psycho social coping theory of victimization john dussich

Psycho/Social Coping

A Theoretical Model For Understanding General Victimization and Facilitating Recovery

John P. J. Dussich, Ph. D. California State University, Fresno

and

Tokiwa International Victimology Institute Mito, Japan

For the 11

th

Asian Post Graduate Course on Victimology and Victim Assistance

Jakarta, Indonesia July 2011

© 2008 Copywrited by John P. J. Dussich. All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by an means – graphic; electronic; or mechanical, including photocopying recording taping, Web distribution, information storage and retrieval systems, or in any other manner – without the

Introductory comments

Coping

is what persons do, physically, socially, and

cognitively to meet the demands of living. The objective

of coping is to reduce the stress brought about by the

presence of a problem.

Coping styles vary according to individuals, families, and

cultures. Some persons cope appropriately & others cope

inappropriately.

Appropriate coping means being positive,

engaging in constructive problem solving, task-focused

behavior, working out, accepting help, etc

.; while

inappropriate coping is blaming oneself or others, denying

the problem exists, trying to cope alone, use of drugs or

alcohol, being aggressive, etc.

(Andrews, 1990).

Introductory comments cont.

Research has shown that persons who

cope

appropriately (adaptively)

have a better

sense of wellbeing, achieve better and are

generally more successful in life. Those

who

cope inappropriately (maladaptively)

are not comfortable with themselves, are

lower achievers and have less success in

their lives (Frydenberg & Lewis, 1999,

Theoretical Background

-The Psycho/Social Coping Model (P/SCM) is

offered as a general theory for

understanding

all

forms of victimization and for

facilitating

recovery.

-This model uses

behavioral versus legal concepts

.

-Its primary goals are to be

explanatory and

utilitarian

.

-Its roots are derived from social psychology

phenomenology, social control theory, stress

THE PSYCHO/SOCIAL COPING

MODEL

ANTECEDENTS COPING MILIEU

PROBLEM

APRAISAL

PERSONAL

RESOURCES

_PROCESS

COPING

RESULTS

Success

Failure

The Coping Milieu

-The coping

environment is called the Coping Milieu.

-The Coping Milieu is predominantly a physical,

social, and psychic interactive space within which a

person attempts to survive.

-

The Coping Milieu is defined as that space in which a

person’s specific problem exists. For each person and

each problem the Coping Milieu is different.

-Within a Coping Milieu, each person has their own

personal resources available to confront problems in

the search for solutions.

The Psycho/Social Coping Model

The P/SCM starts with the

Coping Milieu

and an

individual’s

5 Personal Resources

:

1.

Repertoire

2.

Social assets

3.

Psychic assets

4.

Physical assets

PSYCHIC

PSYCHIC

-

intelligence

intelligence

-

personality

personality

-

education

_education

-

skills, etc.

_{skills, etc.}

COPING

COPING

REPERTOIRE

REPERTOIRE

-

PHYSIO

PHYSIO

-

age

age

-

sex

sex

-

race

_race

-

health

_health

-

size, etc.

size, etc.

SOCIO

SOCIO

-

social class

_{social class}

-

sibling position

sibling position

-

roles

roles

-

friendship

friendship

-

status, etc.

status, etc.

TIME

T

IM

E

T

IM

E

PERSONAL

RESOURCES

A Problem

-Within a given milieu and armed with personal resources, an

individual confronts a problem and makes an appraisal

(Lazarus, 1981).

-

A problem

is here defined as a multi-dimensional force

directed at a person that blocks status and/or the pursuit of

goals which creates physical, social and psychical stresses.

-Each problem is made up of numerous continua which, in

this model, are considered at a moment in time.

-The “problem moment” is a heuristic device that allows us to

freeze time so as to evaluate each different continuum.

- In response to a problem a person begins the coping

process.

The Problem Moment Continua

1.

Due

Continuum - Time remaining for problem resolution.

2.

Time

Continuum - Length of time a problem has existed.

3.

Person

Continuum - Number of persons in the problem.

4.

Severity

Continuum – Complexity of the problem.

5.

Threat

Continuum - Extent of threat to a person’s wellbeing.

6.

Evolution

Continuum - Speed with which problem became known.

7.

Familiarity

Continuum - Extent to which problem is known to a

person.

8.

Context

Continuum - Extent to which problem is in or out of context.

Other continua are possible, such as: culture, social support, etc.

Q U

IC K

- 6

2- SHO

RT TER M

LONG TERM

- 2

3- IN DIVI DUAL GROU P-3 DIF FIC ULT -4

4- E ASY L IF E T H R E A T S A F E -5 6-S_L O W K NO_W

N- ₇

7- U NK

NO_W

N

OUT- ₈ 8-IN

LATER-1 1- SOONER

1. DUE CONTINUUM - Time remaining for problem resolution.

2. TIME CONTINUUM - Length of time problem has existed.

3. PERSON CONTINUUM - Number of persons involved in the problem.

4. SEVERITY CONTINUUM - Complexity of the problem.

5. THREAT CONTINUUM - Extent of threat to a person’s wellbeing.

6. EVOLUTION CONTINUUM - Speed with which problem become known.

7. FAMILIARITY CONTINUUM - Extent to which problem is familiar to a person.

8. CONTEXT CONTINUUM - Extent to which problem is in or out of context.

PROBLEM MOMENT

The Psycho/Social Coping Process

-This psycho/social coping process has

four

distinct phases:

1. Prevention

(Starts with the awareness that a problem is possible.)

2. Preparation (

Starts with the awareness that a problem is imminent.)

3. Action

(Starts when the problem is present.)

4. Reappraisal

(Starts after the problem is over.)

-

Each phase is a continuum

within which a person can make a

choice, with failure more likely at one end, and success

more likely at the other end.

THE FOUR PHASES OF

PSYCHO/SOCIAL COPING

+

AWARENESS OF A PROBLEM POSSIBILITY

-+

AWARENESS AND APRAISAL OF A PROBLEM

-(Kopp, 1982)

+

PROBLEM-EVENT OCCURS

-+

PROBLEM-EVENT IS OVER

-REASONABLE ANTICIPATION OF A PROBLEM -“proactive coping” (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997) -“anticipatory coping” (Schwartzer & Knoll, 2003)

DENYING THE LIKLIHOOD OF A PROBLEM

PREPARATION - Appraisal - Rehearsal

- The Work of Worrying (Janis, 1965) - The Work of Practicing (Dussich, 1988)

ABSENCE OF PREPARATION - No Appraisal

- No Rehearsal

- No Worrying (Janis, 1965) - No Practicing (Dussich, 1988)

COPING

- Learned Resourcefulness (Meichebaum, 1973) - Self-Delivered Reassurance - Diminished Vulnerability

FAILURE TO COPE

- Learned Helplessness (Seligman, 1973) - Disappointment in Protective

Authorities

- Increased Expectation of Vulnerability (Meichenbaum, et al., 1975:339)

SECONDARY COPING - Replay

- Assessment

NO SECONDARY COPING - No Replay

- No Assessment

pr ev en ti on pr ep ar at io n ac ti on re ap pr ai sa l

Application to victimization and

recovery

-

Victimization

is an event whereby a person is

unable to cope with a personal attack due to

inadequate resources.

-

Recovery

is the end-state when a victim resumes a

functional life-style with significantly fewer

symptoms and adopts a positive identity of self.

-

Inadequate

resources result in vulnerability,

victimization, and a poor ability to recover.

-

Adequate

resources result in resiliency, safety, and

an enhanced ability to recover.

Victim Taxonomies

based on the

Psycho/Social Coping Model

I.

Pre-victimization

conditions which increase

vulnerability

are:

1.

high-risk milieu

2.

distorted problem-appraisals

3.

psychic disabilities

4.

social disabilities

5.

physical disabilities

6.

limited time

7.

underdeveloped coping (inexperience)

8.

faulty coping (maladaptive)

Persons with these vulnerability conditions do not cope well and are at

high risk of being victimized in their personal milieu.

Victim Taxonomies

based on the

Psycho/Social Coping Model

continued

II.

During-victimization

conditions which facilitate adaptive coping

(Dussich, 1988; Mohino, et al., 2004)

:

1.

use of resourcefulness

2.

self-delivered reassurances

3.

positive thinking - learned optimism

(Seligman, 1992)

4.

logical analysis

5.

rational action

6.

regulate negative emotions

(Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004)

7.

positive reappraisal

8.

problem solving

9.

diminished vulnerability

Persons who use these techniques increase their chances of coping

adaptively.

Victim Taxonomies

based on the

Psycho/Social Coping Model

continued

III.

General

Post-victimization

conditions related to

resources, appraisal, coping and recovery:

1. Victims with

adequate

personal resources, who

problem-appraise accurately, facilitate adaptive

coping and enhance their recovery.

2. Victims with

inadequate

personal resources, who

problem-appraise inaccurately, facilitate

Victim Taxonomies

continued…

IV.

Specific

Post-victimization

conditions which facilitate

recovery

:

1. healing milieu

2. positive intervention

3. psychic strengths

4. social strengths

5. physical strengths

6. time abundance

7. developed coping (mastery)

8. appropriate coping (adaptive)

9. approach coping

(Griffith, et al. 2000)

Persons with these resiliency conditions cope well and have a high chance

of recovering from their victimization.

Main thesis

of the Psycho/Social

Coping Model for victimization and

recovery.

Persons with

few

resources

specific to their

life-style

have a higher likelihood of becoming

victims; if they become victims, they have a

poorer chance of surviving; and, if they survive,

they will not recover well and suffer more. On the

other hand, those with

more

resources

specific to

their life-style

have a higher chance to avoid

victimization, if victimized, will cope better,

recover sooner and suffer less.

Implications

-The P/SCM is herein used to understand the behaviors of

general victims

(those who are harmed by any force)

(Mendelsohn, 1976; Dussich, 1988; Holley & Brewster,

2006).; and, is also used to assist in helping victims

recover (regardless how they were harmed).

-The P/SCM suggests that a

“holistic multi-resource

approach”

is essential to understand all forms of

victimization and recovery.

-Limited resources make persons vulnerable to victimization.

To prevent victimization

, lacking resources must be

identified so that these vulnerable persons can be given

resources that are specific to their unique needs.

Implications

cont.

-The P/SCM suggest that persons who have been victimized must

be empowered with tailored resources to prevent their

re-victimization or their conversion to offending.

-Notions of victim

guilt or blame

only have a place in legal

considerations, not for understanding victim behavior and

helping victims recover. Guilt or blame are usually

considerations when dealing with crime victims.

-Recovery is best facilitated by providing

tailored resources

that

are person-specific, culture-sensitive & situation-realistic.

-Appropriate coping can be taught and is a method that has been

shown to reduce violence in many settings, especially schools

(Lodge & Frydenberg, 2005).

-Some victims may need to learn new coping skills that were never

taught them at home. Of special importance are problem solving

skills: how to assess problems realistically, search for alternative

solutions based on their consequences, selection of the best

options, carrying out the selected option, and, evaluating the

results (Andrews, 1990).

References

Andrews, A. B. (1990). Crisis and Recovery Services for Family Violence Survivors. In A. Roberts (Ed.), (pp. 206-232)

Helping crime victims: Research, policy, and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Aspinwall, L.G. & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stitch in time: self-regulation and proactive coping. Psychology Bulletin. 121: 417-36.

Dussich, J. P. J. (1988) Social Coping: A Theoretical Model for Understanding Victimization and Recovery, in Victimology:

International Action and Study of Victims, Zvonimir Paul Šeparović (ed.), Zagreb: Somobar.

Folkman, S. & Moskowitz, J. T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and Promise. Annual Review of Psychology, 55:745-74.

Frydenberg, E. & Lewis, R. (1999). Academic and general well-being: The relationship with coping. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counseling.9, 19-36.

Frydenberg, E. & Lewis, R. (2002). Adolescent well-being: Building young people’s resources. In E. Frydenberg (ed.)

Beyond coping: Meeting goals, visions and challenges. (Pp. 175-194). London: Oxford University Press.

Griffith, M. A., Dubow, E. F. & Ippolito, M. F. (2000). Developmental and Cross-Situational Differences in Adolescents’ Coping Strategies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 29, No. 2.

Holley, P. D. & Brewster, D. (2006) A 21st Century General Victimology: Combining General Victimology with Theory.

Presented at the 12th International Symposium on Victimology, World Society of Victimology, Orlando, Florida,

August 20-25.

Janis, I. (1965). Psychodynamic Aspects of Stress Tolerance. In S. Klausner (ed.). The Quest for Self-Control. New York: Free Press.

Kopp, S. (1982). An End to Innocence. New York:Bantam.

Lazarus, R. S. (1981). The stress and coping paradigm. In C. Eisdorfer, D. Cohen, A. Kleinman & P. Maxim (Eds.), Models for clinical psychopathology (pp. 177-214). New York: Spectrum.

References

continued

Lodge, J. & Frydenberg, E. (2005). The Role of Peer Bystanders in School Bullying: Positive

Steps Toward Promoting Peaceful Schools.

Theory into Practice,

Fall, 44, (4).

Meichenbaum, D. H. (1973).

Therapist Manual for Cognitive Behavior Modification

,

Unpublished Manuscript, Waterloo, Ontario: University of Waterloo.

Meichenbaum, D. H., Turk, D. & Burstein, S. (1975). The Nature of Coping with Stress. In I.

G. Sarason, and C. D. Spielberger (eds.).

Stress and Anxiety

, Vol. 1, New York: John

Wiley and Sons.

Mendelsohn, B. (1976). Victimology and Contemporary Society’s Trends.

Victimology

,

Spring, 1,1, 8-28.

Mohino, S., Kirchner, T. & Forns, M. (2004). Coping Strategies in Young Male Prisoners.

Journal of Youth and Adolescence

, Vol. 33, No. 1, February, pp. 41-49.

Seligman, M. P. (1973). Fall Into Helplessness.

Psychology Today

, 7.

Seligman, M. (1992).

Learned optimism.

New South Wales, Australia: Random House.

Schwarzer, R. & Knoll, N. (2003). Positive coping: mastering demands and searching for

meaning. In Comprehensive Handbook of Psychology, Vol. 9, ed. A. M. Anezu, C.M.

Nezu, P. A. Geller, New York: Wiley.

Main thesis

of the Psycho/Social

Coping Model for victimization and

recovery.

Persons with

few

resources

specific to their

life-style

have a higher likelihood of becoming

victims; if they become victims, they have a

poorer chance of surviving; and, if they survive,

they will not recover well and suffer more. On the

other hand, those with

more

resources

specific to

their life-style

have a higher chance to avoid

victimization, if victimized, will cope better,

recover sooner and suffer less.

Implications

-The P/SCM is herein used to understand the behaviors of

general victims

(those who are harmed by any force)

(Mendelsohn, 1976; Dussich, 1988; Holley & Brewster,

2006).; and, is also used to assist in helping victims

recover (regardless how they were harmed).

-The P/SCM suggests that a

“holistic multi-resource

approach”

is essential to understand all forms of

victimization and recovery.

-Limited resources make persons vulnerable to victimization.

To prevent victimization

, lacking resources must be

identified so that these vulnerable persons can be given

resources that are specific to their unique needs.

Implications

cont.

-The P/SCM suggest that persons who have been victimized must

be empowered with tailored resources to prevent their

re-victimization or their conversion to offending.

-Notions of victim

guilt or blame

only have a place in legal

considerations, not for understanding victim behavior and

helping victims recover. Guilt or blame are usually

considerations when dealing with crime victims.

-Recovery is best facilitated by providing

tailored resources

that

are person-specific, culture-sensitive & situation-realistic.

-Appropriate coping can be taught and is a method that has been

shown to reduce violence in many settings, especially schools

(Lodge & Frydenberg, 2005).

-Some victims may need to learn new coping skills that were never

taught them at home. Of special importance are problem solving

skills: how to assess problems realistically, search for alternative

solutions based on their consequences, selection of the best

options, carrying out the selected option, and, evaluating the

results (Andrews, 1990).

References

Andrews, A. B. (1990). Crisis and Recovery Services for Family Violence Survivors. In A. Roberts (Ed.), (pp. 206-232) Helping crime victims: Research, policy, and practice. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Aspinwall, L.G. & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stitch in time: self-regulation and proactive coping. Psychology Bulletin. 121: 417-36.

Dussich, J. P. J. (1988) Social Coping: A Theoretical Model for Understanding Victimization and Recovery, in Victimology: International Action and Study of Victims, Zvonimir Paul Šeparović (ed.), Zagreb: Somobar.

Folkman, S. & Moskowitz, J. T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and Promise. Annual Review of Psychology, 55:745-74.

Frydenberg, E. & Lewis, R. (1999). Academic and general well-being: The relationship with coping. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counseling.9, 19-36.

Frydenberg, E. & Lewis, R. (2002). Adolescent well-being: Building young people’s resources. In E. Frydenberg (ed.) Beyond coping: Meeting goals, visions and challenges. (Pp. 175-194). London: Oxford University Press.

Griffith, M. A., Dubow, E. F. & Ippolito, M. F. (2000). Developmental and Cross-Situational Differences in Adolescents’ Coping Strategies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 29, No. 2.

Holley, P. D. & Brewster, D. (2006) A 21st Century General Victimology: Combining General Victimology with Theory.

Presented at the 12th International Symposium on Victimology, World Society of Victimology, Orlando, Florida,

August 20-25.

Janis, I. (1965). Psychodynamic Aspects of Stress Tolerance. In S. Klausner (ed.). The Quest for Self-Control. New York: Free Press.

Kopp, S. (1982). An End to Innocence. New York: Bantam.

Lazarus, R. S. (1981). The stress and coping paradigm. In C. Eisdorfer, D. Cohen, A. Kleinman & P. Maxim (Eds.), Models for clinical psychopathology (pp. 177-214). New York: Spectrum.

References

continued

Lodge, J. & Frydenberg, E. (2005). The Role of Peer Bystanders in School Bullying: Positive

Steps Toward Promoting Peaceful Schools.

Theory into Practice,

Fall, 44, (4).

Meichenbaum, D. H. (1973).

Therapist Manual for Cognitive Behavior Modification

,

Unpublished Manuscript, Waterloo, Ontario: University of Waterloo.

Meichenbaum, D. H., Turk, D. & Burstein, S. (1975). The Nature of Coping with Stress. In I.

G. Sarason, and C. D. Spielberger (eds.).

Stress and Anxiety

, Vol. 1, New York: John

Wiley and Sons.

Mendelsohn, B. (1976). Victimology and Contemporary Society’s Trends.

Victimology

,

Spring, 1,1, 8-28.

Mohino, S., Kirchner, T. & Forns, M. (2004). Coping Strategies in Young Male Prisoners.

Journal of Youth and Adolescence

, Vol. 33, No. 1, February, pp. 41-49.

Seligman, M. P. (1973). Fall Into Helplessness.

Psychology Today

, 7.

Seligman, M. (1992).

Learned optimism.

New South Wales, Australia: Random House.

Schwarzer, R. & Knoll, N. (2003). Positive coping: mastering demands and searching for

meaning. In Comprehensive Handbook of Psychology, Vol. 9, ed. A. M. Anezu, C.M.

Nezu, P. A. Geller, New York: Wiley.