
hence, share to the same degree the attributes associated with the work ethic (e.g., Miller et al.
2001; Yousef 2001). For example, the views of Islam about the workplace are denoted under
Islamic Work Ethic (ISE), and preach commitment, accountability, and dedication to one’s
organization (Yousef 2001). Other religious views like Hinduism and Buddhism also propose
hard work and devotion as the tools for the modification and total enrichment of life, the soul
and work (Jacobson 1983). For Traditionalists, it is more of teamwork, interdependence,
co-responsibility, integrity, and respect for hierarchical order at home and at work (Fisher
1998). Adherents who are committed to their religious ideals have been inspired to show
positive work attitudes such as co-operation and loyalty, obedience, commitment and
dedication to their organizations (Ntalianis & Raja 2002), exhibited more pro-organizational
behaviours (Gyekye & Salminen 2008; Kutcuher et al. 2010) and limited antisocial or
counterproductive work behaviour (Ntalianis & Raja 2002).
In the accident and organizational safety literature, workers' religiosity was found to be
closely associated with risk taking behaviours (Kouabenan 1998; Peltzer & Renner 2003),
causality and responsibility attributions for industrial accidents (Gyekye & Salminen 2007),
2
Volume 17 (4)
International Journal of Organisational Behaviour
traffic accidents (Peltzer & Renner 2003), and accident frequency (Gyekye & Salminen 2007;
Holcom et al. 1993). According to these reports, workers affiliated with Islam and Traditional
African religions, more than their Christian counterparts, tend to be more fatalistic in their
causality and responsibility explanations for industrial and traffic accidents, as they
emphasized more spiritual influence on the accident process. By contrast, other findings (e.g.,
Hood et al. 1996; Kumza et al. 1973) did not indicate any association between religious
affiliation and organizational behaviours. Kumza and his associates (1973) found that religion
was not a significant factor in traffic violations and accidents.
Religious beliefs and values have also been predictive of organizational commitment and job
satisfaction (e.g., Veechio 1980). Veechio (1980) found that religious affiliation, after
controlling for occupational prestige, accounted for a significant proportion of variance in job
satisfaction. Additionally, he noted that religious affiliation was significantly related to
organizational commitment, with Protestants displaying higher commitments than Catholics.
Membership or affiliation with religious groups provides a mechanism by which individuals
establish a highly valued social network (Myers 2000), which is important for the shaping of
societal values and norms, and for ethical decision making at the workplace (Weaver & Agle
2002). Allport and Ross (1967) have distinguished between intrinsic and extrinsic religious
membership. According to these experts, intrinsically oriented persons truly believe in their
religious beliefs, internalize them, and use the doctrines to guide them in all other aspects of
their life. They view and experience religion as a master motive with all aspects of life
referenced to it. In contrast, extrinsically oriented individuals have a utilitarian approach and
view religion only as a meaningful source of social status.
Current study and hypothesis
Despite the attention to religiosity and workplace behaviour, this relationship is less clear and
ambiguous. The current empirical study is a necessary exploratory study that aims to examine
the influence of religion on organizational behaviour in Ghana’s work environment. It
investigated workers affiliated with the three main religious groups: Christianity, Islam and
Traditional African Religion, and their perceptions and participations in organizational
activities. This examination is of relevance due to the great symbolic significance that
religious institutions have in Ghana. Official figures released by the Ghana Statistical
Services in 2010 put Christians at 65%, Moslems at 20%, Traditionalists at 10%, and people
of other or no religions at 5%. Belief in God, Allah, or gods is thus widespread, with many
people often deferring to or using theology in their interpretations of social reality. It is
therefore not uncommon in Ghanaian workplaces to hear workers cite their religious
convictions, among other reasons for behaving in certain ways.
The analyses compared workers of these three religious groups on the following:
(i) perceptions of workplace safety, (ii) compliance with safety management procedures,
(iii) accident frequency, (iv) perceptions of organizational support (POS), (v) commitment to
organizational citizenship behaviours (OCB), and (vi) job satisfaction. These six
organizational variables were chosen because of their close interconnection and relevance to
workplace safety. For example, OCBs have been positively associated with workplace safety
perception, job satisfaction, safe work practices (e.g., Gyekye, Salminen & Ojajarvi 2012),
and negatively associated with accident frequency (e.g., Christian et al., 2009). Similarly,
POS has also been positively linked with outcomes such as job satisfaction (Eisenberger et al.,
2001; DeJoy et al., 2010), workers' compliance with safe work practices (Gyekye & Salminen
2009; Hofmann & Morgeson 1999), and negatively associated with accident frequency
3
Workers’ Religious Aaffiliations and
Organizational Behaviour: An Exploratory Study
GA Aymin & M Haybatollahi
(DeJoy et al. 2010; Gyekye & Salminen 2009). As documented in the literature on
psychology of religion, most religions encourage altruistic values and behaviours, and
discourage anti-social behaviours. Given the observation that religious doctrines tend to
influence considerably devotees’ behaviour (Ntalianis & Raja 2002; Chusmir & Koberg
1988), it is our contention that religious workers’ organizational behaviour will be affected in
a positive and constructive way by their relgious tenets. Thus:
Hypothesis: Despite the absence of ample evidence that bears directly on these relationships,
it is anticipated that workers of the three religious groups would display positive and identical
organizational behaviours.
METHODOLOGY
Participants were 320 Ghanaian industrial workers from underground mines (n = 102) and
factories (n = 218). The factory workers were mainly from textiles, breweries, food
processing plants and timber and saw-mill plants. Participants had the following
characteristics: 65% (n = 208) were male and 35% (n = 112) female. Subordinate workers
made up 75% (n = 240) and supervisors 25% (n = 80). Forty-two percent (42%, n = 135) of
the participants were married and 58% (n = 185) were unmarried. Christians comprised 66%
(n = 211), Muslims, 22% (n = 70), Traditionalists, 9% (n = 29) and workers affiliated with
other religious groups such as Buddhism, Shintoism, and Hinduism 3% (n = 10). Their
educational background was as follows: 50% (n = 160) had basic education, 30% (n = 96)
secondary education, 17% (n = 54) professional education, and 3% (n = 10), university
education.
Procedure. During lunch break, participants responded to a questionnaire in English, which
took 15–20 minutes to complete. Supervisors were educationally sound and completed the
questionnaire unaided. For illiterate or semi-literature respondents who had difficulty
understanding written English, the local language was used via the interpretation of a research
assistant. All were assured that their responses would remain anonymous and confidential and
without disclosure even to their line managers.
Measures
Religious affiliation. Participants were requested to mark the option that corresponded to the
religious group to which they belong or adhere. Response options were: (a) Christianity
(b) Islam (c) Traditional African Religion and (d) Other.
Religiosity is an indicator of participants’ degree of religiousness. The more value they have
for and involve themselves in religious gatherings and activities, the higher their religiosity. It
was assessed with a single item measure of frequency of attendance at religious meetings (in
church, mosques, and shrines). Response options were: (a) Very Regular (b) Regular
(c) Sometimes (d) Seldom (e) Never.
Perceptions of workplace safety were measured with the 50-item Work Safety Scale (WSS)
developed by Hayes et al. (1998). This instrument assesses employees’ perceptions on work
safety and measures 5 distinct constructs, each with 10 items: (i) job safety (sample item:
‘Safety programs are effective’: α = .96), (ii) co-workers safety (sample item: ‘Pay attention
to safety rules’: α =.80), (iii) supervisor safety (sample item: ‘Enforces safety rules’: α = .97),
(iv) management's commitment to safety (sample item: ‘Responds to safety concern’: α = .94),
4
Volume 17 (4)
International Journal of Organisational Behaviour
(v) satisfaction with safety program (sample item: ‘Effective in reducing injuries’: α = .86). The
total coefficient alpha score was .89.
Safety compliance denotes the fundamental and essential activities that employees need to
carry out to maintain workplace safety. Items for safety compliance were pooled from the
extant literature. Sample items were: ’Follow safety procedures regardless of the situation’: α
= .78 and ’Use appropriate tools and equipment’: α = .82.
Accident frequency was measured by participants' responses to the question that asked them
to indicate the number of times they have been involved in accidents in the past 12 months.
All cases were accidents that had resulted in three or more consecutive days of absence and
therefore classified as serious by the safety inspection authorities.
Perceived organizational support refers to the workers’ general perception of their
organizations’ contributions and concern for their well-being (Eisenberger et al. 2001). It was
measured with the short version of Eisenberger et al’s. (1990) survey of POS. The scale
consisted of eight items and assesses workers' evaluations of organizational/management
concern for their well-being. Sample items were: ‘The organization values my contribution to
its well-being’: α = .79, ‘The organization takes pride in my accomplishments’: α = .88, and
‘Help is available from the organization when l have a problem’: α = .82. Responses to this
scale produced a satisfactory reliability of .97.
Organizational citizenship behaviours refer to discretionary behaviours that go beyond
those formally prescribed by the organization and for which there are no direct rewards
(Organ 1994). OCB was measured with an adapted version of Van Dyne, Graham and
Dienesch’s scale (1994). It consisted of 6, 7 and 7 items each on obedience, loyalty and
participation respectively. Each of these three categories included items that describe specific
behaviour relevant to each category: obedience (sample item: ‘Always on time at work,
regardless of circumstances’: α = .76); loyalty (sample item: ‘Volunteers for overtime work
when needed’: α = .92, and participation (sample item: ‘Searches for new ideas to improve
operations’:α = .92. Total coefficient alpha score was .92.
Job satisfaction denotes the degree at which a worker experiences positive affection towards
his/her job. It was measured with Porter and Lawler's (1968) one-item global measure of job
satisfaction. This measure was chosen because single-item measures of overall job
satisfaction have been considered to be as robust as scale measures (Dolbier et al. 2005;
Wanous et al. 1997), and has been used extensively in the organizational behaviour literature
(e.g., Nagy 2002; Gyekye 2005; Gyekye & Salminen 2006). Participants responded to all the
above scales on a five-point scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = very much.
RESULTS
IBM SPSS 20 was used for assessing the psychometric properties of the measures and the
descriptive statistics. In the first analysis, ANOVA indicated differences of statistical significance
in the mean scores on the Workplace Safety Scale (WSS), (F (3, 299) = 7.96, p