Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue4.1997:
The strategies for implementing multilevel selfmanagement in schools
Wing M ing Cheung
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
Yin Cheong Cheng
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
School-based management
programmes have been
launched in various regions of
the world to enhance education quality in schools. Presents a multilevel self-management framework necessary
for effective implementation
of school-based management.
Proposes strategies for minimizing restraining forces and
developing plans for effective
multilevel self-management in
schools. Suggests three
stages of implementation:
unfreezing stage, changing
stage and reinforcing stage.
The time frame is critical for
implementing the three levels
of self-management and,
therefore, its management is
discussed. Proposes seven
types of skill required to work
more effectively through the
above stages, reduce resistance and gain support from
school members.
This is one of the papers
from the research project
entitled “ School-based
management: research and
development” sponsored by
an earmarked research
grant of the Research Grant
Council of Hong Kong to the
second author and a
research grant of the Hong
Kong Institute of Education
to the fi rst author. The
authors would like to
acknowledge the Council’s
and the Institute’s fi nancial
support.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 ,4 [ 1997] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Introduction
Sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m es a r e
cu r r en tly la u n ch ed in va r iou s r e gion s of th e
wor ld to en h a n ce edu ca tion qu a lity in
sch ools. However, th e exta n t liter a tu r e su ggests th a t th e effectiven ess of sch ool-ba sed
m a n a gem en t is n ot con fir m ed. In pa r ticu la r,
th er e is a n a bsen ce of em pir ica l eviden ce th a t
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t is r ela ted to stu den ts’ edu ca tion a l ou tcom es (e.g. Ar n ot et a l.,
1992; Ch en g, 1992; Ma len et a l., 1990; Mitch ell,
1991). Also, m a n y im plem en ta tion difficu lties
h in der ed th e su ccess of th e sch ool m a n a gem en t r efor m s.
Th e obser va tion s of Ca ldwell (1994), Sym th s
(1995) a n d Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g (1996a , 1996b)
m ay per h a ps pr ovide a n expla n a tion of th ese
issu es. Th eir view is th a t con tem por a r y pr a ctices h ave seem in gly pu t ver y little effor t in to
in volvin g a n d fa cilita tin g tea ch er s in selfm a n a gin g th eir wor k . If we believe th a t th e
effectiven ess of th e sch ool is la r gely br ou gh t
a bou t by tea ch er s, self-m a n a gem en t in
sch ools sh ou ld, a pa r t fr om sch ool level issu es,
a lso in volve tea ch er s a t th e gr ou p a n d in dividu a l levels (Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g, 1996a ).
F u r th er m or e, u n expected r estr a in in g
for ces often com e fr om tea ch er s wh en th eir
sch ools la u n ch sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t
ch a n ges w ith ou t a com pr eh en sive str a te gic
pla n . Ca u sa l a n d fr a gm en ta r y la u n ch in g of
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t m ay in esca pa bly
fa ce r esista n ce a n d, th u s, m ay r esu lt in in effectiven ess, if n ot a h eavy bu r den to sch ool
m em ber s. It is n ot a su r pr ise th a t en h a n ced
sch ool effectiven ess in m a n y sch ool-ba sed
m a n a gem en t r efor m s m ay n ot be a ch ieved a s
expected a t th e be gin n in g.
To ta ck le th e con ceptu a l pr oblem s in
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t, Ch eu n g a n d
Ch en g (1996a ) pr oposed th a t a m u ltilevel
fr a m ewor k is cr itica l for pr a ctisin g self-m a n a gem en t in sch ools to pu r su e edu ca tion qu a lity a n d sch ool effectiven ess. Ba sed on th is
fr a m ewor k , th e pr esen t pa per a ttem pts to
pr opose str a te gies for effective la u n ch in g of
m u ltilevel sch ool self-m a n a gem en t. Hope-
fu lly, th ese str a te gies wou ld be h elpfu l to
sch ool pr a ctition er s in m in im izin g r estr a in in g for ces a n d developin g com pr eh en sive
pla n s to im plem en t sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t su ccessfu lly in on goin g a n d fu tu r e edu ca tion a l r efor m s.
Multilevel self-management in
school
Accor din g to th e con ception of Ch eu n g a n d
Ch en g (1996a ), self-m a n a gem en t in sch ool
m ay be pr a ctised a t th r ee levels, th e sch ool,
gr ou p a n d in dividu a l tea ch er levels. E a ch
follow s a five-sta ge self-iter a tive m a n a gem en t
cycle. Th e ch a r a cter istics of th ese self-m a n a gem en t cycles a t th e th r ee levels a r e su m m a r ized a s follow s ( for deta il, plea se r efer to
Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g, 1996a ).
Self-management at the school level
Th e in itia l sta ge of a sch ool self-m a n a gem en t
pr ocess is en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis in wh ich
th e sch ool (in clu din g a ll th e con cer n ed sch ool
m em ber s) a s a wh ole r eflects on its in ter n a l
a n d exter n a l en vir on m en t r eleva n t a n d cr u cia l to its existen ce in ter m s of str en gth s,
wea k n esses, oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts. By
per for m in g th is a n a lysis, th e exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l en vir on m en t is m on itor ed a n d th e
r esu lts of a n a lysis w ill ser ve a s th e ba ses for
pla n n in g. In th e pla n n in g a n d str u ctu r in g
sta ge, th e sch ool esta blish es sch ool dir ection ,
policies, pr ogr a m m es, bu dget, or ga n iza tion
str u ctu r e a n d wor k pr ocedu r es. Th e pr a ctice
of pa r ticipa tive decision m a k in g in th is sta ge
m ay develop a sen se of ow n er sh ip a m on g
th ose pa r ticipa tin g a n d th e r esu ltin g r esolu tion s w ill h ave a gr ea ter ch a n ce of su ccessfu l
im plem en ta tion . Th e esta blish m en t of a ppr opr ia te or ga n iza tion a l str u ctu r e a n d wor k
pr ocedu r es in clu des a n a ppr opr ia te com m u n ica tion fl ow, delin ea tion of r ela tion sh ips, job
specifica tion s a n d position r equ ir em en ts,
ch a in of com m a n d a n d oth er r ela ted issu es.
With a tta in a ble sch ool pla n s a n d a ppr opr ia te
str u ctu r e, th e self-m a n a gin g pr ocess th en
[ 159 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
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pr oceeds to th e sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g sta ge.
Sta ffin g in clu des th e r ecr u itm en t a n d in du ction of n ew sta ff a s well a s pr ofession a l developm en t of a ll sta ff for com peten ce in a ch ievin g th e a ssign ed ta sk s. Th e sch ool a t th is
sta ge a lso focu ses on dele ga tin g r espon sibilities to sta ff, m otiva tin g sta ff tow a r ds ou tpu ttin g qu a lity wor k , co-or din a tin g a n d pr ovidin g dir ection s to sta ff. After th e a bove
sta ges, th e sch ool a s a wh ole im plem en ts
pla n n ed pr ogr a m m es. Du r in g a n d a fter
im plem en ta tion , th e per for m a n ce of th e
sch ool a s a wh ole is eva lu a ted a n d m on itor ed
w ith its esta blish ed r epor tin g a n d eva lu a tion
system a s well a s th e r ew a r d system for its
ta sk / pr ogr a m m e gr ou ps. Th e in for m a tion
obta in ed is va lu a ble for th e sch ool to m ove
for w a r d to sta r t th e en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis
sta ge of th e n ext self-m a n a gem en t cycle. In
th is w ay, th e cycle of self-m a n a gem en t a t
sch ool level con tin u es.
“… Pra ctisin g th e self-m a n a gem en t cycle, grou ps ca n b e aw a re of
th e ev er ch a n gin g in ter n a l a n d ex ter n a l ch a llen ges, d ev elop grou p
m em b ers to fa ce a n d m a n a ge th ese ch a llen ges, a n d a ch iev e th e
grou p a n d sch ool goa ls… ”
Th e a bove cyclic self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess
a llow s th e sch ool a s a wh ole to be aw a r e of th e
ch a n gin g ch a llen ges, to r ea dju st its sch ool
m ission , policies a n d a ction pla n s to th ese
n ew ch a llen ges. In th is w ay, self-r en ew a l a n d
lea r n in g occu r a s a r esu lt of th e sch ool’s
a da pta bility to th e ever ch a n gin g exter n a l
a n d in ter n a l en vir on m en t.
Self-management at the group level
In th e 1990s, th e wor k wor ld lea n s tow a r ds
pa r ticipa tive m a n a gem en t th r ou gh th e in tr odu ction of self-m a n a gin g wor k tea m s by
em power in g sta ffs wh ich elicits com m itm en t
a n d wor k in itia tive of em ployees. Th u s, th is
self-m a n a gem en t of sta ff is essen tia lly
r equ ir ed for top qu a lity ou tpu t of or ga n iza tion s in gen er a l a n d sch ools in pa r ticu la r.
A wor k gr ou p m ay be con sider ed a s a sm a ll
or ga n iza tion in th e sch ool. Ba sed on th is, th e
con ception of self-m a n a gem en t a t th e sch ool
level m igh t be exten ded to th e gr ou p level.
With in th e ava ila ble a u ton om y a n d bou n da r ies in th e sch ool, self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess
a t th e gr ou p level m ay a lso in clu de en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis, pla n n in g a n d str u ctu r in g,
sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g, im plem en tin g, a n d
m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tin g. P r a ctisin g th e
self-m a n a gem en t cycle, gr ou ps ca n be aw a r e
of th e ever ch a n gin g in ter n a l a n d exter n a l
ch a llen ges, develop gr ou p m em ber s to fa ce
a n d m a n a ge th ese ch a llen ges, a n d a ch ieve th e
[ 160 ]
gr ou p a n d sch ool goa ls. In th is cycle, gr ou ps
a r e self-edu ca tin g a n d self-r en ew in g.
Self-management at the individual level
A self-m a n a gin g gr ou p w ith ou t self-m a n a gin g in dividu a ls w ill n ot fu n ction effectively.
A self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess th a t fa cilita tes
th e in dividu a l to be r espon sive to exter n a l
ch a llen ges a n d en a bles in dividu a l con tin u ou s
self-lea r n in g is im por ta n t. Th e a bove pr esen ted self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess a t th e gr ou p
a n d sch ool levels w ith a ppr opr ia te m odifica tion s m ay ser ve th is pu r pose. Th u s, it is con ceptu a lized th a t w ith in th e ava ila ble a u ton om y a n d bou n da r ies, th e in dividu a l sta ff
wor k th r ou gh th eir self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess
in clu din g en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis, pla n n in g
a n d a ffilia tin g, developin g a n d dir ectin g, a n d
m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tin g, a s follow s. At th e
in itia l sta ge, th e sta ff a s in dividu a ls r eflect on
th eir in ter n a l a n d exter n a l en vir on m en t.
In ter n a lly, th ey r eflect on th eir per son a l
a ttr ibu tes in ter m s of str en gth s, wea k n esses,
oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts a s m em ber s in th e
gr ou p a n d sch ool. E xter n a lly, th ey r eflect on
th eir r ela tion sh ip w ith oth er m em ber s, stu den ts’ a bility a n d pa r en ta l expecta tion s, com petition a n d co-oper a tion w ith collea gu es, etc.
Th en , ba sed on th e r esu lts of en vir on m en ta l
a n a lysis, th ey for m u la te th eir ow n dir ection s
a n d cou r ses of a ction (e.g. th e style of tea ch in g) to a ccom plish th e a ssign ed ta sk s w ith in
th e ava ila ble a u ton om y a n d a lloca ted
r esou r ces. Th eir a ction goa ls a n d pla n s
sh ou ld be con sisten t w ith th e gr ou p a n d
sch ool goa ls. Th ey a lso esta blish good a ffilia tion a n d r ela tion sh ip w ith collea gu es, stu den ts, pa r en ts a n d m em ber s of th e com m u n ity. F u r th er m or e, th ey in vest th eir effor t in
developin g th eir pr ofession a l com peten ce
th r ou gh fr equ en t a tten da n ce a t pr ofession a l
en r ich m en t pr ogr a m m es a n d exch a n ges w ith
collea gu es. Th ey dir ect th em selves to th e
pla n n ed goa ls a n d a ctivities by pr oper a lloca tion of per son a l r esou r ces, su ch a s tim e a n d
a tten tion . In th e im plem en tin g sta ge, th ey
r efi n e th eir a ctu a l per for m a n ce in im plem en tin g th e pr ogr a m m e th r ou gh fr equ en t
r eh ea r sa ls, self-r ew a r d a n d self-pu n ish m en t.
Th ey m on itor a n d eva lu a te th eir
per for m a n ce th r ou gh self-obser va tion in
a ccor da n ce to th eir set per for m a n ce sta n da r ds. Th ey th en u se th e r esu lts of self-eva lu a tion to in itia te th eir n ext self-m a n a gem en t
cycle. Th r ou gh con tin u ou s self-m a n a gem en t
a n d lea r n in g, tea ch er s becom e m or e flexible,
a da pta ble a n d effective in a ch ievin g th eir
a ssign m en ts.
With m u tu a lly con sisten t self-m a n a gem en t
pr a ctices a t th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool
levels, th e sch ool a s a wh ole becom es a
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
lea r n in g or ga n iza tion th a t ca n con tin u ou sly
develop in differ en t a spects, a da pt to th e
ch a n gin g en vir on m en t a n d m eet th e in ter n a l
a n d exter n a l n eeds a n d ch a llen ges.
Strategies for launching multilevel
self-management in schools
To ta ck le th e difficu lties of im plem en tin g
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t in itia tives, we
n eed to see it a s a ch a n ge in itia tive to sh ift a
sch ool fr om th e tr a dition a l sch ool m a n a gem en t to self-m a n a gem en t a t th e sch ool, gr ou p
a n d tea ch er levels. Accor din g to th e con cepts
of Lew in (1952), Sch er m er h or n et a l. (1982),
N g a n d Ch en g (1991) a n d Ch en g (1996), sch ool
ch a n ge w ill be su ccessfu l if we a r e ca r efu l in
wor k in g th r ou gh th r ee sta ges of th e ch a n ge
pr ocess: u n fr ee zin g sta ge, ch a n gin g sta ge a n d
r ein for cin g sta ge. Th u s, in or der to la u n ch
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t effectively, we
sh ou ld invest ou r effor t in m a n a gin g th ese
th r ee sta ges, a s sh ow n in Ta ble I (Ch en g,
1996).
The unfreezing stage: preparation for
multilevel self-management
Th e u n fr ee zin g sta ge a im s to pr epa r e a better
situ a tion for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t in
sch ools. Du e to th e in cr ea sin g pr essu r es fr om
in ter n a l a n d exter n a l sch ool en vir on m en ts, a
sch ool n eeds to m a k e ch a n ges a n d a da pt to
th ese ch a llen ges for its su r viva l a n d lon gter m developm en t. Bu t, u n for tu n a tely, sch ool
m em ber s a r e often bu r den ed w ith da ily wor k loa ds a n d a r e u sed to th e existin g pr a ctices
a n d pr ocedu r es. Th ey m ay n ot be aw a r e of th e
Table I
The stage s o f intro duc ing c hange fro m traditio nal manage me nt to multile ve l se lf-manage me nt in
sc ho o ls
Unfreezing stage
Changing stage
Reinforcing stage
• Identify, establish and public ize
the need for multilevel selfmanagement
• Implement self-management
ac c ording to the framework
• Identify the overt and hidden
advantages of the c hange to
self-management
• Plan goals and polic ies for the
c hange to self-management
• Pay attention to the timing of
launc hing self-management at
different levels
• Identify the adverse effec ts and
eliminate them
• Analyse the forc e field and develop
c hange strategies
• The self-management c yc le
duration may vary ac ross levels
• Estimate all types of c osts for
the c hange
• Inc rease driving forc es
• Not only tec hnologic al c hanges in
management/ teac hing/ learning
but also c ultural c hanges
• Assess the effec tiveness of the
c hange to self-management
• Minimize restraining forc es
• Change the affec tive, behavioural
and c ognitive aspec ts of the
involved ac tors at the individual/
group/ sc hool levels
• Make rec ommendations for
future ac tions
• Prepare the nec essary psyc hologic al
(i.e. c ognitive and affec tive) and
tec hnic al readiness of those involved
through staff development
• Prepare the nec essary resourc es
for the c hange to self-management
• Make modific ations on the
tec hnologic al c hanges
• Monitor the c hange proc ess and
ensure the progress towards the
self-management goals
• Institutionalize the suc c essful
tec hnologic al c hanges
• To c larify the emergent
psyc hologic al and tec hnic al
unc ertainties and reduc e their
potential damages to the c hange
• Internalize the suc c essful
c ultural c hanges
• To learn new ideas and tec hniques
and develop new goals
• Clarify the unc ertainties and
frustrations due to unsuc c essful
experienc es and enc ourage
c ontinuous learning
Source: adapted from Cheng (1996)
[ 161 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
im pa ct fr om th ese in ter n a l a n d exter n a l
ch a llen ges a n d th ey m ay ign or e th e n eed for
self-m a n a gem en t a t th e sch ool level, gr ou p
level or in dividu a l level. Th er efor e, in th e
u n fr ee zin g sta ge, th e a gen t of im plem en tin g a
sch ool self-m a n a gem en t pr oject (SSMP a gen t)
sh ou ld h elp th e sch ool m em ber s to iden tify
a n d u n der sta n d th e n eed for a ch a n ge to th e
self-m a n a gem en t m ode a n d th en esta blish
th is n eed in th e sch ool pla n or pr ogr a m m e
pla n s for a ction . In or der to cr ea te a better
a tm osph er e for th e ch a n ge, pu blicizin g th e
n eed for su ch a ch a n ge to a ll in volved m em ber s is n ecessa r y(Ch en g, 1996).
Th e im plem en ta tion a gen t sh ou ld a n a lyse
th e for ce field to ch a n ge a n d develop str a tegies to in cr ea se th e poten tia l dr ivin g for ces
a n d m in im ize th e poten tia l r estr a in in g
for ces. At th is sta ge, th e m a jor str a te gy is
th a t th e a gen t sh ou ld h elp th ose in volved
m em ber s to h ave th e n ecessa r y psych ologica l
(i.e. cogn itive a n d a ffective) r ea din ess a n d
tech n ica l r ea din ess th r ou gh sta ff developm en t a ctivities. In oth er wor ds, sch ool m em ber s sh ou ld be well pr epa r ed to u n der sta n d
th e n a tu r e a n d m ea n in g of m u ltilevel selfm a n a gem en t, be w illin g a n d com m itted to it
a n d h ave th e n ecessa r y com peten ce to im plem en t it. At th e sa m e tim e, th e a gen t sh ou ld
pr epa r e th e n ecessa r y r esou r ces for th e
ch a n ge.
Som e of th e m a jor ch a r a cter istics of a ffective a n d cogn itive r ea din ess a r e given in
Ta bles II to IV a n d th ese ca n be u sed to dir ect
th e u n fr ee zin g a ction s. Som e exa m ples of
possible a ctivities or a ction s for bu ildin g u p
r ea din ess for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t a t
th e sch ool, gr ou p a n d in dividu a l levels a r e
a lso pr ovided in th ese ta bles.
Obviou sly, th er e a r e th r ee levels of u n fr ee zin g, su ch a s in dividu a l tea ch er s, gr ou ps a n d
th e sch ool a s a wh ole. In gen er a l, pr ior ity
sh ou ld be given to “u n fr ee ze” tea ch er s fir st.
However, ea ch sch ool m ay h ave its ow n
u n fr ee zin g pr ior ity depen din g on its ow n
r ea din ess con dition s. Rea din ess a ssessm en t
a t a m u ltilevel sh ou ld be n ecessa r y befor e
a n y u n fr ee zin g wor k ca n be don e. Th e a ssessm en t r esu lts w ill pr ovide a clea r er pictu r e for
th e sch ool to set its “u n fr ee zin g” pr ior ity. In
Table II
Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r sc ho o l le ve l se lf-manage me nt
Affective preparation
Cognitive preparation
Guidelines and examples
Sc hool mangers are willing to:
delegate authority to the
sc hool princ ipal and other
members of the sc hool
Sc hool managers and other
sc hool members realize:
the need to prac tise sc hool
self-management in meeting
the c hallenges ahead
The SSMP agent:
reports on appropriate oc c asions
(e.g. sc hool management c ommittee
meeting, speec h days, sc hool/ teac her
c onsultative meeting) the suc c essful
experienc e of teac hers’ and parents’
involvement in making sc hool
func tioning and polic y making
listen, with the princ ipal
to teac hers’ and parents’
views and involve them in
the dec ision-making
proc ess as far as possible
Sc hool members are willing to:
share their work experienc e
with a view to evaluating
the performanc e of the
sc hool as a whole
that teac hers’ and parent’ s
partic ipation c an improve the
quality of sc hool polic ies and
benefit the ac tual
implementation of polic ies
the need to allow teac hers and
parents to get ac c ess to
information for dec ision making;
handle different views; to have
more time allowanc e for polic ies
formulation
The sc hool’ s senior management
is willing to:
develop teac hers strategic ally Sc hool members hold a shared
sc hool mission
provide support and guidelines to sc hool members for
Sc hool leaders are c ompetent
c ompletion of the sc hool
in leading sc hool members to
plans
perform SWOT analysis;
strategic planning;and sc hool
evaluation
invites teac her and parent representatives
to serve on the sc hool management
c ommittee and other c ommittees
related to the sc hool’ s routine running
organizes seminars and talks to bring
up the awareness level of sc hool
managers and other sc hool members
regarding the need of prac tising selfmanagement in sc hool as an effec tive
means to enhanc e sc hool effec tiveness
c reates opportunities for sc hool members
to visit other sc hools whic h have
already prac tised self-management
c reates opportunities for sc hool members
to have an open disc ourse on their own
vision of the sc hool with a view to developing a c ommonly shared sc hool mission
organizes professional development
programmes for sc hool leaders on SWOT
analysis, strategic planning and sc hool
evaluation
[ 162 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
Table III
Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r gro up le ve l se lf-manage me nt
Affective preparation
Cognitive preparation
Guidelines and examples
The sc hool princ ipal is willing
to delegate authority to work
groups
Group leaders and group members
realize:
the need for the work groups to
have self-management prac tic es
c onsistent to that of the sc hool
The sc hool princ ipal holds meetings with
work groups to delineate the responsibilities and authority of the group
through disc ussing the group’ s terms of
referenc e
Group leaders are willing to
involve group members in the
dec ision-making proc ess as far
as possible
Group members are willing to:
share their work experienc e
work with a view to evaluate
the performanc e of the group
as a whole
work in teams, and supporting
eac h other in work
learn from eac h other
help and support
inexperienc ed members
teac hers’ partic ipation in dec ision
making c an improve the quality
of work plans and benefit the
ac tual implementation of plans
the need to allow members to get
ac c ess to information for
dec ision making; handle
different views; to have more
time allowanc e for work plan
formulation
Group members hold a shared
sc hool mission and work
direc tions of the group
The SSMP agent:
organizes seminars, talks and
workshops to build up teams
c reates opportunities for work groups
to disc uss their self-management
prac tic es with c orresponding work
groups in other sc hools; and for group
leaders to share their groups’ selfmanagement prac tic es
organizes professional development
programmes for group leaders on SWOT
analysis, strategic planning and group’ s
self-evaluation
The group leaders c reate opportunities for
Group leaders are c ompetent in
leading group members to perform
group members to have an open disc ourse
SWOT analysis; strategic planning;
on their perc eived work direc tions of
and group’ s self-evaluation
the group with a view to develop a
c ommonly shared work direc tion
The group sets up:
an information flow system for group
members’ easy ac c ess
a mentor system for its “ green” members
som e ca ses, th e en for cem en t of pr a ctices a t a
h igh er level, e.g. th e sch ool level, m ay in du ce
a n “u n fr ee zin g” effect a t th e lower level, e.g.
th e tea ch er level. For exa m ple, th e effor t to
develop a com m on ly sh a r ed sch ool m ission a t
th e sch ool level m ay in evita bly cr ea te a sen se
of ow n er sh ip in tea ch er s. Th u s, tea ch er s m ay
pr oba bly h ave a h igh er de gr ee of a ccepta n ce
of m or e r espon sibility a n d com m itm en t. In
th is w ay, th e level of r ea din ess for pr a ctisin g
tea ch er level self-m a n a gem en t is a lso
in cr ea sed.
The changing stage: practising multilevel
self-management cycles
After th e u n fr ee zin g sta ge, th e pla n n ed selfm a n a gem en t a ctivities ca n be im plem en ted
a ccor din g to th e a bove m u ltilevel fr a m ewor k
pr oposed by Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g (1996a ). It
m ay n ot be n ecessa r y to im plem en t self-m a n a gem en t a t a ll levels a t th e sa m e tim e. Th e
tim in g for fa cilita tin g a pa r ticu la r level’s selfm a n a gem en t sh ou ld be ta k en ca u tiou sly. Th e
r ea din ess of ea ch level sh ou ld be a ssessed
fir st. Th e SSMP a gen t sh ou ld n ot be gin to
fa cilita te self-m a n a gem en t a t a pa r ticu la r
level if th e cor r espon din g r ea din ess is n ot
r ea ch ed.
Mu tu a l in flu en ce exists a m on g th e selfm a n a gem en t pr a ctices a t th e sch ool, gr ou p
a n d tea ch er levels. Th u s, wh en pr a ctisin g
m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t in a sch ool, ca r e
sh ou ld be ta k en to en su r e a s fa r a s possible
th e h igh est de gr ee of con sisten cy in selfm a n a gem en t pr a ctices a m on g th e th r ee levels. Th e h igh er th e de gr ee of con sisten cy, th e
gr ea ter th e syn er gy der ived fr om th e pr a ctices. Also, a self-m a n a gem en t cu ltu r e m ay be
cu ltiva ted m or e ea sily for sch ool m em ber s
wh o per sisten tly pr a ctise self-m a n a gem en t
a n d en ga ge in con tin u ou s self-lea r n in g a n d
r en ew a l.
In gen er a l, th e wor k gr ou ps m ay a lso h ave
sim ila r pa tter n s of m a n a gem en t cycle du r a tion fr om a few m on th s to on e a ca dem ic yea r,
depen din g la r gely on th eir gr ou p pla n s. Bu t
for self-m a n a gem en t a t a sch ool, th e cycle
du r a tion m ay la st fr om on e to th r ee a ca dem ic
yea r s. Com pa r a tively, th e self-m a n a gem en t
cycles for in dividu a l tea ch er s m ay be sh or ter,
r a n gin g fr om a few week s to a few m on th s or
on e a ca dem ic yea r beca u se th eir ta sk s wou ld
[ 163 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
Table IV
Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r te ac he r le ve l se lf-manage me nt
Affective preparation
Cognitive preparation
Guidelines and examples
Teac hers are willing to:
ac c ept new responsibility
and delegated power that
c omes with self-management
Teac hers realize:
the need for them to have selfmanagement prac tic es
c onsistent to that of their
group and the sc hool
The SSMP agent:
organizes seminars, talks and workshops
to stress the importanc e of prac tising selfmanagment in fac ing the c hallenges ahead;
build up teac hers’ self-management
c ompetenc e
self-manage their own work
reflec t on their own
performanc e, relationship
with signific ant others in
work
evaluate their own
performanc e against set
standards
establish a good affiliation
with signific ant others in
work
develop themselves
c ontinously to meet the
c hallenges ahead
that effec tive self-management
prac tic e will help them fac e the
c hallenges ahead
the importanc e to set up personal
work goals and related
performanc e standards
that they are working within the
delegated power and
responsibilities
the importanc e of c ontinuous
learning from signific ant others
in work
they are c ompetent at selfmanagement skills like strategic
planning, performanc e standard
setting, time and resourc e
management, c onstruc tive
thinking, self-reward and
punishment
be sm a ller th a n th ose of gr ou ps or th e sch ool.
In su m , th e du r a tion of self-m a n a gem en t
cycles va r ies a m on g in dividu a l tea ch er s,
gr ou ps a n d sch ools.
In th e pr ocess of im plem en ta tion , th er e
sh ou ld be n ot on ly tech n ologica l ch a n ges in
m a n a gem en t, tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g bu t a lso
cu ltu r a l ch a n ges in va lu es a n d beliefs a bou t
sch ool pr ocesses. Th e a ffective, beh aviou r a l
a n d cogn itive a spects of sch ool m a n a ger s, th e
pr in cipa l, a dm in istr a tor s, tea ch er s a n d even
pa r en ts, if n ecessa r y, a r e cor r espon din gly
ch a n ged a ccor din g to th e n eeds of th e m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t fr a m ewor k . Mon itor in g th e im plem en ta tion pr ocess is n ecessa r y
to en su r e th e pr ogr ess tow a r ds th e pla n n ed
goa ls of self-m a n a gem en t. In th e pr ocess, th e
im plem en ta tion a gen t often n eeds to cla r ify
th e em er gen t psych ologica l a n d tech n ica l
u n cer ta in ties a n d r edu ce th eir poten tia l
da m a ges to th e ch a n ge. An d, th e in volved
a ctor s som etim es n eed to lea r n n ew idea s a n d
tech n iqu es a n d develop n ew goa ls in th e
pr ocess, if n ecessa r y Ch en g, 1996).
The reinforcing stage: reinforcing
multilevel self-management practices
After th e ch a n gin g sta ge, th e im plem en ta tion
a gen t w ill tr y to r efr ee ze th e positive ou t[ 164 ]
c reates opportunities, suc h as soc ial
func tions and professional experienc e
sharing, for teac hers to build up a mutual
support network
organizes formal and informal meetings and
sessions for teac hers to share their
expertise and experienc e in topic s related
to teac hing, self-management of personal
resourc es, and professional development
may help teac hers to form strategic study
groups for professional development of
teac hers with the sc hool goals as guiding
posts
c reates opportunites for teac hers to voic e
their views of sc hool and group management
in a way that they feel satisfied with
c reates opportunities for teac hers to meet
parents and fac ilitate teac her-parent
c ollaboration
com es of th e ch a n ge. Th e pu r pose of th e r ein for cin g sta ge is to m a xim ize a ll th e a dva n ta ges ga in ed fr om th e ch a n ge to m u ltilevel
self-m a n a gem en t a n d per petu a te th e positive
effects for a lon ger per iod. Of cou r se, in th is
sta ge, elim in a tin g th e poten tia l side effects is
a lso im por ta n t. Accor din g to Ch en g (1996),
th is sta ge m ay gen er a lly in clu de th e follow in g im por ta n t ta sk s:
• Iden tify a n d con fir m a ll th e im por ta n t,
over t a n d h idden , pla n n ed a n d u n in ten ded
a dva n ta ges gen er a ted fr om th e la u n ch in g
self-m a n a gem en t.
• Iden tify a ll th e im por ta n t over t a n d h idden
a dver se effects on differ en t a spects of th e
sch ool or m em ber s a n d elim in a te th em a s
soon a s possible.
• E stim a te a ll types of m on eta r y a n d n on m on eta r y costs for th e im plem en ta tion of
self-m a n a gem en t.
• Assess th e effectiven ess of th e ch a n ge by
com pa r in g th e a ch ievem en ts w ith th e
pla n n ed goa ls a n d com pa r in g th e ga in ed
a dva n ta ges w ith th e disa dva n ta ges a n d th e
costs.
• P r opose r ecom m en da tion s for fu r th er
a ction s a ccor din g to th e a bove eva lu a tion
a n d a n a lysis.
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
• Ma k e m odifi ca tion s (if n ecessa r y) on th e
tech n ologica l a spects of self-m a n a gem en t
im plem en ta tion a ccor din g to th e a bove
eva lu a tion a n d a n a lysis.
• In stitu tion a lize th e su ccessfu l tech n ologica l ch a n ges in self-m a n a gem en t a n d th e
r ela ted exper ien ces in or der to per petu a te
th eir a dva n ta ges a n d ben efit m or e people in
fu tu r e pr a ctice.
• In ter n a lize th e su ccessfu l cu ltu r a l ch a n ges
a m on g sch ool m em ber s th r ou gh r efl ectin g
on th e su ccessfu l exper ien ces, discu ssin g
th e difficu lties a n d th eir solu tion s, pr ovidin g in tr in sic a n d extr in sic r ew a r ds, celebr a tin g th e su ccess th r ou gh cer em on y or
r itu a ls, pr ovidin g a vision on th e m ea n in gs
of th e ch a n ge, etc.
• Cla r ify th e u n cer ta in ties a n d fr u str a tion s
du e to th e u n su ccessfu l exper ien ces a n d
en cou r a ge con tin u ou s lea r n in g a n d developm en t fr om th ese exper ien ces.
Th e a bove list ca n pr ovide som e ba sic gu idelin es to r ein for ce positive pr a ctices a n d ou tcom es a n d m a xim ize a dva n ta ges fr om th e
ch a n ge to m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t. Of
cou r se, in pr a ctice, th e r efr ee zin g str a te gies
for differ en t sch ools m ay be differ en t,
depen din g on th e specific con dition s of th e
sch ools. Also th e str a te gies for differ en t levels m ay be differ en t too. Ba sed on th e a bove
ba sic gu idelin es, som e a r ea s of r ein for cin g
wor k a t th e sch ool, gr ou p a n d in dividu a l level
a r e ou tlin ed in Ta ble V for r efer en ce.
Skills for launching selfmanagement initiative
Th e la u n ch in g of a lm ost a ll ch a n ge in itia tives
w ill fa ce r esista n ce, a n d n eed a ppr opr ia te
sk ills a n d str a te gies to m a xim ize dr ivin g
for ces for ch a n ge a n d m in im ize th e a ssocia ted r esista n ce (Ch en g a n d N g, 1995). In or der
to wor k effectively th r ou gh th e th r ee sta ges of
ch a n ge, th e SSMP a gen t m ay em ploy a n u m ber of sk ills to r edu ce r esista n ce a n d ga in
su ppor t fr om wor k gr ou ps a n d in dividu a l
sta ff m em ber s.
Accor din g to th e con ception of Du n h a m
a n d P ier ce (1989), th ese sk ills m ay in clu de:
edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion ; pa r ticipa tion
a n d in volvem en t; fa cilita tive su ppor t; em otion a l su ppor t; pr ovidin g in cen tives; m a n ipu la tion a n d co-opta tion ; a n d coer cion . Th e u se
of edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion sk ill
r equ ir es th e SSMP a gen t to pr ovide a ll r eleva n t in for m a tion on self-m a n a gem en t for
sch ool m em ber s a n d wor k gr ou ps. In th e
pr ocess, th e SSMP n ot on ly expla in s th e in for m a tion pr ovided, bu t a lso collects view s fr om
a ll pa r ties con cer n ed. It m ay be a ch ieved
th r ou gh or ga n izin g differ en t sem in a r s, wor k sh ops a n d tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es for tea ch er s
a n d wor k gr ou p lea der s. Th r ou gh th ese a ctivities, th e sch ool m ay r edu ce m isu n der sta n din g a n d pr ovide oppor tu n ities for th e k ey
a ctor s a t th e th r ee levels to a cqu ir e n ew
k n ow ledge a n d sk ills. Th is is especia lly
in str u m en ta l in th e u n fr ee zin g sta ge for
in du cin g r ea din ess. However, th is sk ill a lso
h a s its lim ita tion s. It ta k es a con sider a bly
lon g per iod of tim e a n d lots of r esou r ces to
a ch ieve th e in ten ded ou tcom es.
Th e secon d sk ill is pa r ticipa tion a n d
involvem en t. In volvin g th ose con cer n ed in
developin g pla n s of la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t w ill gen er a te a h igh level of com m itm en t a n d su ppor t to th e r esu ltin g pla n s. Th is
is a ctu a lly th e essen ce of pr a ctisin g self-m a n a gem en t a t m u ltilevels in sch ools a n d is a
ver y effective a n d essen tia l sk ill to in du ce
h igh levels of com m itm en t a n d su ppor t. Th e
k ey is to in vite sch ool m em ber s to pr ovide
view s a n d, to a cer ta in exten t, be in volved in
for m u la tin g th e sch ool pla n s a n d wor k gr ou p
pla n s. Th e sch ool sh ou ld pr ovide th e r equ ir ed
in for m a tion a n d su ppor t. Th is sk ill is especia lly u sefu l wh en th e wor k to be don e is a t
th e oper a tion a l level. For exa m ple, in volvin g
tea ch er s a n d pa r en ts in th e pla n n in g a n d
or ga n izin g of a “Sa tu r day con su lta tion cen tr e” for pa r en ts or su ppor tive pa r en t n etwor k s. In th is w ay, a ll pa r ties con cer n ed m ay
develop a sen se of ow n er sh ip of th e pla n s or
pr ojects. Th is is essen tia l for su ccessfu l
im plem en ta tion of th e wor k pla n s a t th e
sch ool a n d gr ou p levels.
In or der to m a xim ize th e effectiven ess of
th is sk ill, th e sch ool a n d th e gr ou ps sh ou ld
pr ovide com pr eh en sive in for m a tion , tim e
a n d r esou r ces to fa cilita te th e developm en t of
good qu a lity wor k pla n s. Mor eover, th e sch ool
a n d th e gr ou ps n eed to h a n dle ca r efu lly th e
diver sity of view s in th e cou r se of pla n n in g
fr om tea ch er s. If n ot h a n dled ca r efu lly, a h igh
level of dissa tisfa ction in sch ool m em ber s
m ay be gen er a ted. However, on ce com pr om ises a r e ta ctfu lly r ea ch ed, a ver y good
ch a n ce of effective im plem en ta tion of th e
pla n s m ay be expected.
Th e sk ill of fa cilita tive su ppor t is to pr ovide
con cr ete su ppor ts to sch ool m em ber s a n d
wor k gr ou ps du r in g th eir im plem en ta tion of
self-m a n a gem en t. Th is sk ill is especia lly
im por ta n t in th e im plem en tin g sta ge of th e
self-m a n a gem en t cycles a t m u ltilevels. Th e
su ppor t m ay be in clu ded in a r ea s lik e tech n ology, tr a in in g, m a ter ia l, tim e a n d con str u ctive view s. For exa m ples, th e sch ool a n d wor k
gr ou ps m ay pr ovide oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s to a ch ieve r eleva n t pr ofession a l com peten ce to do SWOT (str en gth s, wea k n esses,
[ 165 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
Table V
Po ssible wo rk fo r the re info rc ing stage
Level of selfmanagement
Guidelines and examples
School level
self-management
Establish appropriate mec hanisms and struc ture to strengthen c ommunic ation among work
groups; and to evaluate the effec tiveness of shared dec ision making in sc hool polic ies
Reinforc e and reassure the possible positive experienc e of teac hers’ involvement in shared
dec ision making, e.g. emphasize win-win situations between groups; ac hievement of sc hool
plans; the sc hool’ s flexibility and responsiveness in handling c risis; etc .
Identify areas for improvement and develop strategies for solving diffic ulties and c onflic ts
between groups
Organize sharing sessions for teac hers and sc hool managers to reinforc e the positive
experienc e and formulate future plans
Assist the teac her and parent representatives who serve on the sc hool management c ommittee
to report bac k their positive experienc e to other teac her and parents’ organizations respec tively
Improve the mode of elec tion of teac her and parent representatives in the sc hool management
c ommittee
Group level
self-management
Establish appropriate mec hanisms to strengthen information flow among group members; and
to evaluate the effec tiveness of shared dec ision making in group plans
Reinforc e and reassure the positive experienc e of group members’ involvement in shared
dec ision making, e.g. emphasize win-win situations between members; ac hievement of set
goals; effec tive use of resourc es; fruitful and mutual learning among members; establishment
of a good group reputation; and the group’ s ability to response and adapt to unexpec ted events
Identify areas for improvement and develop strategies for solving diffic ulties and c onflic ts
within the group
Organize sessions for group members to share their positive experienc e with teac hers in other
groups. Hopefully, this arrangement will provide opportunities for learning from other groups
and new insights may be gained for formulation of future plans
Teacher level
self-management
The SSMP agent helps teac hers to evaluate and reinforc e positive experienc e of teac hers’
effec tiveness in ac hieving their personal work goals, spec ific ally in terms of ac hievement of
the self set performanc e standards. This is a good way for refreezing individual teac hers’
self-management prac tic es, yet is very time c onsuming
The SSMP agent c reates opportunities for teac hers to share with peers their positive
experienc e in evaluating their performanc e against performanc e standards; ac hieving
personal goals; learning from signific ant others in work; ways they solve their problems in
work; priority setting; time and resourc e management; attending professional development
programmes; job redesign efforts; effec tive use of self-management skills; setting up
affiliation with parents; etc . These arrangements open up a full spec trum of sharing topic s
and meanwhile strengthening the position of teac hers who share their experienc e
The topic s proposed above may take the form of study groups and sharing sessions with
c olleagues of the same sc hool or other sc hools in inter-sc hool visitations; through enc ouraging
teac hers to partic ipate in these ac tivities, teac hers may gain new learning and insight to
improve and develop strategies for solving personal diffic ulties in work and formulation of
future plans and prac tic es
oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts) a n a lysis or developm en t pla n n in g. Th e su ccessfu l fa cilita tive
su ppor t sk ill often r equ ir es a lot of r esou r ce
in pu t. Th e a ssocia ted costs m ay be h igh .
However, it pr ovides ver y dir ect su ppor t to
th e pa r ties con cer n ed a n d ben efits th e
sm ooth la u n ch in g of self-m a n a gem en t.
Th e u se of em otion a l su ppor t is especia lly
u sefu l to sch ool m em ber s wh o h ave developed
n e ga tive feelin gs tow a r ds th e in tr odu ction of
m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t in sch ool. It ca n
settle dow n th e em otion a l fr u str a tion of
[ 166 ]
tea ch er s du e to th e ch a n ge. It ca n a lso r ein for ce good wor k . If u sed effectively, tea ch er s
m ay be pa cified a n d a positive a ttitu de
tow a r ds th e self-m a n a gem en t in itia tive m ay
be r estor ed. On e a dva n ta ge of th is sk ill is th a t
n ot m u ch r esou r ce is r equ ir ed. Con cr ete
exa m ples of u sin g th e sk ill a r e plen ty. For
exa m ples, th e SSMP a gen t m ay en cou r a ge
tea ch er s by pr a isin g th eir good pr a ctices,
com for tin g a n d sh ow in g con cer n to th ose
wh o h ave developed n e ga tive feelin gs. Of
cou r se, it is difficu lt to u se th is sk ill system a t-
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
ica lly a n d th e tim e spen t m ay n ot be effective
in solvin g th e pr oblem s. Mor eover, th e SSMP
a gen t n eeds to be ver y sen sitive to th e possible n e ga tive feelin gs gen er a ted in sch ool
m em ber s.
P r ovidin g in cen tives is a lso a n im por ta n t
sk ill th a t gives ta ilor -m a de in cen tives to con cer n ed pa r ties a ccor din g to th eir n eeds. For
exa m ple, th e SSMP a gen t m ay m a k e tea ch er s
u n der sta n d th a t th e pr a ctice of self-m a n a gem en t in th e sch ool a t m u ltilevels cou ld
em power tea ch er s w ith in str u ction a l a u ton om y, pr ovide th em w ith ch a n ces to be
involved in th e for m u la tion of sch ool a n d
gr ou p pla n s; a n d fa cilita te th em to m a n a ge
th eir wor k effectively. As a r esu lt, th eir wor k ,
especia lly th eir cla ssr oom tea ch in g w ill ben efit a n d be r ew a r din g. Th is type of
“secon da r y” in cen tive is good for dr ivin g
sch ool m em ber s to tr ea su r e th eir self-m a n a gem en t pr a ctices a t th e th r ee levels. How ever, th e pr ovision of som e k in ds of in cen tives lik e r edu ction in tea ch in g loa d a n d pr om otion pr ospects m ay in cu r ver y h igh costs
to th e sch ool a n d wor k gr ou ps, a n d cr ea te
u n expected r ea ction fr om oth er in ter est pa r ties. An oth er lim ita tion of th is sk ill is th a t
sch ool m em ber s m ay r ely on in cen tives
befor e effective im plem en ta tion of th e pla n s.
Wh en th er e is a n u r gen t n eed to im plem en t
th e self-m a n a gem en t pla n , or th e u se of oth er
sk ills, it w ill in cu r h igh costs su ch a s tim e
a n d r esou r ces; th e u se of m a n ipu la tion a n d
co-opta tion w ill th en be som ewh a t effective.
For exa m ple, a ppoin t a n in fl u en tia l tea ch er to
th e lea der of th e sch ool self-m a n a gem en t
pr oject or a lien a te th ose a ga in st th e selfm a n a gem en t in itia tive. It sh ou ld be n oted
Figure 1
Hie rac hy o f skills fo r launc hing se lf-manage me nt
Education and
communication
Deep level cognitive
and affective changes
Participation and
involvement
Conclusion
Facilitative
support
Emotional
support
Provide
incentives
Manipulation
and co-optation
Overt behavioural changes
Coercion
th a t if n ot u sed ta ctfu lly a n d a dequ a tely, th is
sk ill w ill r u in th e a lr ea dy esta blish ed good
a n d h a r m on iou s wor k in g r ela tion sh ip a m on g
sch ool m em ber s a n d wor k gr ou ps. It w ill a lso
r edu ce th e in itia tive of tea ch er s. Th u s, it m ay
im pose a cer ta in de gr ee of n e ga tive in flu en ce
on th e im plem en ta tion of fu tu r e pla n s.
Sim ila r to th e sk ill of m a n ipu la tion a n d coopta tion , coer cion ca n a lso elicit ver y fa st
im plem en ta tion of a ch a n ge pla n . Wh en th e
wor k is r ela ted to th e im m edia te in ter ests of
th e sch ool, pa r en ts or stu den ts a n d a n u r gen t
a ction is r equ ir ed in or der to r edu ce th e a ssocia ted th r ea ts, th e u se of th is sk ill m ay be
con sider ed. Sin ce th e n a tu r e of m u ltilevel
self-m a n a gem en t a im s to en cou r a ge h u m a n
in itia tive a n d fa cilita te con tin u ou s lea r n in g
a n d developm en t, th e u se of th is sk ill is in
gen er a l n ot so a ppr opr ia te to im plem en tin g
self-m a n a gem en t.
In or der to u se th ese seven sk ills effectively,
we n eed to u n der sta n d h ow th eir u se m ay
elicit differ en t de gr ees of r ea ction in sch ool
m em ber s. Th ese seven sk ills m ay be a r r a n ged
in a h ier a r ch y in ter m s of th e types of
ch a n ges th ey m ay in du ce in tea ch er s, a s
sh ow n in F igu r e 1. Th e u se of differ en t sk ills
w ill elicit differ en t ch a n ges, r a n gin g fr om th e
m ost over t beh aviou r a l ch a n ges to deep level
cogn itive a n d a ffective ch a n ges. For exa m ple,
th e u se of “edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion ” or
“pa r ticipa tion in pla n n in g” m ay in du ce deep
level cogn itive a n d a ffective ch a n ges, wh ile
th e u se of “coer cion ” a n d “m a n ipu la tion a n d
co-opta tion ” m ay elicit over t beh aviou r of
tea ch er s on ly. As discu ssed a bove, th e em ph a sis of self-m a n a gem en t is on h u m a n in itia tive
a n d con tin u ou s developm en t of tea ch er s,
gr ou ps a n d th e wh ole sch ool. Th er efor e, th e
u se of sk ills sh ou ld ten d to be th ose a t th e
h igh level, in clu din g “edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion ”, “pa r ticipa tion a n d in volvem en t”
a n d “fa cilita tive su ppor t” wh ich ca n h elp
sch ool m em ber s to a ch ieve th e n ecessa r y
a ffective a n d cogn itive ch a n ges in a ddition to
th e beh aviou r a l ch a n ges.
Th e pr a ctice of th e pr esen ted str a te gies
togeth er w ith th e a ppr opr ia te sk ills is essen tia l for th e sch ool to ga in th e r equ ir ed vita lity
to r edu ce r esista n ce, in du ce r ea din ess a n d
r ein for ce su ccesses in th e la u n ch in g of selfm a n a gem en t in itia tives a t m u ltilevels.
However, m er ely pr a ctisin g th em w ith ou t a
com pr eh en sive developm en ta l pla n , th e
sch ool a s a wh ole m ay n ot be a ble to in vest its
en er gy a n d effor t in a focu sed a n d con sisten t
w ay. Th u s, th e a dva n ta ges of pr a ctisin g selfm a n a gem en t m ay n ot be der ived a s expected.
[ 167 ]
Th e for m u la tion of a com pr eh en sive developm en ta l pla n for la u n ch in g a self-m a n a gem en t
in itia tive in a sch ool sh ou ld be ba sed on th e
a bove pr oposed str a te gies a n d sk ills. In a ddition , th e follow in g con sider a tion s m ay be
u sefu l.
Befor e la u n ch in g th e self-m a n a gem en t
in itia tives, th e SSMP a gen t sh ou ld a ssess th e
r ea din ess of th e sch ool a s a wh ole, wor k
gr ou ps a n d tea ch er s in pr a ctisin g self-m a n a gem en t. With th is in for m a tion , th e SSMP
a gen t w ill th en for m u la te a ser ies of u n fr ee zin g a ctivities for th e th r ee levels of k ey a ctor s
befor e m ovin g to th e ch a n gin g sta ge. In gen er a l, it is ben eficia l to sta r t th e u n fr ee zin g
wor k a t th e tea ch er level fi r st. However, th e
m ove w ill gr ea tly depen d on th e r ea din ess of
th e tea ch er s. F igu r e 2 illu str a tes th e str a tegies for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t in itia tive
w ith u n fr ee zin g wor k don e fi r st a t th e tea ch er
level, th en a t th e gr ou p level a n d fi n a lly a t th e
sch ool level.
In oth er ca ses, wh en th e tea ch er s h ave
a lr ea dy a cqu ir ed a cer ta in level of r ea din ess,
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin
Wing M ing Cheung
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
Yin Cheong Cheng
Ce ntre fo r Re se arc h and De ve lo pme nt, The Ho ng Ko ng Institute o f Educ atio n,
Ho ng Ko ng
School-based management
programmes have been
launched in various regions of
the world to enhance education quality in schools. Presents a multilevel self-management framework necessary
for effective implementation
of school-based management.
Proposes strategies for minimizing restraining forces and
developing plans for effective
multilevel self-management in
schools. Suggests three
stages of implementation:
unfreezing stage, changing
stage and reinforcing stage.
The time frame is critical for
implementing the three levels
of self-management and,
therefore, its management is
discussed. Proposes seven
types of skill required to work
more effectively through the
above stages, reduce resistance and gain support from
school members.
This is one of the papers
from the research project
entitled “ School-based
management: research and
development” sponsored by
an earmarked research
grant of the Research Grant
Council of Hong Kong to the
second author and a
research grant of the Hong
Kong Institute of Education
to the fi rst author. The
authors would like to
acknowledge the Council’s
and the Institute’s fi nancial
support.
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 ,4 [ 1997] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]
Introduction
Sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t pr ogr a m m es a r e
cu r r en tly la u n ch ed in va r iou s r e gion s of th e
wor ld to en h a n ce edu ca tion qu a lity in
sch ools. However, th e exta n t liter a tu r e su ggests th a t th e effectiven ess of sch ool-ba sed
m a n a gem en t is n ot con fir m ed. In pa r ticu la r,
th er e is a n a bsen ce of em pir ica l eviden ce th a t
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t is r ela ted to stu den ts’ edu ca tion a l ou tcom es (e.g. Ar n ot et a l.,
1992; Ch en g, 1992; Ma len et a l., 1990; Mitch ell,
1991). Also, m a n y im plem en ta tion difficu lties
h in der ed th e su ccess of th e sch ool m a n a gem en t r efor m s.
Th e obser va tion s of Ca ldwell (1994), Sym th s
(1995) a n d Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g (1996a , 1996b)
m ay per h a ps pr ovide a n expla n a tion of th ese
issu es. Th eir view is th a t con tem por a r y pr a ctices h ave seem in gly pu t ver y little effor t in to
in volvin g a n d fa cilita tin g tea ch er s in selfm a n a gin g th eir wor k . If we believe th a t th e
effectiven ess of th e sch ool is la r gely br ou gh t
a bou t by tea ch er s, self-m a n a gem en t in
sch ools sh ou ld, a pa r t fr om sch ool level issu es,
a lso in volve tea ch er s a t th e gr ou p a n d in dividu a l levels (Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g, 1996a ).
F u r th er m or e, u n expected r estr a in in g
for ces often com e fr om tea ch er s wh en th eir
sch ools la u n ch sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t
ch a n ges w ith ou t a com pr eh en sive str a te gic
pla n . Ca u sa l a n d fr a gm en ta r y la u n ch in g of
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t m ay in esca pa bly
fa ce r esista n ce a n d, th u s, m ay r esu lt in in effectiven ess, if n ot a h eavy bu r den to sch ool
m em ber s. It is n ot a su r pr ise th a t en h a n ced
sch ool effectiven ess in m a n y sch ool-ba sed
m a n a gem en t r efor m s m ay n ot be a ch ieved a s
expected a t th e be gin n in g.
To ta ck le th e con ceptu a l pr oblem s in
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t, Ch eu n g a n d
Ch en g (1996a ) pr oposed th a t a m u ltilevel
fr a m ewor k is cr itica l for pr a ctisin g self-m a n a gem en t in sch ools to pu r su e edu ca tion qu a lity a n d sch ool effectiven ess. Ba sed on th is
fr a m ewor k , th e pr esen t pa per a ttem pts to
pr opose str a te gies for effective la u n ch in g of
m u ltilevel sch ool self-m a n a gem en t. Hope-
fu lly, th ese str a te gies wou ld be h elpfu l to
sch ool pr a ctition er s in m in im izin g r estr a in in g for ces a n d developin g com pr eh en sive
pla n s to im plem en t sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t su ccessfu lly in on goin g a n d fu tu r e edu ca tion a l r efor m s.
Multilevel self-management in
school
Accor din g to th e con ception of Ch eu n g a n d
Ch en g (1996a ), self-m a n a gem en t in sch ool
m ay be pr a ctised a t th r ee levels, th e sch ool,
gr ou p a n d in dividu a l tea ch er levels. E a ch
follow s a five-sta ge self-iter a tive m a n a gem en t
cycle. Th e ch a r a cter istics of th ese self-m a n a gem en t cycles a t th e th r ee levels a r e su m m a r ized a s follow s ( for deta il, plea se r efer to
Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g, 1996a ).
Self-management at the school level
Th e in itia l sta ge of a sch ool self-m a n a gem en t
pr ocess is en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis in wh ich
th e sch ool (in clu din g a ll th e con cer n ed sch ool
m em ber s) a s a wh ole r eflects on its in ter n a l
a n d exter n a l en vir on m en t r eleva n t a n d cr u cia l to its existen ce in ter m s of str en gth s,
wea k n esses, oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts. By
per for m in g th is a n a lysis, th e exter n a l a n d
in ter n a l en vir on m en t is m on itor ed a n d th e
r esu lts of a n a lysis w ill ser ve a s th e ba ses for
pla n n in g. In th e pla n n in g a n d str u ctu r in g
sta ge, th e sch ool esta blish es sch ool dir ection ,
policies, pr ogr a m m es, bu dget, or ga n iza tion
str u ctu r e a n d wor k pr ocedu r es. Th e pr a ctice
of pa r ticipa tive decision m a k in g in th is sta ge
m ay develop a sen se of ow n er sh ip a m on g
th ose pa r ticipa tin g a n d th e r esu ltin g r esolu tion s w ill h ave a gr ea ter ch a n ce of su ccessfu l
im plem en ta tion . Th e esta blish m en t of a ppr opr ia te or ga n iza tion a l str u ctu r e a n d wor k
pr ocedu r es in clu des a n a ppr opr ia te com m u n ica tion fl ow, delin ea tion of r ela tion sh ips, job
specifica tion s a n d position r equ ir em en ts,
ch a in of com m a n d a n d oth er r ela ted issu es.
With a tta in a ble sch ool pla n s a n d a ppr opr ia te
str u ctu r e, th e self-m a n a gin g pr ocess th en
[ 159 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
pr oceeds to th e sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g sta ge.
Sta ffin g in clu des th e r ecr u itm en t a n d in du ction of n ew sta ff a s well a s pr ofession a l developm en t of a ll sta ff for com peten ce in a ch ievin g th e a ssign ed ta sk s. Th e sch ool a t th is
sta ge a lso focu ses on dele ga tin g r espon sibilities to sta ff, m otiva tin g sta ff tow a r ds ou tpu ttin g qu a lity wor k , co-or din a tin g a n d pr ovidin g dir ection s to sta ff. After th e a bove
sta ges, th e sch ool a s a wh ole im plem en ts
pla n n ed pr ogr a m m es. Du r in g a n d a fter
im plem en ta tion , th e per for m a n ce of th e
sch ool a s a wh ole is eva lu a ted a n d m on itor ed
w ith its esta blish ed r epor tin g a n d eva lu a tion
system a s well a s th e r ew a r d system for its
ta sk / pr ogr a m m e gr ou ps. Th e in for m a tion
obta in ed is va lu a ble for th e sch ool to m ove
for w a r d to sta r t th e en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis
sta ge of th e n ext self-m a n a gem en t cycle. In
th is w ay, th e cycle of self-m a n a gem en t a t
sch ool level con tin u es.
“… Pra ctisin g th e self-m a n a gem en t cycle, grou ps ca n b e aw a re of
th e ev er ch a n gin g in ter n a l a n d ex ter n a l ch a llen ges, d ev elop grou p
m em b ers to fa ce a n d m a n a ge th ese ch a llen ges, a n d a ch iev e th e
grou p a n d sch ool goa ls… ”
Th e a bove cyclic self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess
a llow s th e sch ool a s a wh ole to be aw a r e of th e
ch a n gin g ch a llen ges, to r ea dju st its sch ool
m ission , policies a n d a ction pla n s to th ese
n ew ch a llen ges. In th is w ay, self-r en ew a l a n d
lea r n in g occu r a s a r esu lt of th e sch ool’s
a da pta bility to th e ever ch a n gin g exter n a l
a n d in ter n a l en vir on m en t.
Self-management at the group level
In th e 1990s, th e wor k wor ld lea n s tow a r ds
pa r ticipa tive m a n a gem en t th r ou gh th e in tr odu ction of self-m a n a gin g wor k tea m s by
em power in g sta ffs wh ich elicits com m itm en t
a n d wor k in itia tive of em ployees. Th u s, th is
self-m a n a gem en t of sta ff is essen tia lly
r equ ir ed for top qu a lity ou tpu t of or ga n iza tion s in gen er a l a n d sch ools in pa r ticu la r.
A wor k gr ou p m ay be con sider ed a s a sm a ll
or ga n iza tion in th e sch ool. Ba sed on th is, th e
con ception of self-m a n a gem en t a t th e sch ool
level m igh t be exten ded to th e gr ou p level.
With in th e ava ila ble a u ton om y a n d bou n da r ies in th e sch ool, self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess
a t th e gr ou p level m ay a lso in clu de en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis, pla n n in g a n d str u ctu r in g,
sta ffin g a n d dir ectin g, im plem en tin g, a n d
m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tin g. P r a ctisin g th e
self-m a n a gem en t cycle, gr ou ps ca n be aw a r e
of th e ever ch a n gin g in ter n a l a n d exter n a l
ch a llen ges, develop gr ou p m em ber s to fa ce
a n d m a n a ge th ese ch a llen ges, a n d a ch ieve th e
[ 160 ]
gr ou p a n d sch ool goa ls. In th is cycle, gr ou ps
a r e self-edu ca tin g a n d self-r en ew in g.
Self-management at the individual level
A self-m a n a gin g gr ou p w ith ou t self-m a n a gin g in dividu a ls w ill n ot fu n ction effectively.
A self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess th a t fa cilita tes
th e in dividu a l to be r espon sive to exter n a l
ch a llen ges a n d en a bles in dividu a l con tin u ou s
self-lea r n in g is im por ta n t. Th e a bove pr esen ted self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess a t th e gr ou p
a n d sch ool levels w ith a ppr opr ia te m odifica tion s m ay ser ve th is pu r pose. Th u s, it is con ceptu a lized th a t w ith in th e ava ila ble a u ton om y a n d bou n da r ies, th e in dividu a l sta ff
wor k th r ou gh th eir self-m a n a gem en t pr ocess
in clu din g en vir on m en ta l a n a lysis, pla n n in g
a n d a ffilia tin g, developin g a n d dir ectin g, a n d
m on itor in g a n d eva lu a tin g, a s follow s. At th e
in itia l sta ge, th e sta ff a s in dividu a ls r eflect on
th eir in ter n a l a n d exter n a l en vir on m en t.
In ter n a lly, th ey r eflect on th eir per son a l
a ttr ibu tes in ter m s of str en gth s, wea k n esses,
oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts a s m em ber s in th e
gr ou p a n d sch ool. E xter n a lly, th ey r eflect on
th eir r ela tion sh ip w ith oth er m em ber s, stu den ts’ a bility a n d pa r en ta l expecta tion s, com petition a n d co-oper a tion w ith collea gu es, etc.
Th en , ba sed on th e r esu lts of en vir on m en ta l
a n a lysis, th ey for m u la te th eir ow n dir ection s
a n d cou r ses of a ction (e.g. th e style of tea ch in g) to a ccom plish th e a ssign ed ta sk s w ith in
th e ava ila ble a u ton om y a n d a lloca ted
r esou r ces. Th eir a ction goa ls a n d pla n s
sh ou ld be con sisten t w ith th e gr ou p a n d
sch ool goa ls. Th ey a lso esta blish good a ffilia tion a n d r ela tion sh ip w ith collea gu es, stu den ts, pa r en ts a n d m em ber s of th e com m u n ity. F u r th er m or e, th ey in vest th eir effor t in
developin g th eir pr ofession a l com peten ce
th r ou gh fr equ en t a tten da n ce a t pr ofession a l
en r ich m en t pr ogr a m m es a n d exch a n ges w ith
collea gu es. Th ey dir ect th em selves to th e
pla n n ed goa ls a n d a ctivities by pr oper a lloca tion of per son a l r esou r ces, su ch a s tim e a n d
a tten tion . In th e im plem en tin g sta ge, th ey
r efi n e th eir a ctu a l per for m a n ce in im plem en tin g th e pr ogr a m m e th r ou gh fr equ en t
r eh ea r sa ls, self-r ew a r d a n d self-pu n ish m en t.
Th ey m on itor a n d eva lu a te th eir
per for m a n ce th r ou gh self-obser va tion in
a ccor da n ce to th eir set per for m a n ce sta n da r ds. Th ey th en u se th e r esu lts of self-eva lu a tion to in itia te th eir n ext self-m a n a gem en t
cycle. Th r ou gh con tin u ou s self-m a n a gem en t
a n d lea r n in g, tea ch er s becom e m or e flexible,
a da pta ble a n d effective in a ch ievin g th eir
a ssign m en ts.
With m u tu a lly con sisten t self-m a n a gem en t
pr a ctices a t th e in dividu a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool
levels, th e sch ool a s a wh ole becom es a
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
lea r n in g or ga n iza tion th a t ca n con tin u ou sly
develop in differ en t a spects, a da pt to th e
ch a n gin g en vir on m en t a n d m eet th e in ter n a l
a n d exter n a l n eeds a n d ch a llen ges.
Strategies for launching multilevel
self-management in schools
To ta ck le th e difficu lties of im plem en tin g
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t in itia tives, we
n eed to see it a s a ch a n ge in itia tive to sh ift a
sch ool fr om th e tr a dition a l sch ool m a n a gem en t to self-m a n a gem en t a t th e sch ool, gr ou p
a n d tea ch er levels. Accor din g to th e con cepts
of Lew in (1952), Sch er m er h or n et a l. (1982),
N g a n d Ch en g (1991) a n d Ch en g (1996), sch ool
ch a n ge w ill be su ccessfu l if we a r e ca r efu l in
wor k in g th r ou gh th r ee sta ges of th e ch a n ge
pr ocess: u n fr ee zin g sta ge, ch a n gin g sta ge a n d
r ein for cin g sta ge. Th u s, in or der to la u n ch
sch ool-ba sed m a n a gem en t effectively, we
sh ou ld invest ou r effor t in m a n a gin g th ese
th r ee sta ges, a s sh ow n in Ta ble I (Ch en g,
1996).
The unfreezing stage: preparation for
multilevel self-management
Th e u n fr ee zin g sta ge a im s to pr epa r e a better
situ a tion for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t in
sch ools. Du e to th e in cr ea sin g pr essu r es fr om
in ter n a l a n d exter n a l sch ool en vir on m en ts, a
sch ool n eeds to m a k e ch a n ges a n d a da pt to
th ese ch a llen ges for its su r viva l a n d lon gter m developm en t. Bu t, u n for tu n a tely, sch ool
m em ber s a r e often bu r den ed w ith da ily wor k loa ds a n d a r e u sed to th e existin g pr a ctices
a n d pr ocedu r es. Th ey m ay n ot be aw a r e of th e
Table I
The stage s o f intro duc ing c hange fro m traditio nal manage me nt to multile ve l se lf-manage me nt in
sc ho o ls
Unfreezing stage
Changing stage
Reinforcing stage
• Identify, establish and public ize
the need for multilevel selfmanagement
• Implement self-management
ac c ording to the framework
• Identify the overt and hidden
advantages of the c hange to
self-management
• Plan goals and polic ies for the
c hange to self-management
• Pay attention to the timing of
launc hing self-management at
different levels
• Identify the adverse effec ts and
eliminate them
• Analyse the forc e field and develop
c hange strategies
• The self-management c yc le
duration may vary ac ross levels
• Estimate all types of c osts for
the c hange
• Inc rease driving forc es
• Not only tec hnologic al c hanges in
management/ teac hing/ learning
but also c ultural c hanges
• Assess the effec tiveness of the
c hange to self-management
• Minimize restraining forc es
• Change the affec tive, behavioural
and c ognitive aspec ts of the
involved ac tors at the individual/
group/ sc hool levels
• Make rec ommendations for
future ac tions
• Prepare the nec essary psyc hologic al
(i.e. c ognitive and affec tive) and
tec hnic al readiness of those involved
through staff development
• Prepare the nec essary resourc es
for the c hange to self-management
• Make modific ations on the
tec hnologic al c hanges
• Monitor the c hange proc ess and
ensure the progress towards the
self-management goals
• Institutionalize the suc c essful
tec hnologic al c hanges
• To c larify the emergent
psyc hologic al and tec hnic al
unc ertainties and reduc e their
potential damages to the c hange
• Internalize the suc c essful
c ultural c hanges
• To learn new ideas and tec hniques
and develop new goals
• Clarify the unc ertainties and
frustrations due to unsuc c essful
experienc es and enc ourage
c ontinuous learning
Source: adapted from Cheng (1996)
[ 161 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
im pa ct fr om th ese in ter n a l a n d exter n a l
ch a llen ges a n d th ey m ay ign or e th e n eed for
self-m a n a gem en t a t th e sch ool level, gr ou p
level or in dividu a l level. Th er efor e, in th e
u n fr ee zin g sta ge, th e a gen t of im plem en tin g a
sch ool self-m a n a gem en t pr oject (SSMP a gen t)
sh ou ld h elp th e sch ool m em ber s to iden tify
a n d u n der sta n d th e n eed for a ch a n ge to th e
self-m a n a gem en t m ode a n d th en esta blish
th is n eed in th e sch ool pla n or pr ogr a m m e
pla n s for a ction . In or der to cr ea te a better
a tm osph er e for th e ch a n ge, pu blicizin g th e
n eed for su ch a ch a n ge to a ll in volved m em ber s is n ecessa r y(Ch en g, 1996).
Th e im plem en ta tion a gen t sh ou ld a n a lyse
th e for ce field to ch a n ge a n d develop str a tegies to in cr ea se th e poten tia l dr ivin g for ces
a n d m in im ize th e poten tia l r estr a in in g
for ces. At th is sta ge, th e m a jor str a te gy is
th a t th e a gen t sh ou ld h elp th ose in volved
m em ber s to h ave th e n ecessa r y psych ologica l
(i.e. cogn itive a n d a ffective) r ea din ess a n d
tech n ica l r ea din ess th r ou gh sta ff developm en t a ctivities. In oth er wor ds, sch ool m em ber s sh ou ld be well pr epa r ed to u n der sta n d
th e n a tu r e a n d m ea n in g of m u ltilevel selfm a n a gem en t, be w illin g a n d com m itted to it
a n d h ave th e n ecessa r y com peten ce to im plem en t it. At th e sa m e tim e, th e a gen t sh ou ld
pr epa r e th e n ecessa r y r esou r ces for th e
ch a n ge.
Som e of th e m a jor ch a r a cter istics of a ffective a n d cogn itive r ea din ess a r e given in
Ta bles II to IV a n d th ese ca n be u sed to dir ect
th e u n fr ee zin g a ction s. Som e exa m ples of
possible a ctivities or a ction s for bu ildin g u p
r ea din ess for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t a t
th e sch ool, gr ou p a n d in dividu a l levels a r e
a lso pr ovided in th ese ta bles.
Obviou sly, th er e a r e th r ee levels of u n fr ee zin g, su ch a s in dividu a l tea ch er s, gr ou ps a n d
th e sch ool a s a wh ole. In gen er a l, pr ior ity
sh ou ld be given to “u n fr ee ze” tea ch er s fir st.
However, ea ch sch ool m ay h ave its ow n
u n fr ee zin g pr ior ity depen din g on its ow n
r ea din ess con dition s. Rea din ess a ssessm en t
a t a m u ltilevel sh ou ld be n ecessa r y befor e
a n y u n fr ee zin g wor k ca n be don e. Th e a ssessm en t r esu lts w ill pr ovide a clea r er pictu r e for
th e sch ool to set its “u n fr ee zin g” pr ior ity. In
Table II
Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r sc ho o l le ve l se lf-manage me nt
Affective preparation
Cognitive preparation
Guidelines and examples
Sc hool mangers are willing to:
delegate authority to the
sc hool princ ipal and other
members of the sc hool
Sc hool managers and other
sc hool members realize:
the need to prac tise sc hool
self-management in meeting
the c hallenges ahead
The SSMP agent:
reports on appropriate oc c asions
(e.g. sc hool management c ommittee
meeting, speec h days, sc hool/ teac her
c onsultative meeting) the suc c essful
experienc e of teac hers’ and parents’
involvement in making sc hool
func tioning and polic y making
listen, with the princ ipal
to teac hers’ and parents’
views and involve them in
the dec ision-making
proc ess as far as possible
Sc hool members are willing to:
share their work experienc e
with a view to evaluating
the performanc e of the
sc hool as a whole
that teac hers’ and parent’ s
partic ipation c an improve the
quality of sc hool polic ies and
benefit the ac tual
implementation of polic ies
the need to allow teac hers and
parents to get ac c ess to
information for dec ision making;
handle different views; to have
more time allowanc e for polic ies
formulation
The sc hool’ s senior management
is willing to:
develop teac hers strategic ally Sc hool members hold a shared
sc hool mission
provide support and guidelines to sc hool members for
Sc hool leaders are c ompetent
c ompletion of the sc hool
in leading sc hool members to
plans
perform SWOT analysis;
strategic planning;and sc hool
evaluation
invites teac her and parent representatives
to serve on the sc hool management
c ommittee and other c ommittees
related to the sc hool’ s routine running
organizes seminars and talks to bring
up the awareness level of sc hool
managers and other sc hool members
regarding the need of prac tising selfmanagement in sc hool as an effec tive
means to enhanc e sc hool effec tiveness
c reates opportunities for sc hool members
to visit other sc hools whic h have
already prac tised self-management
c reates opportunities for sc hool members
to have an open disc ourse on their own
vision of the sc hool with a view to developing a c ommonly shared sc hool mission
organizes professional development
programmes for sc hool leaders on SWOT
analysis, strategic planning and sc hool
evaluation
[ 162 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
Table III
Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r gro up le ve l se lf-manage me nt
Affective preparation
Cognitive preparation
Guidelines and examples
The sc hool princ ipal is willing
to delegate authority to work
groups
Group leaders and group members
realize:
the need for the work groups to
have self-management prac tic es
c onsistent to that of the sc hool
The sc hool princ ipal holds meetings with
work groups to delineate the responsibilities and authority of the group
through disc ussing the group’ s terms of
referenc e
Group leaders are willing to
involve group members in the
dec ision-making proc ess as far
as possible
Group members are willing to:
share their work experienc e
work with a view to evaluate
the performanc e of the group
as a whole
work in teams, and supporting
eac h other in work
learn from eac h other
help and support
inexperienc ed members
teac hers’ partic ipation in dec ision
making c an improve the quality
of work plans and benefit the
ac tual implementation of plans
the need to allow members to get
ac c ess to information for
dec ision making; handle
different views; to have more
time allowanc e for work plan
formulation
Group members hold a shared
sc hool mission and work
direc tions of the group
The SSMP agent:
organizes seminars, talks and
workshops to build up teams
c reates opportunities for work groups
to disc uss their self-management
prac tic es with c orresponding work
groups in other sc hools; and for group
leaders to share their groups’ selfmanagement prac tic es
organizes professional development
programmes for group leaders on SWOT
analysis, strategic planning and group’ s
self-evaluation
The group leaders c reate opportunities for
Group leaders are c ompetent in
leading group members to perform
group members to have an open disc ourse
SWOT analysis; strategic planning;
on their perc eived work direc tions of
and group’ s self-evaluation
the group with a view to develop a
c ommonly shared work direc tion
The group sets up:
an information flow system for group
members’ easy ac c ess
a mentor system for its “ green” members
som e ca ses, th e en for cem en t of pr a ctices a t a
h igh er level, e.g. th e sch ool level, m ay in du ce
a n “u n fr ee zin g” effect a t th e lower level, e.g.
th e tea ch er level. For exa m ple, th e effor t to
develop a com m on ly sh a r ed sch ool m ission a t
th e sch ool level m ay in evita bly cr ea te a sen se
of ow n er sh ip in tea ch er s. Th u s, tea ch er s m ay
pr oba bly h ave a h igh er de gr ee of a ccepta n ce
of m or e r espon sibility a n d com m itm en t. In
th is w ay, th e level of r ea din ess for pr a ctisin g
tea ch er level self-m a n a gem en t is a lso
in cr ea sed.
The changing stage: practising multilevel
self-management cycles
After th e u n fr ee zin g sta ge, th e pla n n ed selfm a n a gem en t a ctivities ca n be im plem en ted
a ccor din g to th e a bove m u ltilevel fr a m ewor k
pr oposed by Ch eu n g a n d Ch en g (1996a ). It
m ay n ot be n ecessa r y to im plem en t self-m a n a gem en t a t a ll levels a t th e sa m e tim e. Th e
tim in g for fa cilita tin g a pa r ticu la r level’s selfm a n a gem en t sh ou ld be ta k en ca u tiou sly. Th e
r ea din ess of ea ch level sh ou ld be a ssessed
fir st. Th e SSMP a gen t sh ou ld n ot be gin to
fa cilita te self-m a n a gem en t a t a pa r ticu la r
level if th e cor r espon din g r ea din ess is n ot
r ea ch ed.
Mu tu a l in flu en ce exists a m on g th e selfm a n a gem en t pr a ctices a t th e sch ool, gr ou p
a n d tea ch er levels. Th u s, wh en pr a ctisin g
m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t in a sch ool, ca r e
sh ou ld be ta k en to en su r e a s fa r a s possible
th e h igh est de gr ee of con sisten cy in selfm a n a gem en t pr a ctices a m on g th e th r ee levels. Th e h igh er th e de gr ee of con sisten cy, th e
gr ea ter th e syn er gy der ived fr om th e pr a ctices. Also, a self-m a n a gem en t cu ltu r e m ay be
cu ltiva ted m or e ea sily for sch ool m em ber s
wh o per sisten tly pr a ctise self-m a n a gem en t
a n d en ga ge in con tin u ou s self-lea r n in g a n d
r en ew a l.
In gen er a l, th e wor k gr ou ps m ay a lso h ave
sim ila r pa tter n s of m a n a gem en t cycle du r a tion fr om a few m on th s to on e a ca dem ic yea r,
depen din g la r gely on th eir gr ou p pla n s. Bu t
for self-m a n a gem en t a t a sch ool, th e cycle
du r a tion m ay la st fr om on e to th r ee a ca dem ic
yea r s. Com pa r a tively, th e self-m a n a gem en t
cycles for in dividu a l tea ch er s m ay be sh or ter,
r a n gin g fr om a few week s to a few m on th s or
on e a ca dem ic yea r beca u se th eir ta sk s wou ld
[ 163 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
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Table IV
Unfre e zing stage : pre paratio n fo r te ac he r le ve l se lf-manage me nt
Affective preparation
Cognitive preparation
Guidelines and examples
Teac hers are willing to:
ac c ept new responsibility
and delegated power that
c omes with self-management
Teac hers realize:
the need for them to have selfmanagement prac tic es
c onsistent to that of their
group and the sc hool
The SSMP agent:
organizes seminars, talks and workshops
to stress the importanc e of prac tising selfmanagment in fac ing the c hallenges ahead;
build up teac hers’ self-management
c ompetenc e
self-manage their own work
reflec t on their own
performanc e, relationship
with signific ant others in
work
evaluate their own
performanc e against set
standards
establish a good affiliation
with signific ant others in
work
develop themselves
c ontinously to meet the
c hallenges ahead
that effec tive self-management
prac tic e will help them fac e the
c hallenges ahead
the importanc e to set up personal
work goals and related
performanc e standards
that they are working within the
delegated power and
responsibilities
the importanc e of c ontinuous
learning from signific ant others
in work
they are c ompetent at selfmanagement skills like strategic
planning, performanc e standard
setting, time and resourc e
management, c onstruc tive
thinking, self-reward and
punishment
be sm a ller th a n th ose of gr ou ps or th e sch ool.
In su m , th e du r a tion of self-m a n a gem en t
cycles va r ies a m on g in dividu a l tea ch er s,
gr ou ps a n d sch ools.
In th e pr ocess of im plem en ta tion , th er e
sh ou ld be n ot on ly tech n ologica l ch a n ges in
m a n a gem en t, tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g bu t a lso
cu ltu r a l ch a n ges in va lu es a n d beliefs a bou t
sch ool pr ocesses. Th e a ffective, beh aviou r a l
a n d cogn itive a spects of sch ool m a n a ger s, th e
pr in cipa l, a dm in istr a tor s, tea ch er s a n d even
pa r en ts, if n ecessa r y, a r e cor r espon din gly
ch a n ged a ccor din g to th e n eeds of th e m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t fr a m ewor k . Mon itor in g th e im plem en ta tion pr ocess is n ecessa r y
to en su r e th e pr ogr ess tow a r ds th e pla n n ed
goa ls of self-m a n a gem en t. In th e pr ocess, th e
im plem en ta tion a gen t often n eeds to cla r ify
th e em er gen t psych ologica l a n d tech n ica l
u n cer ta in ties a n d r edu ce th eir poten tia l
da m a ges to th e ch a n ge. An d, th e in volved
a ctor s som etim es n eed to lea r n n ew idea s a n d
tech n iqu es a n d develop n ew goa ls in th e
pr ocess, if n ecessa r y Ch en g, 1996).
The reinforcing stage: reinforcing
multilevel self-management practices
After th e ch a n gin g sta ge, th e im plem en ta tion
a gen t w ill tr y to r efr ee ze th e positive ou t[ 164 ]
c reates opportunities, suc h as soc ial
func tions and professional experienc e
sharing, for teac hers to build up a mutual
support network
organizes formal and informal meetings and
sessions for teac hers to share their
expertise and experienc e in topic s related
to teac hing, self-management of personal
resourc es, and professional development
may help teac hers to form strategic study
groups for professional development of
teac hers with the sc hool goals as guiding
posts
c reates opportunites for teac hers to voic e
their views of sc hool and group management
in a way that they feel satisfied with
c reates opportunities for teac hers to meet
parents and fac ilitate teac her-parent
c ollaboration
com es of th e ch a n ge. Th e pu r pose of th e r ein for cin g sta ge is to m a xim ize a ll th e a dva n ta ges ga in ed fr om th e ch a n ge to m u ltilevel
self-m a n a gem en t a n d per petu a te th e positive
effects for a lon ger per iod. Of cou r se, in th is
sta ge, elim in a tin g th e poten tia l side effects is
a lso im por ta n t. Accor din g to Ch en g (1996),
th is sta ge m ay gen er a lly in clu de th e follow in g im por ta n t ta sk s:
• Iden tify a n d con fir m a ll th e im por ta n t,
over t a n d h idden , pla n n ed a n d u n in ten ded
a dva n ta ges gen er a ted fr om th e la u n ch in g
self-m a n a gem en t.
• Iden tify a ll th e im por ta n t over t a n d h idden
a dver se effects on differ en t a spects of th e
sch ool or m em ber s a n d elim in a te th em a s
soon a s possible.
• E stim a te a ll types of m on eta r y a n d n on m on eta r y costs for th e im plem en ta tion of
self-m a n a gem en t.
• Assess th e effectiven ess of th e ch a n ge by
com pa r in g th e a ch ievem en ts w ith th e
pla n n ed goa ls a n d com pa r in g th e ga in ed
a dva n ta ges w ith th e disa dva n ta ges a n d th e
costs.
• P r opose r ecom m en da tion s for fu r th er
a ction s a ccor din g to th e a bove eva lu a tion
a n d a n a lysis.
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
• Ma k e m odifi ca tion s (if n ecessa r y) on th e
tech n ologica l a spects of self-m a n a gem en t
im plem en ta tion a ccor din g to th e a bove
eva lu a tion a n d a n a lysis.
• In stitu tion a lize th e su ccessfu l tech n ologica l ch a n ges in self-m a n a gem en t a n d th e
r ela ted exper ien ces in or der to per petu a te
th eir a dva n ta ges a n d ben efit m or e people in
fu tu r e pr a ctice.
• In ter n a lize th e su ccessfu l cu ltu r a l ch a n ges
a m on g sch ool m em ber s th r ou gh r efl ectin g
on th e su ccessfu l exper ien ces, discu ssin g
th e difficu lties a n d th eir solu tion s, pr ovidin g in tr in sic a n d extr in sic r ew a r ds, celebr a tin g th e su ccess th r ou gh cer em on y or
r itu a ls, pr ovidin g a vision on th e m ea n in gs
of th e ch a n ge, etc.
• Cla r ify th e u n cer ta in ties a n d fr u str a tion s
du e to th e u n su ccessfu l exper ien ces a n d
en cou r a ge con tin u ou s lea r n in g a n d developm en t fr om th ese exper ien ces.
Th e a bove list ca n pr ovide som e ba sic gu idelin es to r ein for ce positive pr a ctices a n d ou tcom es a n d m a xim ize a dva n ta ges fr om th e
ch a n ge to m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t. Of
cou r se, in pr a ctice, th e r efr ee zin g str a te gies
for differ en t sch ools m ay be differ en t,
depen din g on th e specific con dition s of th e
sch ools. Also th e str a te gies for differ en t levels m ay be differ en t too. Ba sed on th e a bove
ba sic gu idelin es, som e a r ea s of r ein for cin g
wor k a t th e sch ool, gr ou p a n d in dividu a l level
a r e ou tlin ed in Ta ble V for r efer en ce.
Skills for launching selfmanagement initiative
Th e la u n ch in g of a lm ost a ll ch a n ge in itia tives
w ill fa ce r esista n ce, a n d n eed a ppr opr ia te
sk ills a n d str a te gies to m a xim ize dr ivin g
for ces for ch a n ge a n d m in im ize th e a ssocia ted r esista n ce (Ch en g a n d N g, 1995). In or der
to wor k effectively th r ou gh th e th r ee sta ges of
ch a n ge, th e SSMP a gen t m ay em ploy a n u m ber of sk ills to r edu ce r esista n ce a n d ga in
su ppor t fr om wor k gr ou ps a n d in dividu a l
sta ff m em ber s.
Accor din g to th e con ception of Du n h a m
a n d P ier ce (1989), th ese sk ills m ay in clu de:
edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion ; pa r ticipa tion
a n d in volvem en t; fa cilita tive su ppor t; em otion a l su ppor t; pr ovidin g in cen tives; m a n ipu la tion a n d co-opta tion ; a n d coer cion . Th e u se
of edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion sk ill
r equ ir es th e SSMP a gen t to pr ovide a ll r eleva n t in for m a tion on self-m a n a gem en t for
sch ool m em ber s a n d wor k gr ou ps. In th e
pr ocess, th e SSMP n ot on ly expla in s th e in for m a tion pr ovided, bu t a lso collects view s fr om
a ll pa r ties con cer n ed. It m ay be a ch ieved
th r ou gh or ga n izin g differ en t sem in a r s, wor k sh ops a n d tr a in in g pr ogr a m m es for tea ch er s
a n d wor k gr ou p lea der s. Th r ou gh th ese a ctivities, th e sch ool m ay r edu ce m isu n der sta n din g a n d pr ovide oppor tu n ities for th e k ey
a ctor s a t th e th r ee levels to a cqu ir e n ew
k n ow ledge a n d sk ills. Th is is especia lly
in str u m en ta l in th e u n fr ee zin g sta ge for
in du cin g r ea din ess. However, th is sk ill a lso
h a s its lim ita tion s. It ta k es a con sider a bly
lon g per iod of tim e a n d lots of r esou r ces to
a ch ieve th e in ten ded ou tcom es.
Th e secon d sk ill is pa r ticipa tion a n d
involvem en t. In volvin g th ose con cer n ed in
developin g pla n s of la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t w ill gen er a te a h igh level of com m itm en t a n d su ppor t to th e r esu ltin g pla n s. Th is
is a ctu a lly th e essen ce of pr a ctisin g self-m a n a gem en t a t m u ltilevels in sch ools a n d is a
ver y effective a n d essen tia l sk ill to in du ce
h igh levels of com m itm en t a n d su ppor t. Th e
k ey is to in vite sch ool m em ber s to pr ovide
view s a n d, to a cer ta in exten t, be in volved in
for m u la tin g th e sch ool pla n s a n d wor k gr ou p
pla n s. Th e sch ool sh ou ld pr ovide th e r equ ir ed
in for m a tion a n d su ppor t. Th is sk ill is especia lly u sefu l wh en th e wor k to be don e is a t
th e oper a tion a l level. For exa m ple, in volvin g
tea ch er s a n d pa r en ts in th e pla n n in g a n d
or ga n izin g of a “Sa tu r day con su lta tion cen tr e” for pa r en ts or su ppor tive pa r en t n etwor k s. In th is w ay, a ll pa r ties con cer n ed m ay
develop a sen se of ow n er sh ip of th e pla n s or
pr ojects. Th is is essen tia l for su ccessfu l
im plem en ta tion of th e wor k pla n s a t th e
sch ool a n d gr ou p levels.
In or der to m a xim ize th e effectiven ess of
th is sk ill, th e sch ool a n d th e gr ou ps sh ou ld
pr ovide com pr eh en sive in for m a tion , tim e
a n d r esou r ces to fa cilita te th e developm en t of
good qu a lity wor k pla n s. Mor eover, th e sch ool
a n d th e gr ou ps n eed to h a n dle ca r efu lly th e
diver sity of view s in th e cou r se of pla n n in g
fr om tea ch er s. If n ot h a n dled ca r efu lly, a h igh
level of dissa tisfa ction in sch ool m em ber s
m ay be gen er a ted. However, on ce com pr om ises a r e ta ctfu lly r ea ch ed, a ver y good
ch a n ce of effective im plem en ta tion of th e
pla n s m ay be expected.
Th e sk ill of fa cilita tive su ppor t is to pr ovide
con cr ete su ppor ts to sch ool m em ber s a n d
wor k gr ou ps du r in g th eir im plem en ta tion of
self-m a n a gem en t. Th is sk ill is especia lly
im por ta n t in th e im plem en tin g sta ge of th e
self-m a n a gem en t cycles a t m u ltilevels. Th e
su ppor t m ay be in clu ded in a r ea s lik e tech n ology, tr a in in g, m a ter ia l, tim e a n d con str u ctive view s. For exa m ples, th e sch ool a n d wor k
gr ou ps m ay pr ovide oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s to a ch ieve r eleva n t pr ofession a l com peten ce to do SWOT (str en gth s, wea k n esses,
[ 165 ]
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
Table V
Po ssible wo rk fo r the re info rc ing stage
Level of selfmanagement
Guidelines and examples
School level
self-management
Establish appropriate mec hanisms and struc ture to strengthen c ommunic ation among work
groups; and to evaluate the effec tiveness of shared dec ision making in sc hool polic ies
Reinforc e and reassure the possible positive experienc e of teac hers’ involvement in shared
dec ision making, e.g. emphasize win-win situations between groups; ac hievement of sc hool
plans; the sc hool’ s flexibility and responsiveness in handling c risis; etc .
Identify areas for improvement and develop strategies for solving diffic ulties and c onflic ts
between groups
Organize sharing sessions for teac hers and sc hool managers to reinforc e the positive
experienc e and formulate future plans
Assist the teac her and parent representatives who serve on the sc hool management c ommittee
to report bac k their positive experienc e to other teac her and parents’ organizations respec tively
Improve the mode of elec tion of teac her and parent representatives in the sc hool management
c ommittee
Group level
self-management
Establish appropriate mec hanisms to strengthen information flow among group members; and
to evaluate the effec tiveness of shared dec ision making in group plans
Reinforc e and reassure the positive experienc e of group members’ involvement in shared
dec ision making, e.g. emphasize win-win situations between members; ac hievement of set
goals; effec tive use of resourc es; fruitful and mutual learning among members; establishment
of a good group reputation; and the group’ s ability to response and adapt to unexpec ted events
Identify areas for improvement and develop strategies for solving diffic ulties and c onflic ts
within the group
Organize sessions for group members to share their positive experienc e with teac hers in other
groups. Hopefully, this arrangement will provide opportunities for learning from other groups
and new insights may be gained for formulation of future plans
Teacher level
self-management
The SSMP agent helps teac hers to evaluate and reinforc e positive experienc e of teac hers’
effec tiveness in ac hieving their personal work goals, spec ific ally in terms of ac hievement of
the self set performanc e standards. This is a good way for refreezing individual teac hers’
self-management prac tic es, yet is very time c onsuming
The SSMP agent c reates opportunities for teac hers to share with peers their positive
experienc e in evaluating their performanc e against performanc e standards; ac hieving
personal goals; learning from signific ant others in work; ways they solve their problems in
work; priority setting; time and resourc e management; attending professional development
programmes; job redesign efforts; effec tive use of self-management skills; setting up
affiliation with parents; etc . These arrangements open up a full spec trum of sharing topic s
and meanwhile strengthening the position of teac hers who share their experienc e
The topic s proposed above may take the form of study groups and sharing sessions with
c olleagues of the same sc hool or other sc hools in inter-sc hool visitations; through enc ouraging
teac hers to partic ipate in these ac tivities, teac hers may gain new learning and insight to
improve and develop strategies for solving personal diffic ulties in work and formulation of
future plans and prac tic es
oppor tu n ities a n d th r ea ts) a n a lysis or developm en t pla n n in g. Th e su ccessfu l fa cilita tive
su ppor t sk ill often r equ ir es a lot of r esou r ce
in pu t. Th e a ssocia ted costs m ay be h igh .
However, it pr ovides ver y dir ect su ppor t to
th e pa r ties con cer n ed a n d ben efits th e
sm ooth la u n ch in g of self-m a n a gem en t.
Th e u se of em otion a l su ppor t is especia lly
u sefu l to sch ool m em ber s wh o h ave developed
n e ga tive feelin gs tow a r ds th e in tr odu ction of
m u ltilevel self-m a n a gem en t in sch ool. It ca n
settle dow n th e em otion a l fr u str a tion of
[ 166 ]
tea ch er s du e to th e ch a n ge. It ca n a lso r ein for ce good wor k . If u sed effectively, tea ch er s
m ay be pa cified a n d a positive a ttitu de
tow a r ds th e self-m a n a gem en t in itia tive m ay
be r estor ed. On e a dva n ta ge of th is sk ill is th a t
n ot m u ch r esou r ce is r equ ir ed. Con cr ete
exa m ples of u sin g th e sk ill a r e plen ty. For
exa m ples, th e SSMP a gen t m ay en cou r a ge
tea ch er s by pr a isin g th eir good pr a ctices,
com for tin g a n d sh ow in g con cer n to th ose
wh o h ave developed n e ga tive feelin gs. Of
cou r se, it is difficu lt to u se th is sk ill system a t-
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin Che o ng Che ng
The strate gie s fo r
imple me nting multile ve l
se lf-manage me nt in sc ho o ls
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 5 9 –1 6 9
ica lly a n d th e tim e spen t m ay n ot be effective
in solvin g th e pr oblem s. Mor eover, th e SSMP
a gen t n eeds to be ver y sen sitive to th e possible n e ga tive feelin gs gen er a ted in sch ool
m em ber s.
P r ovidin g in cen tives is a lso a n im por ta n t
sk ill th a t gives ta ilor -m a de in cen tives to con cer n ed pa r ties a ccor din g to th eir n eeds. For
exa m ple, th e SSMP a gen t m ay m a k e tea ch er s
u n der sta n d th a t th e pr a ctice of self-m a n a gem en t in th e sch ool a t m u ltilevels cou ld
em power tea ch er s w ith in str u ction a l a u ton om y, pr ovide th em w ith ch a n ces to be
involved in th e for m u la tion of sch ool a n d
gr ou p pla n s; a n d fa cilita te th em to m a n a ge
th eir wor k effectively. As a r esu lt, th eir wor k ,
especia lly th eir cla ssr oom tea ch in g w ill ben efit a n d be r ew a r din g. Th is type of
“secon da r y” in cen tive is good for dr ivin g
sch ool m em ber s to tr ea su r e th eir self-m a n a gem en t pr a ctices a t th e th r ee levels. How ever, th e pr ovision of som e k in ds of in cen tives lik e r edu ction in tea ch in g loa d a n d pr om otion pr ospects m ay in cu r ver y h igh costs
to th e sch ool a n d wor k gr ou ps, a n d cr ea te
u n expected r ea ction fr om oth er in ter est pa r ties. An oth er lim ita tion of th is sk ill is th a t
sch ool m em ber s m ay r ely on in cen tives
befor e effective im plem en ta tion of th e pla n s.
Wh en th er e is a n u r gen t n eed to im plem en t
th e self-m a n a gem en t pla n , or th e u se of oth er
sk ills, it w ill in cu r h igh costs su ch a s tim e
a n d r esou r ces; th e u se of m a n ipu la tion a n d
co-opta tion w ill th en be som ewh a t effective.
For exa m ple, a ppoin t a n in fl u en tia l tea ch er to
th e lea der of th e sch ool self-m a n a gem en t
pr oject or a lien a te th ose a ga in st th e selfm a n a gem en t in itia tive. It sh ou ld be n oted
Figure 1
Hie rac hy o f skills fo r launc hing se lf-manage me nt
Education and
communication
Deep level cognitive
and affective changes
Participation and
involvement
Conclusion
Facilitative
support
Emotional
support
Provide
incentives
Manipulation
and co-optation
Overt behavioural changes
Coercion
th a t if n ot u sed ta ctfu lly a n d a dequ a tely, th is
sk ill w ill r u in th e a lr ea dy esta blish ed good
a n d h a r m on iou s wor k in g r ela tion sh ip a m on g
sch ool m em ber s a n d wor k gr ou ps. It w ill a lso
r edu ce th e in itia tive of tea ch er s. Th u s, it m ay
im pose a cer ta in de gr ee of n e ga tive in flu en ce
on th e im plem en ta tion of fu tu r e pla n s.
Sim ila r to th e sk ill of m a n ipu la tion a n d coopta tion , coer cion ca n a lso elicit ver y fa st
im plem en ta tion of a ch a n ge pla n . Wh en th e
wor k is r ela ted to th e im m edia te in ter ests of
th e sch ool, pa r en ts or stu den ts a n d a n u r gen t
a ction is r equ ir ed in or der to r edu ce th e a ssocia ted th r ea ts, th e u se of th is sk ill m ay be
con sider ed. Sin ce th e n a tu r e of m u ltilevel
self-m a n a gem en t a im s to en cou r a ge h u m a n
in itia tive a n d fa cilita te con tin u ou s lea r n in g
a n d developm en t, th e u se of th is sk ill is in
gen er a l n ot so a ppr opr ia te to im plem en tin g
self-m a n a gem en t.
In or der to u se th ese seven sk ills effectively,
we n eed to u n der sta n d h ow th eir u se m ay
elicit differ en t de gr ees of r ea ction in sch ool
m em ber s. Th ese seven sk ills m ay be a r r a n ged
in a h ier a r ch y in ter m s of th e types of
ch a n ges th ey m ay in du ce in tea ch er s, a s
sh ow n in F igu r e 1. Th e u se of differ en t sk ills
w ill elicit differ en t ch a n ges, r a n gin g fr om th e
m ost over t beh aviou r a l ch a n ges to deep level
cogn itive a n d a ffective ch a n ges. For exa m ple,
th e u se of “edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion ” or
“pa r ticipa tion in pla n n in g” m ay in du ce deep
level cogn itive a n d a ffective ch a n ges, wh ile
th e u se of “coer cion ” a n d “m a n ipu la tion a n d
co-opta tion ” m ay elicit over t beh aviou r of
tea ch er s on ly. As discu ssed a bove, th e em ph a sis of self-m a n a gem en t is on h u m a n in itia tive
a n d con tin u ou s developm en t of tea ch er s,
gr ou ps a n d th e wh ole sch ool. Th er efor e, th e
u se of sk ills sh ou ld ten d to be th ose a t th e
h igh level, in clu din g “edu ca tion a n d com m u n ica tion ”, “pa r ticipa tion a n d in volvem en t”
a n d “fa cilita tive su ppor t” wh ich ca n h elp
sch ool m em ber s to a ch ieve th e n ecessa r y
a ffective a n d cogn itive ch a n ges in a ddition to
th e beh aviou r a l ch a n ges.
Th e pr a ctice of th e pr esen ted str a te gies
togeth er w ith th e a ppr opr ia te sk ills is essen tia l for th e sch ool to ga in th e r equ ir ed vita lity
to r edu ce r esista n ce, in du ce r ea din ess a n d
r ein for ce su ccesses in th e la u n ch in g of selfm a n a gem en t in itia tives a t m u ltilevels.
However, m er ely pr a ctisin g th em w ith ou t a
com pr eh en sive developm en ta l pla n , th e
sch ool a s a wh ole m ay n ot be a ble to in vest its
en er gy a n d effor t in a focu sed a n d con sisten t
w ay. Th u s, th e a dva n ta ges of pr a ctisin g selfm a n a gem en t m ay n ot be der ived a s expected.
[ 167 ]
Th e for m u la tion of a com pr eh en sive developm en ta l pla n for la u n ch in g a self-m a n a gem en t
in itia tive in a sch ool sh ou ld be ba sed on th e
a bove pr oposed str a te gies a n d sk ills. In a ddition , th e follow in g con sider a tion s m ay be
u sefu l.
Befor e la u n ch in g th e self-m a n a gem en t
in itia tives, th e SSMP a gen t sh ou ld a ssess th e
r ea din ess of th e sch ool a s a wh ole, wor k
gr ou ps a n d tea ch er s in pr a ctisin g self-m a n a gem en t. With th is in for m a tion , th e SSMP
a gen t w ill th en for m u la te a ser ies of u n fr ee zin g a ctivities for th e th r ee levels of k ey a ctor s
befor e m ovin g to th e ch a n gin g sta ge. In gen er a l, it is ben eficia l to sta r t th e u n fr ee zin g
wor k a t th e tea ch er level fi r st. However, th e
m ove w ill gr ea tly depen d on th e r ea din ess of
th e tea ch er s. F igu r e 2 illu str a tes th e str a tegies for la u n ch in g self-m a n a gem en t in itia tive
w ith u n fr ee zin g wor k don e fi r st a t th e tea ch er
level, th en a t th e gr ou p level a n d fi n a lly a t th e
sch ool level.
In oth er ca ses, wh en th e tea ch er s h ave
a lr ea dy a cqu ir ed a cer ta in level of r ea din ess,
Wing Ming Che ung and
Yin