ENGLISH AND EDI'CATION DEPARTMENT STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE (STAIN) SALATIGA 2003
/ SPEECH DEFECT IN LANGUAGE LEARNING ( A Case Study among Students of the Second Year of SLTP Vluhammadiyah 02 Kartasura Sukoharjo in Academic Year 2003/2004) THESIS
Submitted to Board of Examiners in Partial Fulfilment of t he Requirement of the Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S Pd 1) m f he Fnglish and Education Department
By
\E K T I HANDAY AN I NIM : 113 99 065 ENGLISH AND EDI'CATION DEPARTMENT STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE (STAIN)
Dra. Woro Ketnaningsih, M. Pd.
The Lecturer of Educational Faculty State Islamic Studies Institute Salatiga
ATTENTIVE COUNSELOR NOTES Salatiga, Desember 03,2003
Case : Yekti Handayani’s Thesis Dear, The Head of State Islamic Studies Institute Salatiga Assalamualaikum Wr. Wb.
After reading and correcting Yekti Handayani’s thesis entitle
SPEECH DEFECT IN LANGUAGE LE ARNING (A CASE STUDY AMONG STUDENTS OF THE SECOND YEAR OF SLIT MUHAMMADIYAH
02 KARTASURA SUKOHARJO
IN ACADEMIC Y EAR 2003/2004)”, I have decided and would like to
propose that if chould be accepted by the educational faculty', I hope it would he examined as soon as possible.
Wassalamu’alaikuro Wr. Wb. Dra. Woro Retno Ningsih, M. Pd. NIP: 150 262 646
DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS STATE ISLAMIC STUDIES INSTITUTE SALATIGA STATEMENT OF CERTIFICATION SPEECH DEFECT IN LANGUAGE LEARNING (A CASE STUDY AMONG STUDENTS OF THE SECOND YEAR OF SLTP MUHAMMADIYAH 02 KARTASURA SUKOHARJO
IN THE ACADEMIC YEAR OF 2003 - 2004 YEKTI HANDAYANI 113 99 065
Has been brought to the board of examiners at Dzulqa’dah 13 * 1424 H (January 5 * 2004 M), and hereby considered to completely fulfilled the requirement of the Degree of Sarjana Pendidikan Islam (S. Pd. I) in English and Education Departement.
13 Dzulqa’dah 1424 H Salatiga, --------------------------------
5 January 2004 M Board Examiners Drs. Sa’adi, M. Ag.
NIP. 150 526 821 rs. Imam yutomo. M. Ag. NIP. 150 216 814
Examiner V . .
Drs. Masvkur Minan, M. Ag. NIP. 150 182 685
Attentive Counselor t b ~
m i To
“A (5 someone who can take the bles&ne, to the
other by his speakinw ,or war bmp ( Indeed, Aiah is very kind and ikes the kindness for everything,(HR. hukhcn and
DEDICATION
1. To my Mom, Mom and Mom Maryati, who is the best mother I have
2. To my father Haris Praseno, who is also the best father 1 have
THESIS ABSTRACTION
The objective of this research; first, to find out the effects of speech defect to language learning, second, to find out the factors of speech defect and third to find out the teacher ways to overcome speech defect in language learning.
In this researh, the writer uses qualitative research with 29 population of students. To collect the data, the writer uses test and interview.
In analyzing the data, the writer uses analytic deduction, analytic induction and statistical analysis. And the result of this analysis show that there are three dominant effects of speech defect to language learning, first, difficult to understand the other speech, second, unconfident to speech with other and third misunderstanding in communication. This research also shows how far the influence of speech defect. From the test, the writer got three dominant answers. There are very influence, little influence and not influence.
The dominant factors of speech defect according to students’ answer are psychological, environment and physical. From the result of interview', the writer got the teacher wrays to overcome speech defect. There are a careful process of education under a competent tutor, read and speak slowly and deliberately, carefully pronouncing each syllable, raising the voice towards the close of the sentence, a series of graduated exercises in read, drilling and giving a good model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Assalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.
AlhamdulillahirobbiPalamin, firstly the writer said as praise and thanks to Allah SWT with his blessing, finally this thesis can be completed.
However, this success would not be achieved without the support, guidance, advice, help and encouragement from individuals and institutions. Therefore, let her say thanks to:
1. Mr. Drs. Badwan, M.Ag., the Dean of State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN ) o f Salatiga.
2. Mrs. Dra. Woro Retnaningsih, M.Pd., the consultant of this thesis, thanks for her careful guidance, wisdom, kindness and suggestion during the completion of this thesis.
3. Mr. Drs. Sa’adi, M.Ag., the head of the English Department, thanks for your knowlegde, suggestion, motivation and attenttion.
4. Mr. Drs. Sa’adi, M.Ag., the examiner of the thesis that gives me great attenttion, knowlegde, motivation and guidance.
5. Mr. Ruwandi, S.Pd., thanks for your knowledge, advice, motivation, and attenttion.
6. All lecturers of English Department, who have given knowlegde patiently.
7. My old sister Etty S., thank for your help on typing and young sister Erma A. W., thank for your attention in thesis finishing.
8. My brother M.Toyib Ibrahim and niece Fahreza F. P. I., you are one of my spirit.
9. My great teacher who I cannot mention here, your support and pray becomes Great Spirit in finishing this thesis.
10. All my friends in Anfin’s cost Leny, Khusna, Eny, Adah, Titix and Fitta.
11. All my friends in GETAR Theatre Arif Kojex, Munib, Rahman, Manaf, Nurul, Nonthin, Leny, Sinyo, Tain, Anang, Mujib, Wawan Camat and Basri.
12. All my friends in English Department “99.
13. All my friends in PM11 Ambar, Yusuf, Ja’far, Sigit Z-got, Bibi, Topix, Sinyo, Taqin, Hadi, Huda, fight to get our ideal.
Finally, this thesis is expected to be able to provide useful information to the readers.
Wassalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb.
Salatiga, Desember 03, 2003 The Writer
Yekti Handayani
TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE CERTIFICATION PAGE........................................................................................... jjj
DEDICATION............................................................................................................ ..
AKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................... i:.vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER V CLOSURE
BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
Speech plays an important role in our life, because it is the most effective form of communication, and it is also the most important and most widely used.
It fills important need in our lives - the need to be part of the social group. Without speech, our position in the group will be marginal.
Speech is a motor - mental skill.1 It does not only involve the coordination of different teams of muscles of the vocal mechanism but it has a mental aspect - the association of meanings with the sounds produce to convey meaning. Speech is also the functional aspect of language by which we assimilates sounds into words, which combine to form meaningful units.
Speech consists of the sound waves that are emitted by the human vocal mechanism. These sound waves strike the ear of another and elicit meaning from the recipient. The result of some of these sounds are the vowels and consonants.
The short and long vowels is learned quite early to articulate. The production of the vowels begins with a muscular constraction of the lungs which forces a steady, unobstructed airstream through the trachea, larynx, and pharynx to the outside. Webster ’s Dictionary describes a vowel as a speech sound “in the articulation of which the oral part of the breath channel is not blocked and is not
1 Elizabeth B Hurlock, Child Development, Singapore: McGraw-Hill Company, 1978, P. 162
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narrowed enough to caused audible friction”. Sometimes the air passes through the oral cavities to the outside; sometimes it passes to through the nasal cavities.
Vowels are voiced sounds. The size and shape of the mouth and the position of the lips and tongue determine what vowel will be produce. For example, the sounds M (bit) and lei (bet) are produce by spreading or flattening the lips; the sound too! (book), lot (ball), and loot (boot) are produce by rounding the lips. It differents with consonant. Consonants are produced by obstructing the airstream much as a stricture in hose obstructs the passage of water. The table that summarizes the twenty-five consonant sounds of the language as follow:
The Consonant Sounds of the Language2 PLOSIVES FRICATIVES NASALS SEMIVOWELS
Voiced Unvoiced Voiced Unvoiced Voiced Voiced Unvoiced
/b/ /p/ /th/ /th/ /m/' /r/ /h/ /d/ /t/
/v/
/f/ /n/ /i/ /hw/
/g/
/ k/ /z/ /s/ /ng/ /y/
/zh/ /sh/ /w/
/ /
/cln/
2 Emerald V. Dechant, Improving The Teaching o f Reading, Prentice-Hall, Inc . 1982,P .47
3 The 5 and z sounds are listed twice because after the age of five, when
dentition causes a spacing between the teeth, they become distorted in a lisp. This lisp disappears when normal dentition is reestablished at the age of eight years.
Vowels and consonants is arranged and pronounced as a word. But, not all sounds can be regarded as speech, until we have gained enough control over the neuromuscular mechanism to produce clear, controled, and distinct sounds. Vocal utterences that is not associated between meaning and controled sounds are merely articulate sounds or “parrot talk” (membeo), because it is lack of the mental element of meaning. “A word without meaning”, states Vygotsky, is an empty sound; no longer a part of human speech.3
In judging wether we are speaking in the correct sense of the term or are merely using “parrot talk” two criteria must be used. First, we must know the meanings of the words we use and associate them with the objects we represent.
The word “ball”, for example, must refer to balls only not to toys in general. Second, we must pronounce our words so that we are readily understandable only to those who, because of constant contact with us, have learned to understand them or to guess at what we are trying to say do not meet this criterion. It is often difficult to do when we have not enough control to speech in correct pronunciation and meaning. We may, for example, correct grammatical errors, as
3Alec A. Williams, Basic Subjects For The Slow Learner, Methuen Educational LTD, 1980,P.3 5
4
we grow older; but, when we speak in excitement, these early grammatical errors are likely to creep in.
William and Gruber study, nearly a third of the children investigated were reported as having speech defects ranging from mild to very severe. And the most common errors in speech made by young children. Usually, mistake in speech is regarded by many parents, grandparents, and others adults as “cute” or “appealing” and it is one of hazards in language learning.
From the phenomena above, the writer sure that speech is the most effective form of communication. It is also the most important and most widely used. It is done in clear, controlled and distinct sounds. In the other hand, speech defect should be overcome to get meaningful word in speech. And the writer is interested in conducting “A Case Study about Speech Defect in Language
Learning among Students of the Second Year of SLTP Muhammadiyah 02 Kartasura Sukoharjo in Academic Year 2003/2004”.
B. Identification of the Problem
To avoid misunderstanding among the reader, the writer makes identification about the title.
1. Speech defect is inaccurate speech; it is varies qualitatively from the norm for the people’s age and contents more than the usual errors for that age. It can be applied to any form of speech that is incorrect.
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2. Language learning is learning to speak and understand a language that we use to convey meaning to others.
C. Statement of the Problem
The problems that is formulated by the writer are as follows:
1. What are the effects of speech defect to language learning?
2. How far speech defects influence the process of language learning of students?
3. What are the factors of speech defect?
4. How the teacher overcomes speech defect in language learning among students of the second year of SLTP Muhammadiyah 02 Kartasura Sukoharjo?
D. The Objective of the Study
Based on the problem statement above, the objective of the study are as follows:
1. To find out the effects of speech defect in language learning 2. To find out how far speech defects influence language learning process.
3. To find out the factors of speech defect.
4. To find out the teacher ways to overcome speech defect.
E. The Benefit of the Study
The result of the research is expected to be beneficial in two ways:
1. Practically, the study will give additional contibution to the language teachers, language learners, and science development. They know about the hazard or
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negative effect of speech defect in language learning. Besides that, they also know about the best ways to overcome it.
2. Theoretically, the study will add the literature in linguistic. It also can be guidance for teacher and learners.
F. Limitation of the Problem
The writer limits the problem into the following: 1. The general definition of language learning.
2. The general definition of speech defect.
3. The language is English.
G. Review of the Literary Used
Williams, who is a Principal Lecturer in Special Education in Hull College, says that speech is the functional aspect of language by which the child assimilates sounds into words, which combine to form meaningful units. Hurlock, in her book Child Development, states that the term “defective” is popularly applied only to defects in pronunciation. In it broader sense, however, it can be applied to any form of speech that is incorrect.
In Dechants’, who is a lecture of Fort Hays State University, opinion noted that speech is considered to be defective when it is not easily audible; is not easily intelligible; is vocally unpleasant; deviates in respect to specifict sound reproduction; is labored in production; lacks conventional rhythm, stress, tonal quality, or pitch; or is in appropriate in terms of the age, sex, or physical
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development of the speaker. And the writer intends to explain the general definition o f speech defect and the common error of speech defect.
H. Research Methodology
1. Type of Research The type of research of this study is qualitative research. Qualitative is a type of research, which involves ontological inquiry. Its work seeks a description for what is occuring in a given place and time.
2. Population The population of this research is all the members of the research subject.
They are the students of the second year of SLTP Muhammadiyah 02 Kartasura Sukohaijo in academic year 2003/2004. The total numbers of the students are 29 persons.
3. Sample Suharsimi Arikunto states that “sampel adalah sebagian atau wakil
populasi yang diteliti ”.4 The subjects of this research are the second year of SLTP Muhammadiyah 02 Kartasura Sukohaijo in academic year 2003/2004.
The total numbers of the students are 29 persons.
4. Data Collection Technique
a. Test To collect the data about speech defect in language learning, the writer uses test as an instrument. Test is (adalah) “serentetan pertanyaan atau
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latihan atau alat lain yang digunakan untuk mengukur keterampilan,
pengetahuan, intelegensi, kemampuan atau bakat yang dimiliki oleh
individu ataupun kelompok”? And in this research, the writer wants toknow how far speech defects influence the language learning of students of the second year of SLTP Muhammadiyah 02 Kartasura Sukoharjo. It is also to know the effects of and the factors of speech defect in language learning,
b. Interview Interview is dialogue between interviewer and interviewee to get information. Interview method as method to get information by asking
English teacher about her methods to overcome speech defect among her students directly.
5. Data Analysis
a. Analytic Deduction According to logicians, the strongest arguments are deductively valid, which means that it is impossible for the conclusion of the argument to be false if its premises are true (Skyrms, 1986)/ An example of such an argument is the following: 1) a. If it is raining, I will take an umbrella, b. It is raining.
4 Sutrisno Hadi, Methodology Research, Yogyakarta: FPUGM, 1987, page 21
5 Suharsimi Arikunto, Prosedur Penelitian Praktek, Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, page 136
6 Rita L. Atkinson, Richard C.Atkinson, Edward E. Smith, Daryl BEM, and Susan Nolen-Hoe Ksema, Introduction to Psychology, Harcourt Brace Coolege, 1990, P. 227
9 c. Therefore, I will take an umbrella.
2) a. If it is raining, I will take an umbrella.
b. If I take an umbrella, I will lose it.
c. It is raining.
d. Therefore, I will lose my umbrella. Based on the statement, the writer will use deductive analysis to analyze data and will be done as the examples from the statement.
b. Analytic Induction Qualitative work begins with close-up, detail observation.
Generalization is to be built from the ground up and only tentatively offered on the basis of their ability to fully contain the data in hand. The writer will looking for some books, and others that relate with the study, then, analyzes them to find the conclusion.
c. Statistical Analysis This is the calculation of the data collected. The data are calculated to find out the proportion of speech defect. Count the students’s error in precentage with formulates:
p = —xl00% n p : precentage
/ : frequency, is looking for the precentage
n : number of cases (number of individual)
10 I. Thesis Outline
The outline of the study will be as follows:
Chapter I: Introduction, consists of background of the study, identification of the problem, statement of the problem, objective of the study, benefit of the study, limitation of the problem, review of the literary used, research methodology, and thesis outline.
Chapter II: Review of related literature, includes theoretical framework of language learning and speech defect, which are taken from many books.
Chapter III: Research methodology, covers types of research, data collection technique and data analysis. Chapter IV: Research report, concerns with research description, data analysis and research interpretation. Chapter V : Closure, contains of conclusion and suggestion. Bibliography Appendix
11 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Framework
1. Definition of language learning Language learning is a study about language. It takes us more than fifteen years before our language reaches what might be called our adult level.
And indeed we continue increasing our knowledge of our language as long as we live, if only by learning new words for new things. E.L.Thomdike, who is a psychologist, explains learning as trial-and-error activity with successful attempts reinforced by satisfying consequences, and when he attempted to related this brain and nerve activity, he succeeded in finding a focus that might apply to all animal life but does not account for much of what is characteristic of human learning.1 According to Morgan in his book
Introduction to Psychology, learning is relatively permanent change is behavior which occurs as a result of practice or experience.2 While language, according to Hurlock in his book Child Development, encompasses every means of communication in which thoughts and feeling are symbolized so as to convey meaning to others. It includes such widely differing forms of communication as writing, speaking, sign language, facial
1 Robert Lado, Ixmguage Teaching A Scientific Approach, New Delhi: TATA McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. LTD., 11983, P. 35
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expressing, gestures, pantomime, and art. W.D.Whitney, who is a linguist, says that language is the spoken means whereby thought is communicated, and it is only that.
Based on the statements above, we conclude that language learning as a habit forming process in which thoughts and feeling are communicated to convey meaning to others. It also to learn something about the human mind and not about linguistic behavior only. Language learning is a complex process that involves linguistic processing and child and adult language learning strategies.
2. Theory of language learning Language learning is the activities for students in their endeavor for acquiring vocabulary and grammatical rules for the purpose of developing and expressing ideas in the target language. Many theories are presented by linguists. Stephen D. Krashens’s Monitor Model of Second Language Development distinguishes between acquisition and learning. Acquisition refers to the natural assimilation of language rules and is a conscious process.
Learning refers to the formal study of language rules and is a conscious
process 4 According to Krashen, however, learning is available only as a “monitor”. The monitor is the repository of concious grammatical knowledge 2
3
2 Morgan, Introduction to Psychology, Singapore. McGraw-Hill International Book Company, 1978, P.145 3 Elizabeth B Hurlock, Child Development, Singapore: McGraw-Hill Company, 1978, P. 162
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about a language that is learned through formal instruction and that is called upon in the editing of utterances produced through the acquired system.
Tracy D. Terrel’s in his Natural Approach is based on a learning theory that specifies both process and condition.3 Its mean that situation and condition of the class influence the language learning process.
Charles A. Curran in his writings on Counseling Learning focuses primarily on the condition necesssary for successful learning.4
5 atmosphere of the classsroom is a crucial factor and his method seeks to ameliorate the feelings of intimidation and insecurity that many learners experience. With respect to learning theory, we are concerned with an account of the conditions believed to promote successful language learning.
6 He believes the
3. Principles of language learning Linguists have theories that the capacity for learning language is an innate human trait, one that exists in all persons regardless of their actual ability to use language in overt ways. Studies of language development in young children have revealed the following principles of language acquisition:7
Although the expression of language through spontaneous speech begins at approximately one year of age, much knowledge about language, including
4 Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, USA: Cambridge university Press, 1992, P.18
5 Ibid, P.18
6 Ibid, P. 18
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some of its prosodic features, is learned prior to the utterance of the first “words”. To some extent, comprehension of linguistic components occurs prior to expression of the same elements.
Children’s first utterences consist of a limited number of word classes, which are combine in unique ways to form short sentences.
Young children do not appear to be imitating adult grammar. Instead they seem to be testing hyphoteses about relation between grammatical constituents such as subjects, predicates, objects, and others. As they utterances are reinforced by adult speakers, they gradually discard hypotheses that do not match the adult grammar of the language being learned.
The indispensable ingredient in language performance is adequate exposure to a corpus of language against which to test hyphoteses. Parental speech is the usual source of exposure and, for hearing children, no special precautions must be taken to provide adequate exposure.
Language learning proceeds rapidly during the first few years of life. There is evidence that the capacity to acquire language may peak between the ages of 2 to 4 years. Children who are learning normally appear to have learned all of the basic rules of language structure prior to age 5 or 6. Beyond that age, language learning consists of refinements of the basic rules. 7
7 Julia M. Davis and Edward J. Hardick, Rehabilitative Audiology fo r Children and Adults, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1981, P. 175,
15 Furthermore, there is reason to believe that the capacity to learn a first language efficiently diminishes appreciably by adolescence.
The necessary exposure to parental language normally occurs through the auditory system. Infants are bathed in a variety of sounds from birth, spoken language being one of them.
The foregoing principles represent a very limited synopsis of normal language learning. The language learner is encouraged to pursue such knowledge, which will increase their mastery in language.
4. Factors of language learning The learning of one language is an inevitable process. Every year millions of people start learning language, especially second language, but very few succeed in mastering it. Why is this so?
The first and most obvious reason is that the learner of language has had experience with another language. The type and amount of experience varies from person to person. A person who has been using only one language since early childhood has habits of thought which are closely tied to his habits of language. The language he uses is now part of his experience with the world of actions and things. When he was child, an increase in this experience was always connected with an increase in language learning.
The learning of the first language follows the same pattern for everyone; the learning of a second language can take onb a variety of patterns. Dozens of factors are involved, each highly variable, and each related to other factors. It
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is doubtful whether the present state of our knowledge can make possible a complete analysis of all these factors, for we are even not sure what precisely the undestanding and speaking of a language involves. Nevertheless, there are all sorts of notions, opinions and beliefs on what influence language learning.
And they' are three types of factors, which influences language learning:8
a. Linguistic Process and progress in language learning depend on (1) how the language one differs from others, and (2) on how much a language interferes with the others.
1) Differences The two languages may be similar because they belong to the same family, as is the case for Spanish and Italian. Although they have similar, they also have differences such as in phonology, grammar vocabulary or stylistics.
2) Interference The type of interference depends on wheter the learner is speaking the language or simply trying to understand what he hears or what he reads. If he is learning to speak the language, the deeply ingrained patterns of his first language will interfere with those of the language he is learning. On the other hand, if he is learning simply to understand the
s William Francis Mackey, Language teaching Analysis, Hong Kong: Wilture Enterprises (International) Ltd, 1981, P. 108-124
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language, the greater the similarity between the first language and the second, the easier the letter will be to understand. In using the language, however, it is the similarity that may cause interference by the misuse of such things as deceptive cognates, like local and location in French and English,
b. Social Since language is essentially a social phenomenon, the social influences on its acquisition are numerous and interrelated in complex ways. These may be analysed as (1) a number of language contacts operated by (2) a number of different factors.
1) Contacts The contacts may be enumerated as follows: (i) those with whom we live (the home group); (ii) those near whom we live (the community); (iii) those with whom we work (the occupational group);
(iv) those with whom we learn (the school group); (v) those of the same national background (the ethnic group); (vi) those with whom we pray (the mosque or church group); (vii) those with whom we play (the play group); (viii) such non-personal and passive contacts as radio, telavision and the cinema; and (ix) such contacts with the writen language as provided by our reading matter.
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2) factors Each of these types of contact may vary according to the following factors: (i) time, (ii) population, (iii) use, (iv) skills, (v) standard, (vi) attitude, (vii) pressure. Time is one of main reasons why language is so thoroughly mastered. In learning the first language a lot of time is first spent in listening, and once the language begins to be used, almost all the schooling is done in it. It is practised for the rest of the speaker’s life. But when a language is considered as just another school subject, the amount of time given to it is extremely limited. And it makes difficult to be master.
Occasions for speaking a language largely depend on the number of persons with whom one comes in contact. If the community is a large metropolis there will be more occasions of contact than if it is an isolated hamlet. It shows that population also influences the language mastery. Besides that, part of the success in language learning is due to the fact that language is used for almost everything. “Practise makes perfect”, people says.
In language mastery, skills are also important thing. A person needs four skills. They are speaking, writing, listening and reading. If he begins with reading and become skilled in it, he may have different pronunciation from that which he would have had if he had started with the spoken language.
19 The social, regional and cultural level at which the language is
spoken is another factor. A person’s most important or most frequent contact may be with speakers of a regional or social dialect of the language. Or it may be with persons having an imperfect knowledge of it. Persons who continually speak to foreigners have been known to develop a special sort of accent based, not on the speech of the foreigners, but on their own word-for-word effort to make themselves understood-much of it unnecessary. In speaking, a person also has different sorts of attitudes toward the persons he meets, and to language learning in general. His attitude may be informal at home, formal at school, solemn in mosque, and colloquial at play. He may avoid using his second language in certain situations because he is ashamed of his accent. In other situations, he may prefer the second language because he is ashamed of his first, since it may be a small dialect, or the language of an unpopular country or community.
In any of the areas of contact with others, a variety of social pressures may also influence an individual’s use of his second language.
These pressure are economic, administrative, cultural, political,, military, historical and religious, c. Psychological The ability to learn a second language varies from person to person.
There are persons who immigrated in their youth and yet never succeed in
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mastering the languageof their new country, while others succeed in learning a second language after a few periods o f fereign residence.
Some of the reasons for their differences are (1) age, (2) motives, (3) native skill, (4) intelligence and personality, (5) auditory memory span, (6) intention, or readiness to learn, (7) emotion, and (8) drive.
1) Age It is popularly assumed that the younger a person starts asecond language, thebetter. In the field of language learning, childhood has been called the age of form; adulthood the age of content. Children learn the structure of a language, although they may not have to talk about.
The adult has a lot to talk about and finds that the structure of the language gets in his way when he tries to use the vocabulary of all the things he wants to say.
The reasons advanced for starting the study of a second language as early as possible are the following: (i) greater facility in imitation, (ii) flexibility of the speech centres, (iii) less interference from previous experience, (iv) lack of self-consciousness. Most of those who advocate starting early put the stress on the phonetic aspect of the language; they also assume that once started, the training will continue indefinitely.
2) Motives The reason a person wants to learn a second language and how much he wants to learn it, how well and in what manner, may determine
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the amount of effort he is willing to put into it. Psychologists have claim that practice without willingness gives poor results. And for the first language, the motives are most compelling. The language gives the child control of his surroundings and makes him a member of the community. 3) Native Skill
Not all persons learn their first language at the same rate and with the same degree of success. Individuals vary in the skill with which they acquire the different elements of language. Some may have a rich vocabulary and a poor enunciation; others have good enunciation but little grammatical versality. 4) Intelligence and Personality
Does intelligence make for better language learning? Some studies seem to indicate that if intelligence is a factor, it is not the most important one. The simple imitation which the learning of everyday formulas seems to involve may indeed have little to do with intelligence.
More is involved in speaking, however, than simple imitation.
When it comes to the comprehension of a langauge, intelligence seems to play a greater role, especially in reading, where a person’s reasoning ability and general knowledge are a great help in enabling him to guess meanings from the context.
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5) Memory Span Memory, especially the auditory memory for sounds immediately after hearing them, is considered a factor in language learning ability.
An analogy is seen in the learning of sound codes like those used in telegraphy. It has been shown that the difference in spanof auditory comprehension distinguishes the beginner in telegraphy from the expert. Whereas the beginner can handle only one word at a time, the expert can deal with ten, keeping them all inhis memory before interpreting them.
As the language learner progresses he also keeps more and more words in his memory before deciding on the meaning of an utterence. There is conflicting evidence, however, on the role of rote memory in language learning.
6) Readiness A person who wishes to do something gets ready to do it by awakening certain responses and mental associations. This is what gives direction to his learning and it is an important factor in comprehension. Witness the initial lack of understanding when we are addressed by a friend in a language we know, but do not expect from him.
7) Emotion Added to the above factors is the effect of emotional associations on second language learning. For a variety of reasons, some persons connect certain emotional associations with certain languages, they like
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certain languages more than others, They may also associate a language with past experience, gained directly or though books or with feelings for the people who speak the language.
8 ) Drive
Individuals vary in their determination to finish a job of work and the energy they expend in the process. This applies to all sorts of formal learning in addition to certain types of language learning.
Many of the psychological factors involved in second language learning apply equally well to formal learning or to learning in general.
Psychologists have studies these factors, and educators have applied them to the entire curriculum, including the second of languages.
B. Speech Defect
1. The term of speech defect Speech defect is inaccurate speech; it varies qualitatively from the norm for the persons age .9 The term “defect” is popularly applied only to defect in pronunciation. In the broader sense, however, it can be applied to any form of speech that is incorrect.
Speech defects generally characterized by indistinctness, by blurring the consonant sounds, by a thick quality, or by the rapid, jerky and stumbling
9 Elizabeth B. Hurlock, Child Development, Singapore: McGraw-Hill Company, 1978, P. 179
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patterns seen in cluttering .10 It means that speech without distortion, omission, substitution, addition, or transposition is good speech. It is not called speech defect.
2. Categories o f speech defect
According to Hurlock in his book Child Development, most speech defects can be categorized into three groups - defect in word meanings, defects in pronunciation, and defect in sentence structure . 11 These three categories are described below.
a. Defects in word meanings.
The first common category of speech defects is association of the wrong meaning with a word. In every language, a number of meanings are associated with words that sound alike, even though their spelling may be different. For example, “rain”, “rein”, and “reign” sound alike but have very different meaning and different spelling. Under such conditions, it is not surprising that, while learning meanings, the person makes many wrong associations.
b. Defects in pronunciation The second common category of speech defects is defects in pronunciation. Most defective pronunciation is due to faulty learning and
10 Emerald V. Dechant, Improving The Teaching o f Reading, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982, P 45 11 Elizabeth B. Hurlock, Child Development, Singapore: McGraw-Hill Company, 1978, P. 180-181
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can be corrected relatively easily. Some is due to malformation of part of the speech mechanism, such as the teeth, palate, lips, or jaws. It may also be caused by imperfect hearing and muscular weakness or partial paralysis of the tongue and lips, as in some cases of cerebral palsy. Under such conditions, defective speech is more persistent and correction is far more difficult.
The errors generally come from faulty learning that has not been corrected. The faulty learning that gives rise to person is more often the result of person’s crude perseptions of words than of inability to pronounce the elemental sounds. Furthermore, in their zeal to talk to others, people often talk so quickly that they omit the harder parts of words. In saying “cream” for example, they are likely to omit the letter r because it takes considerable effort to pronounce two consecutive consonants. The most common errors in pronunciation made by young children.
Hurlock says that there are many common errors in pronunciation: 1) Omission of one or more syllables, usually in the middle of the word, as in “buttfly” for “butterfly.
2) Substitution of letters or syllables, as in “tolly” for “dolly” or “handakerchief’ for “handkerchief’.
3) Interchanges of letters or syllables in the longer and less use words, as in “tautomobile” for “automobile”.
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4) Omission of consonants that are difficult to pronounce, such as z, w, s, d, and g, 5) Abbreviation of difficult consonant blends, such as st, str, sk, dr, and fl.
6 ) Vowels, especially o, which is the most difficult to say.
c. Defect in sentence structure The last category of speech defects is grammatical errors. Even the person with good speech models in sentence structure are in the use of pronouns and verb tenses.
From the age of three, persons tighten their hold on grammar, though they continue to make grammatical mistakes throughout the elementary school years and into high school and college. Person from the lower socioeconomic groups who often hear patterns of incorrect speech in the home tend to make more grammatical errors at every age than do persons from the more privilaged homes. It has been reported that there is a high correlation between grammatical errrors made by persons and those made by their models. Defects in sentence structure can give a totally unintended meaning to sentence, for example, when a person says “I ate my lunch” instead of “I eat my lunch,” it will create the impression that the person has already eaten when, in reality, it means that the person is now ready to eat.
Often person’s grammatical mistakes seem funny to others but they are psychologically damaging to persons. That is why they should not be
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taken lightly or ignored in the hopes that person will outgrow them or correct them when they study grammar.
3. The effects of speech defect to language learning Learning to talk has been called the most difficult skill we which ever acquire as human being. Because of speech defect, for example, many effects will happen. And the effects of speech defect are as follow:
a. Affect the persons comprehension
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Speech defect interferes with communication. They affect thepersons comprehension of what they say as well as the ability of others to understand what the person says. In addition, such errors are responsible for some of the disscipinary problems of childhood. Many cases of what appears to be willful breaking of rules come from person’s misinterpretation of the words used in the rules.