Andalas Journal of International Studies| Vol 5 No 1 Mei Tahun 2016
Andalas Journal of International Studies
ISSN : 2301 - 8208
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Japan and the South China Sea
Noraini bt Zulkifli * & Vivian Louise Forbes **
ketika_kubersujud@yahoo.com
Abstract
This article examines and analyses Japan’s current interest in the South China Sea, by first alluding to the historical context of that country’s involvement from the mid-1930s to the end of the Pacific War, 1945. It then outlines Japan’s energy security needs and that country’s national policy relating to securing safety for its flagged ships and those vessels assisting in promoting Japan’s export and import and the diplomatic role that Japan plays towards regional stability. Japan in their Diplomatic Bluebook stated that the priorityforJapanis to guaranteethe securityandprosperity of the countryand its people. Here,it is clear thatthe Japanese Government will trytodo everything togive the besttoensure their survival. Japan’s interest in South China Sea is because it is deemed critical for the Japanese security.
Keywords: Japan, Energy, Maritime Security, Military, South China Sea
* PhD Candidate,Program of International relations and Strategy, Department of History, Politics and Strategy, National University of Malaysia
** Visiting Professor at Wuhan & Xiamen University
INTRODUCTION
The quotation at the top of the page well illustrates the concerns from all quarters.
The genuine concerns for and interest of Japan in the activities of the
First, the South China Sea is home to South China Sea is evident from a
some of the world’s busiest sea lines of published document by that country’s
communication (SLOCs), which would be Ministry of Defence in 2013 in which it
disrupted, should an armed conflict erupt. stated that; “The independent state of a
Second, there is the potential for non- nation must be protected in order for it to
claimant states to get involved in the maintain the determining of its own
exploration and exploitation of marine direction in politics, economy, and society,
hydrocarbon reserves in the region through as well as its culture, tradition, and sense
joint ventures with claimant states in their of values. However, peace, safety and
perceived exclusive economic zones. independence cannot be secured by simply
Third, having a voice in a major regional wishing for them. 1 security
confers prestige commensurate with regional power status.
issue
Geopolitical tensions continued to Finally, involvement in the South China simmer in the South China Sea throughout Sea issue could have implications on other 2013 as evident in the national and
territorial disputes.
international electronic and print media and the attention given to this regional
This present study will allude to semi-enclosed sea in the numerous
Japan’s energy dependence and then international and regional for held
analyse national policy of self-sufficiency, annually. After the US President Obama
energy and maritime security, maritime administration’s declaration in 2009 of a
self-defence and its involvement in the US ‘return to Asia’ stirred up regional
affairs of its southern neighbours, dynamics non-claimant states, India and
especially the littoral states of the South Japan, entered into the fray. There are
China Sea.
various reasons for these activities: oil and
Japan and Its Energy Dependence
gas exploration and exploitation and ensuring security of important sea routes.
2010, energy needs requirementsbyJapanwere42per
During
centoil,
1 Ministry of Defense, Defense of Japan 2013.
22per centcoal,18per centgas, 13per
Tokyo. [online version] http://www.mod.go.jp/e/publ/w_paper/pdf/2013/01
centnuclear,
and fourpercentof and fourpercentof
a repeat of the Fukushima nuclear disaster 2010). From these, Japan relied on oil 3 in March 2011.
imports to meet about 42 percent. It also Japan's nuclear regulator expressed
relied on LNG imports for virtually all of growing alarm on Wednesday, 10 July
its natural gas demand and it is the world's 2013, at increased contamination at the
largest LNG importer. Actually, Japan has adjacent seafront of
the stricken
32 of its owned operating terminals where Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station
majority terminals are located in Tokyo, and urged the plan’s operators to take
Osaka and Nagoya but the terminals are
measures. 4 Fukushima's notabletoaccommodate theneedsof LNG.
protective
operator, Tokyo Electric Power Co., has Indonesia became the world largest LNG
2 acknowledged problems are mounting at exporter in the world. Japan has a large
the plant north of Tokyo, the site of the volume of imported LNG passes through
world's worst atomic disaster since the Indonesian archipelagic waters. The
Chernobyl in 1986. The company Japanese government ordered its Maritime
observed that the day earlier radiation Self-Defence Force (MSDF) to consider
levels in groundwater had soared, how it might protect Japanese vessels
suggesting highly toxic materials from the using these sea-lanes of communications.
plant were getting closer to the Pacific The country was the world's third
more than two years after three meltdowns largest producer of nuclear power after the
triggered by a massive earthquake and US and France before the Fukushima
tsunami. The NRA strongly suspected Daiichi nuclear power plant accident in
radiation was contaminating the Pacific, March 2011. Japan's nuclear regulator
Kyodo news agency said in an earlier stated on Thursday, 4 July 2013, that
report from a weekly NRA commission elevating safety culture to international
meeting.
standards will "take a long time", days before new rules come into effect to avoid
Japan has limited domestic energy resources and is only about 16 per cent self-sufficient and is the third largest oil
2 Raj, A. Japan's Initiatives in Security Cooperation 3 www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-nuclear- in the Straits of Malacca on maritime security and
idUSBRE96309M20130704 (July 4, 2014) in
Southeast Asia: Piracy
and
Maritime
Terrorism.The Japan Institute for International 4 Aaron Sheldrick and Kentaro Hamada ‘Japan says Affairs (JIIA), (2009)
building nuclear safety culture will take a long building nuclear safety culture will take a long
was reached between the two governments Republic of China (PRC). It is also the
in May 2008 over two fields - largest importer of liquefied natural gas
Chunxiao/Shirakaba andLongjing/Asunaro (LNG) and the second largest importer of
- in September 2010, Japan urged China to coal. The LNG and coal commodities are
implement the agreement as tensions rose imported from sources in Southeast Asia
over the contested area. and Australia, but are not limited to these
Consequently, Japan relies heavily geographical areas. The oil is sourced from on imports to meet its consumption needs. reserves in the Persian Gulf equating to Japan maintains government-controlled oil nearly 75 per cent as depicted in Figure 2. stocks to ensure against a supply
interruption. Total strategic oil stocks in Japan were 589 million barrels at the end of December 2011, with 55 per cent being government stocks and 45 per cent
commercial stocks. 5
Japanese oil companies have sought participation in exploration and production projects overseas
with government Figure 2: Japan’s crude oil imports
backing because of the country’s lack of by source (geographic region), 2011
domestic oil resources. The government’s Japan has very limited domestic oil
2006 energy strategy plan encouraged reserves, amounting to 44 million barrels
Japanese companies to increase energy as of January 2012, according to the Oil
exploration and development projects and Gas Journal (OGJ), down from the 58
around the world to secure a stable supply million barrels reported by OGJ in 2007.
of oil and natural gas. The Japan Bank for Japan's domestic oil reserves are
Cooperation supports concentrated primarily along the country's
International
upstream companies by offering loans at western
surrounding Japan, such as the East China
5 Energy International Agency. Oil and Gas
Sea, also contain oil and gas deposits; Emergency Response of EIA Country,(2013).
https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/p
however, development of these zones is
ublication/2013_OSS_Japan.pdf(accessed August
held up by competing territorial claims 18, 2016) held up by competing territorial claims 18, 2016)
investments in overseas ventures in recent Japanese companies to bid effectively for
projects in key producing countries. Such Most of Japan's LNG imports financial
originate from regional suppliers in companies to purchase stakes in oil and Southeast Asia, although the country has a gas fields around the world, reinforcing fairly balanced portfolio with no one national
supplier having a market share greater than guaranteeing their own financial stability. roughly 20 per cent. Japan's top five gas The government's goal is to import 40 per suppliers make up 73 per cent of the cent of the country's total crude oil imports market share. After the March 2011 from Japanese-owned concessions by disaster, several suppliers from Qatar, 2030, up from the current estimated 19 per Russia, Malaysia and Indonesia exported cent. cargoes to Japan through swaps and
Japan's overseas oil projects are diverted cargoes. Qatar, the world's largest primarily located in the Middle East and
supplier of flexible LNG, overtook Southeast Asia; however, their geographic
Indonesia as the third largest supplier to scope is much wider. Japanese oil
Japan in 2011 and provided most of the companies involved in exploration and
additional imports needed after the production projects overseas include:
earthquake under short-term agreements. Inpex, Cosmo Oil, Idemitsu Kosan Co.,
companies signed Japan Energy Development Corporation,
Japanese
utility
agreements with Qatar Gas at the end of Japex, Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Nippon Oil, and
2011 to secure longer term LNG supply. others. Many of these companies are
The pie-graph in Figure 3 amply involved in small-scale projects that were
6 illustrates the geographical scope from originally set up by JNOC. However,
which Japan sources its import of LNG to many are involved in high-profile supply its domestic energy needs. Nearly upstream
85 per cent of this importation is transported by specially designed ships navigating along the sea lanes of the South 6
Analysis Report
http://www.connaissancedesenergies.org/sites/defa
China Sea many using the geographic
ult/files/pdf-pt-
restrictions of straits and channels within
vue/anlysis_report_on_japan.pdf(accessed August 18, 2016)
the semi-enclosed seas of South East Asia, the semi-enclosed seas of South East Asia,
However, they continue to account for a relatively small share of generation at this time.
As part of the revised energy policy plan, Japan is trying to encourage a greater use of renewable energy, from sources such as sea water, solar, wind, geothermal,
Figure 3: Japan’s LNG imports by source hydropower, and biomass, for power
(geographic region) 2011 generation. Non-nuclear renewable energy
made up about 4 per cent of Japan's total generating capacity of 48 GW in 2009,
Japan installed
hydroelectric
energy consumption and about 2 per cent accounting for about 16 per cent of total
of the country's electricity generation in electricity capacity. About half of this
2010. The Japanese legislature approved capacity is pumped storage with another 5
an act, which was enacted in July 2012, GW scheduled to come online by 2020.
compelling electric utilities to purchase Like nuclear power, hydropower is a
electricity generated by renewable fuel source for base load generation in Japan
sources, except for nuclear, at fixed feed- because of the low generation costs and
in tariff prices. The costs are to be shared stable supply. Hydroelectric generation
by government subsidies and the end was 73 TWh in 2010, making up about 7
users, though details of the act, particularly per cent of total net generation. The
the tariff price, are not entirely defined. Japanese government has been promoting
We have just alluded to the energy small hydropower projects to serve local
supply and needs of Japan and hence that communities through subsidies and by
country’s interest in ensuring that the sea simplifying procedures.
lanes of communication in the South Wind, solar, and tidal powers are
China Sea are always free and safe for being actively pursued in the country and
navigation at the present and in the future. installed capacity from these sources has
However, it is interesting to discuss briefly, the historical interest from an
7 UNCTAD. Review of Maritime Transport, (2011)
historical perspective.
Maritime Security
Suez Canal traffic, and well over five times more than the Panama Canal.
Southeast Asia is home to important According to Malaysia Vessel Traffic sea-lanes and straits including Straits of
8 System (VTS) in 2001, the ships transiting Malacca Singapore, Sunda, and Lombok.
through Strait of Malacca was 59,314 and The security of the Straits of Malacca and that increased to 70,718 ships in 2007. In Singapore became an international concern 2012, the number of ships traversing the and the straits have been the core reasons Strait of Malacca was 75,477. of maritime security cooperation between
countries from within and outside Virtually all shipping that passes Southeast Asia. 9 In Southeast Asia, the
through the Malacca and Sunda Straits multilateral and bilateral agreements or
must pass near the Spratly Islands – the other cooperative efforts to enhance
Dangerous Grounds as delineated on maritime security have been implemented
nautical charts as indicated in Figure 3, and discussed since 1992 and resulting in
above. From about the mid-1990s, the the ASEAN Declaration on the South
threat at the sea to merchant navy ships China Sea in the same year. More than half
was mostly by non-traditional security of the world’s annual merchant fleet
elements such as piracy, terrorism, tonnage passes through the Straits of
smuggling of all types of commodities and Malacca and Singapore, Sunda, and
especially military armament. According Lombok, with the majority continuing on
to the Japan Coast Guard (JCG), the into the South China Sea. 10 number of piracy and armed robbery
incidents in South China Sea consists of Oil tanker traffic through the Strait 242 cases in 2000 and decrease to 83 cases of Malacca leading into the South China in 2007. In 2012, the cases up to 104. Sea is more than three times greater than
By mid-2013, this semi-enclosed sea
8 Liss, C. ,The Privatisation of Maritime Security- Maritime Security in Southeast
and adjacent waters was relatively free
Asia: Between
a rock and a hard place?,” Asia
Research paper
from the scourge of piracy; however, the
Perth: Murdoch University, (2010)
underlying concern is that of freedom of
Vavro, C. ,“Piracy, Terrorism and the Balance of Power in the Malacca Strait,”Canadian Naval
navigation. Japan continues its concern
Reviewvol 4, no 1 (spring,2008)
about anti-piracy efforts by actively
canvassing support for the United Nations
Sien, C. L. “The Importance of the Straits of Malacca
and
Singapore,”Singapore
Security Council (UNSC) so asto obtain a
Journal of International & Comparative
permanent membership within UNSC. The
Multilayered and
international community and the shipping SecurityStrategy will be introduced as a
Cooperative
industry in general the number of cases new security framework for Japan. This
reported in 2012 was a mere eight. (IMB will also allow the Japanese Self-Defence
2013) For this sole reason, the Forces to address the overall security
Government of Japan through the Japan issues pertaining to Japan as well as
contributedfinancially by elements in the issues to piracy and
Foundation
offeringtrainingandnavigationfacilities to maritime terrorism.
the littoral States of Malacca and Singapore Straits under the auspices of the Malacca Straits Council to facilitate and regulate the activities ofships. In 2009, the Japan Foundationdonated USD 2.5 million to the Malacca Straits Council. 12
Shipping (by tonnage) in the South China Sea is dominated by raw materials en route to the East Asian countries.
Figure 4: Major crude oil flows in the Tonnage via Malacca and the Spratly South China Sea (2011) Source: USA EIA
Islands is dominated by liquid bulk such as <accessed 25 July 2013>
crude oil and liquefied natural gas (LNG), with dry bulk (mostly coal and iron ore) in
The large volume of shipping in the second place. Nearly 66 per cent of the
South China Sea/Strait of Malacca littoral tonnage passing through the Strait of
has created opportunities for attacks on Malacca, and half of the volume passing
merchant shipping; in 1995, almost half of the Spratly Islands, is crude oil from the
the world's reported cases of piracy Persian Gulf. The oil tanker traffic through
occurred in this area. In 2000, the number the Straits of Malacca and Singapore rose
of piracy and armed robbery incidents in to 13.8 million barrels per day (bbl/d)
Straits of Malacca and Singapore during 2007 and the amount increased to
amounted to 242 cases, and decreased to
16 cases in 2006. 11 Fortunately, for the
12 Mohd Hazmi Rusli,. “The Legal Feasibility of the
Imposition of a Traffic Limitation Scheme in
11 Evers, H.D. & Gerke,S. The Strategic Straits Used for International Navigation: A Study Importance of the Straits of Malacca for
of Malacca and World Trade and Regional Development, Jerman:
Singapore,”.International Journal of Humanities University of Bonn (2005)
and Social Science Vol.1 No.6 (2011)
15.2 million bbl/d in 2011. The rising to use the Lombok and Makassar Straits, Asian oil demand could result in a
they would at least add 30 yen for each doubling of these flows over the next two
kilometre or expend USD 1.2 billion decades.
annually with additional times to two weeks using tanker. 13
LNG shipments through the South China Sea constitute two-thirds of the
Thus the maritime security within world’s overall LNG trade. Japan is the
the semi-enclosed seas of South East Asia recipient of the bulk of these shipments; in
is of prime importance to ensure 1996 Japan was dependent upon LNG for
commercial, economic and social security over 11% of its total energy supplies.
stability for the region and in particular for (Dzurek, 1985) South Korea (over seven
Japan. Maritime terrorism is another per cent of energy consumption) and
problem that every maritime nation has to Taiwan (over four per cent of energy
devote attention to. In the early-2000s, consumption) also import large amounts of
terrorist organizations executed a number LNG via the South China Sea. During
of serious attacks on targets in maritime 2010, Japan import 3.4 Trillion Cubic Feet
Southeast Asia. In 2000 and 2001, the Abu (Tcf) LNG and in rose up to 3.8 Tfc in
Sayyaff Group (ASG), operating by boat, 2011 (EIA).
kidnapped local citizens and international holiday makers from resorts on Sipadan
The other major shipping lane in the and Palawan Islands. The Southeast Asian
region uses the Lombok and Makassar states that had taken collective positive
Straits, and continues into the Philippine action towards these activities succeeded
Sea. Except for north-south traffic from in decreasing the number of attacks at
Australia, it is not used as extensively as
In March 2010, Indonesia, the Strait of Malacca and the South China
sea. 14
Malaysia, and Singapore announced Sea, since for most voyages it represents a
increase security measures in response to a longer voyage by several hundred miles.
By using the Straits of Malacca and 13 Wan Siti Adibah, Zinatul Ashiqin, Noor Inayah
&Noridayu, “Corporate Social Responsibility
Singapore, Japanese shipping companies
(CSR) from Shipping Companies in the Straits of
could potentially save more yen per
Malacca and Singapore,”International Journal of Business and Society 13(2), (2012)
kilometre and travel time would be
shortened (Ever & Gerke 2005). If,
14 Hoadley,S. & Ruland, J, Asian Security Reassessed. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian
however, the shipping companies choose
Studies (2006) Studies (2006)
countries to China rather than Japan. In economic terms, the increase inthe value
Economic and Military Rise of China:
ofmerchandise gave huge opportunities to
Concern for Japan
China. In a report from United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
The economic and military rise of China is
2008, China’strade not a minor issue to Japan. China became
(UNCTAD)
in
valueexceededJapan’sin 2005. This one of the biggest competitors in East Asia
15 situation continueduntil 2007. Japan had and currently in South Sea. China joined
only a modest economy in 2001; however, World Trade Organization (WTO) in
after that country experienced three 2001. This was an opportunity for China to
economic recessions since 2008, a open its economy to the world and become
downturn in trade investment and global fully integrated with the international
demand for Japan's exports in late 2008 trading system. A free market policy has
pushed the country into recession. enhanced China’s economy and made that
country more productive and promote
rapid economic rose enhanced industrial practices. Competition
China’s
threatened Japan. China imported 80 per in trading has compelled Chinese
cent of its energy through the Straits of companies to improve their technology
Malacca and Singapore into South China and management to reach international
Sea. 16 Japan's economyis notgrowingata standards.
goodratesince 2001. Government stimulus spending helped the economy recover in
In 2011, China boosted its economy late-2009 and 2010, but the economy
and was second after USA. This situation showed contraction again in 2011 as the
really gave tension to Japan to re-maintain massive 9.0 magnitude earthquake. Not
its economy because China offered a vast only that, the tsunami in March once again
market and a multitude of workers. disrupted manufacturing.
Besides, the cheaper goods from China re-
16 H.Yu, “China's Perspectives on the Straits of
15 B.J Ahn, “The Rise of China and the Future of Malacca. In Nazery Khalid (edt.),” Proceeding of East Asian Integration,”Asia-Pacific Review 11(2):
the 6th MIMA International Conference on the 22-32 (2004) & G.Christofferson, “Japan and The
Straits of Malacca: Charting the Future, (2009): East Asian Maritime Security order: prospect for
&L.Spittena “The Malacca trilateral
22-24.
MIMA
Dilemma” —countering China’s “string of pearls” Perspective 33(3), (2009): 107-149.
and multilateral
cooperation,”Asian
with land-based airpower. Alabama: Air University (USAF), (2006)
Japandoes not wantChinato beits more multinational companies set up their competitor becauseit recognises thepower
businesses and factories in China. Vast of theChinesenationina big market, blessed
quantities of manufactured goods are with
exported to South East Asia countries, for resourcesandcheaplabourwhich
abundant
example, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar and potentially threaten itspositionin the
could
Thailand. 21
region. 17 In 2009, China’s trade increased Increasedpolitical
influence to USD 5 trillion and the nation’s
ofChinainSoutheast Asiaactuallyserves a purchasing power approached the stage of
18 bitter blow tothe Japanesebecause they USD
8.7 trillion. Chinaimportsvast realizeasa smallcountrywithfewer natural
quantities ofenergyresources makes it resources. Ifthis situation continues,there
reliant on energy resource-rich countries. is a potential to causea threat tothe
Chinahas positionedintoanewworld
ofthe countryboth economicpowerwhereChina's
nationalsecurity
economic
economicallyand socially. 22 Japan has slowdownwillpresentan
realisedeven though sometimes China is adverseimpactontheglobal economy.
quiteaggressiveinactingon the issue of The market power transition from
territories, it is Japan to China indirectly brought about a
securingits
alsotolerantincertaincircumstancessuch reduction of dependency on the other
aseconomiccooperation. For example
China donated USD 1.7 million to image in the South East Asia destabilised
states toward Japan. 19 The rise of China’s
ASEAN to fundcollaborative projectsthat Japan's geopolitical stance. 20 Not only that,
17 Rusdi Omar,“China dan Kuasa Hegemoni Baru Ekonomi,”
http://
www.ijms.uum.edu.my/ijms
http://money.cnn.com/2011/02/13/news/internation J.M. Rathus, Japan response to the rise of China:
al/china_overtakes_japan_economy.cnnw/index.ht Implication to
m [July 16, 2013]
Australia: University of Adelaide 21 N.Mashashi, Japan's Political and Security Relations with ASEAN.(2003) Tokyo:
Japan 19 R.J. Samuels, R. Tokyo grand strategy and the Centre for International Exchange
future of East Asia securing Japan. (2008)London: Cornell University Press
22 A.L. Oros, “Japan’s Security Future,” The Routledge
of Asian Security 20 L.Kyung, Move over Japan: China is now No. 2
Handbook
Studies.London(Routledge:2010) Studies.London(Routledge:2010)
of
rice
announced that it would increase the foremergency. 23 defence
billion. 26 Chinahas
In the security context, China’s beenmodernizingandaddednewfacilitiesfor
riseleads tothe
existence
ofthe
its navy andthe air force.China'sactionsare securitydilemmabetween thetwocountries.
perceived by the Government of Japan as China’s military modernisation assets
encroaching on its market territoryand convince many that the country is
hence have an impact onstabilityinthe preparing itself for war. In addition, the
South China Sea.Ifthis situation continues, aggressiveness of China in South China
it is possible thatChinawillcontinueits Sea portrays an impression that China will
actionuntil it reachesthe Straits of never compromise about their claimed
Malacca.
territory and anything owned by themselves. China is viewed as a threat to
China also has not clarified the status
of its military modernisation programme inthe
Japan in South China Sea. 24 The increase
governmentbudgetallocated and the transparency of its policies. Does it fordefence spendingin
Chinahasmade
have to make tis public? By not Japanfeel threatened. 25 elaborating on these policies it could be
argued that there is a possibility that this In 2001, China announced an
could lead to a sense of distrust and increase in its defence expenditure as
misunderstandings by other countries. being 17.7 per cent higher and larger than
Furthermore, China has been expanding the previous over two decades (Hoesslin
and intensifying its activities in the East 2004). By 2004, China once again
China Sea – waters close to Japan.
Together with the lack of transparency in
P. ELam, & G.Narayanan,"China and East Asia: Mutual Accommodation. In.
Lam,
P. E &
its military and security affairs has become
Dürkop, C. East Asia's Relations with a Rising
a concern for Japan as a neighbour. The
China.(2008) Japan: Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung
countries have a war history. These are
24 C.W Pumphrey, (Ed), “The rise of China in Asia: Security Implications,”(2002) U.S. Army War
why China is asked to further improve
College &J.M Rathus, “Japan response to the rise
transparency regarding its military and try
of China: Implication to regional Institution,” (2010) Australia: University of Adelaide
26 Mokhzani Zubir&Mohd Nizam Basiron, The 25 H.Tanaka, “Nationalistic Sentiment in Japan and
Straits of Malacca: the Rise of China, Their Foreign Policy
America’s Intentions and the Dilemma of the Insights Vol.2, No 1 (2008)
Implications,” East Asia
Littoral States. MIMA(2005) Littoral States. MIMA(2005)
war situation. promoting dialogues in an important issue.
preparing
tofacea
AlthoughChinahas repeatedly statedthe China basically only announced the total
modernisationof weapons and its nuclear amount for the three categories consist of
capability isfor the use in thecountry, but it personnel, training and maintenance and
still does notchange theJapan's perceptions equipment.
Thedevelopment ofmilitary The report for the United Nations
assetscancauseotherneighbouring countries Instrument
to feel uneasywiththissituation. Whilst Expenditures submitted by China in 2009
several neighbouring countries had to slash was not filled out in accordance with the
their budget expenditure others had standard format used by other nations, 28 moderate increases. In the future, this
including Japan, which required a detailed situation can cause the competition of breakdown of military expenditure. The
defence modernisation. Because of the rise information disclosed in the report
in military power of China, the submitted by China was almost as simple
USAdeliveredmore naval shipsto some as that provided in China’s defence white
Asia-Pacificcountries. The Government of papers. In the report China only provided
Japanbelieves thatinthe nextten years, details of personnel expenses, operation
the military maintenance costs and equipment costs by
China’sdominancein
fieldwillbewell advanced. The military co- naval, air force and armies.
operation with USA will no longer be able to prevent China's action.
The Government of Japan has felt uneasywithChinaas
For this precise the reason the allegedly
Government of Japan believed that if they andweapons of mass destruction. 27 Eventhe
modernisingits
nuclear
brought USA in this regional equation, it reliabilityofChinais
would be balancing China military alsoquestionablebecause ofan increase
might. 29 Not only that, Japan also believed inadditions
ofmilitary
hardware
onlydemonstrates 28 that this countryis S.S Jatswan, K.S Balakrisnan, Trends in
Maritime Security and Geopolitics in Southeast Asia. In. The Seas Divide: Geopolitics and
Maritime IssuesinSoutheast Asia. Kuala Lumpur:
E. Atanassova- Cornelis,“The US-Japan Alliance Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences. (2008), 1-7 and the Rise of China:
Implications for the East
Asian Security order and the EU's Regional 29 K.V Kesavan, “Japan and ASEAN: Their Role,”Brussels: Paper for the International
Changing Security Relations,”New Delhi:Observer Conference(2010)
Research Foundation(2011) Research Foundation(2011)
have shared common strategic interests in geographically Japan is only a tiny country
maritime Southeast Asia. Both allies rely compared to China. China’s increasing
upon the safe and secure sea lines of nuclear deterrence capabilities base in
communication that pass through the South China Sea would affect Japan’s core
region. Therefore, it is natural for the USA interest now and in the future. 30 and Japan to look for opportunities to
increase their cooperation in maritime
Japan’s Contemporary Involvement
Southeast Asia. Japan’s strategic outlook creates opportunities for such co-operation
In responding to the rise of economic so long as it is implemented in concert
and military rise of China in the South with host nation priorities.
China Sea, Japan has commenced its basic international policy through engagement
In 2008, the Japanese government with ASEAN countries to gain mutual
announced Japan Maritime Self Defence’s reassurance. Japan is using the three pillars
(JMSDF) new maritime era ( MoD 2012) of engagement which are Official
The objectives of the JMSDF are to Development Assistance (ODA), capacity
prevent any threat from reaching crisis building and dialogue. 31 point; to repel it and minimize any
damage; to improve the international
Japan has to have a close
security environment; and, to reduce the relationship with USA so as to balance the
chances that any threat will reach Japan in rise of China in the East and South China
the first place. 32 The role of the defence Seas. This is will fine-tune the good
force in these initiatives are to be an influence for Japan in terms of
effective response to the new threats and strengthening and support when it is faced diverse situations, as preparations to deal
with full-scale invasion and lastly as a
30 M.J Green, Asia in the Debate on American
Grand Strategy”, Naval War
College Review
proactive
efforts
to improve the
http://www.usnwc.edu/Publications/Naval- War-
international security environment.
College-Review/2009---Winter.aspx
[July
2013] 32 Japan Ministry of Defense. JMSDF:What is the
31 S.M. Tang, “Japan’s Grand Strategic Shift from Japan Maritime Self Defense Force?:Main Yoshida to Koizumi: Reflections on Japan’s
operations.(2014)http://www.mod.go.jp/msdf/form Strategic Focus in the 21 st century,”Akademika vol
al/ english/ about/ operation/ index.html [10 Des 70. Bil 1 (2007)
To achieve these objectives, JMSDF realises that if the littoral States of the needs to constantly conduct patrol and
South China Sea do not cooperate each surveillance in their surrounding waters in
other, all its efforts are wasted. In 2000, peace time, and to prevent the emergence
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of situations, while maintaining a system
of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and that enables immediate response once the
the Japan Coast Guard organized a situation arises. Generally naval forces
regional conference on combating piracy (including JMSDF) are granted various
and armed robbery supported by the privileges under the international laws
Nippon Foundation. Coast guard agencies, during peace time, enabling them to act
maritime policy makers, ship-owners freely as the embodiment of nation
IMOand ten sovereign, to navigate necessary waters
associations
the
ASEANmembers were represented the without impairing the rights and interests
conference.
of surrounding
countries, and
to
As a result of the conference a demonstrate national wills when the
33 “Model Action Plan”was drawn up in situation calls for.
indicating specific guidelines to be JMSDF needs to utilize these
followed by maritime policy makers and characteristics to secure the safety and
private-sector parties in maritime issues stability of overseas maritime trade and
pertaining to piracy and armed robbery cargo transportation. For this purpose, it
from the coast guard efforts to tackle the needs to promote international cooperation 34 problem.
with the US as an ally and other reliable Japan’s concerns within the seas and partners for maintaining relevant major straits and Southeast Asia has resulted in international systems and the security of closer cooperation and capacity-building sea lines of communication. For Japan, to programs with the Straits of Malacca's secure the safe and stable maritime littoral states as well as its newer navigation is the very foundation of its initiatives towards Thailand and the other maritime security concern. Asiannations in terms of maritime security
Japan treasures its cooperative cooperation. Japan has long cooperated ventures with ASEAN countries because it
34 H.Tanaka, “Japan’s Policy Agenda for East
Asia,”Japan: East Asia Insights. Vol 2. No
33 T. Kotani, “Struggle over EZZs: Japan's Interests
in South China Sea,” MIMA
Conference Conference
efforts in the Straits of Malacca in 2004. mapping on joint research. Although
JCG is playing a major role in issues pertaining to the divergence of addressing the threat of piracy and armed interest in institutional settings, Japan is robbery, smuggling and terrorism. They still moving ahead with its initiatives in have engaged in many capacity-building responding to the needs of the ASEAN programmes around the world as well as to nation in term to the threats of piracy and provide trainings for major governments. maritime terrorism in the Straits and One of the initiative taken for the Straits of Southeast Asia. Malacca and Singapore in assisting the
Malaysian Maritime maritime terrorism in the Straits of
The potential for acts of piracy and
new-formed
Enforcement Agency (MMEA)in capacity Malacca and Singapore has resulted in
building and training programs of increased Japanese funding through the
MMEApersonnel. JCG is helping MMEA “Official
in giving training, offering facilities and Assistance”program in anti-piracy as well
Development
joint exercises. The other initiative is the as in maritime threats from terrorism. The
“New Maritime Training Program”that Japanese Coast Guard (JCG) has been
had been introduced by the JCG in April patrolling through the Southeast Asian
2009. The program was launched in 2008. waters. JCG also has carried out numerous
Based on this initiative, the first thirty joint exercise training with maritime
personnel from Malaysia, Thailand and the counterparts
Philippines had classified as a Maritime Thailand,
Agency organization. This joint- training Indonesia.
Malaysia, Singapore
and
will free from the military jurisdiction. Cooperation Agency (JICA)has been given
The relationship between Japan and the task to assist the capacity building
India existed more than 50 years ago. For programs together with the Japanese Coast
India and Japan, the South China Sea Guard. Japan has focused primarily on
dispute provides additional indicators to civilian cooperation rather than military
gauge the assertiveness of China’s foreign cooperation and has refrained from
policy. India has unresolved borders with utilizing its Maritime Self-Defence Force
China in the Himalayas region and with in the region other than disaster relief
Japan a territorial dispute in the East China
Sea. India also has territorial disputes with rise up and generate their economy, Pakistan, who in turn is supported by
modernise their defence facilities and try China. The actual and perceived economic
to politically re-align the region using their and military rise of China is also bringing
economic capabilities. For this reason, India and Japan closer together.
India believes it needs to be involved in this region so as to balance the rise of
India-Japan Partnership
China together with USA and Japan as a host. 37 India as one of the emergence
The Governments of India and Japan economic powerhouse in Asia is
signed the ‘Joint Statement Vision for recognised as such by Japan. A survey of
Japan-India Strategic
and
Global
Japanese companies noted that they chose Partnership in the Next Decade’ and a
India as the third important countries for ‘Comprehensive Economic Partnership
35 future world economy after China and Agreement’ in October 2010. No doubt
United States.
India’s naval presence in the Indian Ocean, from the Strait of Hormuz to the Straits of
China and India are both robust Malacca and Singapore, provides an
economic powers and have nuclear important component for Indo-Japanese
capabilities. At the same time, Japan has a
maritime cooperation. 36 Security interests
presence as the world’s third largest that are opposing of the Government of
economy. As a world watches the rise of China are also aligning the two countries
India and China, there are growing to more strategic engagement with the
suspicious over what China’s military Association of South East Asian Nations
modernisation and economic buoyancy (ASEAN), of which there are ten nation
would translate into. Even though India is States.
also an emerging new power but in comparison, the rise of India does not
India and Japan see the emergence of seem to be as worrisome for most
China as a challenger to the South East countries in the world. 38 This is because
Asia region. They believe that China will
35 A.Mathur, “India - Japan Relations Drivers, Trends and prospect,”Singapore: RSIS.
RSIS
MONOGRAPH NO. 23(2012) 37 M.Gaur, “ India’s Look East Policy,” FPRC. No. 36 India Press, “India, Japan to ‘upgrade’defence
cooperation” 38 B.Goshal, “Some New Thoughts on India’s Look http://indianexpress.com/article/india/indiaothers/In
East Policy,” Institute of Peace and Conflict diajapantoupgradedefencecooperation
Studies. No 54.(2007)
Desember 2014].
India does not wish to challenge the 40 threats from China. (NST, 28 June 2013 existing international order.
p.1) The Government of the Philippines was drafting plans whereby the US forces
Japan and the Philippines
could spend more time on military bases in The Government of Japan held talks
the Philippines and the same terms could in September 2011 with diplomats of the 41 be offered to Japan.
Philippines on resolving the territorial and Japan was considered as a strategic sovereignty disputes in the South China partner in accordance with the Philippines’
Sea peacefully in accordance with existing diplomatic protocols. The two international law. It proposed that the two Governments agreed to further cooperate countries set up a ‘permanent working in terms of the defence of the remote group’ to regularly tackle disputes and islands, the territorial sea as well as other Asian maritime issues. Even more protection of maritime interests. importantly, military and security ties were
tightened with the elevation of the The Philippines will also be putting relationship to a ‘strategic partnership’. 39 forward a proposal for avoiding future
Japan also displayed its willingness to play conflicts in the Sea at the next ASEAN
a greater role in regional security issues summit. This would see claimant countries when the Japanese Vice-Minister of
determine which areas are in dispute and Defence met with senior military officials
which are not so as to allow for the from the Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia
exploration and exploitation of resources, and Thailand in late-September 2011.
potentially in joint ventures. On 28 June 2013, Japan’s Minister
But while outside involvement can of Defence offered assistance to the
guarantee some degree of protection for Government of Philippine when the latter
ASEAN states against China, this could be stated that it would seek greater
a dangerous game to play — one that risks cooperation with Japan and the United
40 M.Fackler, “To Counter China, Japan and
States by offering access to its military
Philippines
Will
Bolster Maritime
bases as it seeks to counter any military
Cooperation.”(2013) http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/11/world/asia/jap anandphilippinestobolstermaritimecooperation.html ?_r=0 [November, 11 2014].
39 J.E Esplanada,”Philippines, Japan to enhance 41 Z. Keck, ”Made in China: A USA- Japan- maritime
Axis?,” http://globalnation.inquirer.net/43508/philippinesja
http://thediplomat.com/flashpoints- pantoenhancemaritimesecurityties/ [11 April 2014]
blog/2013/06/29/made-inchina-a-us-japan[1 Julai blog/2013/06/29/made-inchina-a-us-japan[1 Julai
of issues. Both countries discussed the
a reaction following Philippine President safety of navigation in vital shipping lanes Aquino’s recent talks with the US and
such as the Straits of Malacca and Japan on the one hand and China on the
Singapore, counter-piracy measures, the other. These talks secured US$60 billion
Regional Cooperation Agreement on of infrastructure investment from China
Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery but also the purchase of two Hamilton
against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP), maritime class cutters from the US.
security efforts in ASEAN and others.
It would be easy for China to In 2013, the new Prime Minister, interpret the events during 2010/11 as
Shinzo Abe introduced new policy. It was tantamount to a strategic encirclement by
democratic security diamond. From this the US, India and Japan. And this will only
policy, Abe stated that the security of make the disputes more complicated than
Japan as a national identity. 42 Abe wants to ever. Now that ASEAN claimant states
curb China’s growing military and have a more favourable strategic position 43 commercial clout in this region. He
vis-à-vis China, all the states involved wants to develop Japan’s maritime should turn their attention to the
competence and combine it with the negotiating table, adding substantive 44 country’s economic strengths. His main
content to the agreement reached at the idea is to curtail China’s strived for July 2011 ASEAN Regional Forum to
hegemony. For that purpose, Japan has resolve the dispute peacefully. The 12
cooperation with Australia, India, Japan, October 2011 signing of a six-point
and the US state of Hawaii to form a agreement between China and Vietnam to
diamond to safeguard the maritime contain the South China Sea dispute, including the opening of a hotline to deal
42 with potential conflicts and the promise of Y. Hayashi, “Abe’s Diamond Defense
Diplomacy,”The
World Street
holding border negotiations twice a year, is
Journal.http://blogs.wsj.com/japanrealtime/2013/0 1/17/abes-diamond-defense-diplomacy [March, 24
one welcome development toward this.