R66 Bus Superstructure Concept Design Development.
VERIFICATION
―I verify that, I have read this report and from my opinion this thesis have fulfill the
scope and quality requirement for Bachelor Mechanical Engineering
(Structure and Material)‖
Signature
: …………………………
Supervisor Name
: MR. RAZALI BIN MOHD TIHTH
Date
: …………………………
R66 BUS SUPERSTRUCTURE CONCEPT DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
LAW SOO HAR
This report is submitted as partial requirement for the completion of the
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (Structure and Material) Degree Program
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
APRIL 2009
i
DECLARATION
―I hereby, declare this thesis is result of my own research except as cited in the
references‖
Signature
: ………………………….
Author Name
: Law Soo Har
Date
: ………………………….
ii
DEDICATION
To
My Beloved Family
My Parent
Yin Teng
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Final year project is requisite to fulfill the Bachelor of mechanical
engineering. This report was written in order to fulfill the requirement of Bachelor of
mechanical engineering for Final Year Project. I was thankful to manage this report
writing on time.
In order to finish my project and make it successful, I owe a debt of thanks to
all those time, concern and efforts were given during the process of this project. Thus,
my heartfelt gratitude is extended to my beloved advisor; Mr. Razali Bin Mohd Tihth
who gives me advises and guides me in the project of ―R66 Bus Superstructure
Concept Design Development‖. He is always pushes me and giving many of
criticism, and always checking the progress.
Thanks to all my coursemates because they are always gave me some opinion
and comments on this project. Thanks also to my parents that understand my
situation, giving extra money for go somewhere, doing research and print it as a
report.
I would like to pray for you all with good health, and always happy.
iv
ABSTRAK
Masa sekarang, bas merupakan bahagian integral dari sistem pengangkutan
kebangsaan. Meskipun bas adalah salah satu sarana yang paling dalam angkutan
umum, tapi penghuninya kecederaan dan kematian di bas crash akan terjadi. Tingkat
kecederaan serius dan kematian ahli dalam kemalangan ―rollover‖ lebih tinggi bila
dibandingkan dengan semua jenis kemalangan. Dengan selalu meningkatkan
kesedaran untuk keselamatan penumpang, lebih diinginkan untuk mengembangkan
struktur bas hanya mempunyai kekuatan untuk memenuhi keselamatan penumpang.
Oleh kerana itu, kekuatan ―rollover‖ telah menjadi isu penting bagi pengeluar bas
dan jurulatih. Parti kerja (UNECE) telah membiarkan PADU R66 peraturan yang
berkaitan dengan perlindungan dan kekuatan bas struktur dalam kemalangan.
Objektif dari projek "Pembinaan reka concept Bas R66 Suprastruktur" adalah
reka ―data digital‖ untuk reka konsep bas chassis yang sesuai dengan R66 dan
mengembangkan reka konsep struktur bas akhir yang sedang dipertimbangkan
aplikasi yang optimum dalam hal berat badan, bahan, dan proses pembuatan. Projek
ini dibahas perkembangan terhadap struktur bas dari teori impak analisis atapnya
menghancurkan dan ―rollover‖ di ADAMS-View. ADAMS-View perisian ini
digunakan untuk mensimulasikan ―rollover‖ bas. Tenaga pergerakkan, kelajuan, daya
impak apabila impak di atas lantai dan sudut bas dengan lantai sebelum impak diukur
dalam ADAMS-View dan kemudian digunakan sebagai masukan untuk analisis teori
impak. Analisis kelengkungan struktur bas dengan menggunakan perisian MSC.
Patran dan MSC. Nastran untuk membandingkan keputusan dengan keputusan
daripada cara pengiraan teori impak. Menurut regulasi ECE-R66, seorang
penumpang ruangan kelangsungan hidup ditakrifkan dalam model bas untuk
memeriksa sama ada kerosakkan ke dalam ruangan kelangsungan hidup selama atau
setelah ―rollover‖. Hal ini memastikan bahawa struktur bas mempunyai cukup
kekuatan untuk menghindari kerosakkan ke ruangan kelangsungan hidup.
v
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, buses are an integral part of the national transportation system.
Although buses are one of the safest means of public transportation, but the occupant
cause in injuries and fatalities in bus crashes still occurred. The rate of serious
injuries and fatalities of occupants in rollover accidents is higher compared with all
other types of accidents. With the ever-increasing awareness for the occupant’s
safety, it is much desired to develop the bus structure which has enough strength to
meet the safety norms. Therefore, rollover strength has become an important issue
for buses and coaches manufacturers. The working party of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) had allowed the relevant regulation
ECE R66 deals with occupant protection and strength of bus superstructure during
accident which involved rollover.
The purpose of this project, ―R66 Bus Superstructure Concept Design
Development‖ is to design a digital data for bus chassis concept which comply with
R66 regulation and develop the final bus structure concept which being considered
the optimum application in term of weight, material, compliances, and manufacturing
process. This project is discussed the development of bus structure from theoretical
impact analysis of its roof crush in rollover analysis using ADAMS-View. ADAMSView software was used to simulate the rollover of the bus. Bus kinetic energies,
velocities, impact force of bus structure on the ground and its angle with the ground
just before impact was measured in ADAMS-View. By using these inputs for the
calculation structure deformation and energy absorb by bus structure using
theoretical impact calculation is execute. On the other hand, bus structure
deformation analysis by using MSC. Patran and MSC. Nastran is used for the
comparison purpose to the gain from theoretical impact calculation method.
According to the ECE-R66 regulation, a passenger’s survival space is defined in the
bus model to check whether, there is any intrusion into the survival space during or
after the rollover. This is to ensure the bus structure has sufficient strength to avoid
intrusions into the survival space.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1
CHPTER 2
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
i
DEDICATION
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iii
ABSTRAK
iv
ABSTRACT
v
TABLE OF CONTENT
vi
LIST OF TABLES
xxi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF GRAPHS
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xix
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background
2
1.2
Objectives
4
1.3
Scope of Works
5
1.4
Problem Statement
5
LITERATURE REVIEW
7
2.1
8
The Literatures on Any Things That
Related To Bus
2.1.1 History of Bus
8
2.1.2 Designs of Bus
9
2.1.3 Type of Bus
9
2.1.3.1 Single-deckers
10
vii
CHPTER
TITLE
PAGE
2.1.3.2 Double-deckers
10
2.1.3.3 Articulated Buses
11
2.1.3.4 Low-floor Buses
11
2.1.3.5 Bi-articulated
12
2.1.3.6 Open top
12
2.1.3.7 Coaches
12
2.1.3.8 Trolley Buses
13
2.1.4 The Use of Bus
2.2
14
2.1.4.1 Public Transport
14
2.1.4.2 Schools
15
2.1.4.3 Private Charter
15
2.1.4.4 Promotion
16
2.1.4.5 Not for Profit
16
2.1.4.6 Specialist Users
17
2.1.4.7 Tourism
17
2.1.5 Bus Manufacturing
18
The Interrelation Regarding the Bus
18
and the Structure
2.3
The Type of Chassis and Structure
21
Currently Available In the Bus
Industries
2.4
The Regulation That Related To the
23
Bus Structure
2.4.1 List of ECE Regulations
24
2.4.1.1 General Lighting
24
2.4.1.2 Headlamps
25
2.4.1.3 Instrumentation / Controls
25
2.4.1.4 Safety
26
2.4.1.5 Environmental /
26
Performance
2.4.2 The Regulations Used On Bus
Structure
27
viii
CHAPTER
TITLE
2.5
PAGE
The R66 Regulation and It’s
28
Important in Consideration during the
Bus Structure Design and Development
2.6
The Available Method of Testing
32
Related To the R66 Regulation
2.6.1 Full-scale vehicle rollover test
33
2.6.2 Bay Section Rollover Test
33
2.6.3 Bay Section Pendulum Impact
34
Test
2.7
2.6.4 Component Testing
34
The Available Method of Simulation
36
That Related To the R66 Regulations
2.7.1 Numerical Test Method
2.7.1.1 Numerical Simulation
36
37
Model for Vehicle
Structure
2.7.1.2 Numerical Simulation
39
Model for Occupant
Behavior
2.8
The Fundamental of Computer-aided
40
Engineering
2.8.1 CAE Fields and Phase
41
2.8.2 CAE in Automotive Industries
42
2.8.3 CAE Software
43
Finite Element Method (FEM)
44
2.10 Impact Analysis of a Falling Object
46
METHODOLOGY
48
3.1
49
2.9
CHAPTER 3
Method Used To Test the Bus
Structure to Achieve R66 Bus
Superstructure
ix
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
3.1.1 The Reason of Method Use and
51
Software Chosen
3.1.1.1 ADAMS-View
51
3.1.1.2 Theoretical Impact
51
Impact Calculation
Method
3.1.1.3 Static Structural
52
Simulation Method
3.2
Process Flow of Bus Structure
53
Analysis and Simulation
3.3
Residual Space in Bus Model
56
3.4
Material Properties of Bus Structure
56
3.5
Bus Structure Deformation and Energy
57
Absorb Calculation Solution by Using
Theoretical Impact Analysis Method
3.6
Scenarios Investigate
59
3.7
Test Setup in ADAMS-View for
59
ECE-R66 Rollover Test
3.8
The consideration of ADAMS
62
Rollover Simulation
3.9
The Consideration of MSC. Patran and
63
MSC. Nastran Bus Structure
Simulation
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS RESULTS
64
4.1
65
Identification of Bus Structure
Dimension, Material and Mass
Properties
4.2
Dynamic and Kinematic analysis of
67
Rollover Bus Simulated by
ADAMS-View
4.2.1 ADAMS-View Analysis Setup
67
x
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
4.2.2 ADAMS-View Analysis Results
68
4.2.2.1 Rollover Simulation with
68
Bus Structure Only
4.2.2.2 Rollover Simulation with
70
Bus Structure and
Passengers’ Weight
4.2.2.3 Rollover Simulation with
72
Bus Structure, Passengers’
Weight and Luggage
Weight
4.3
Calculation of Bus Structure
74
Deformation and Energy Absorb by
Bus Structure by Using Theoretical
Impact Calculation Method
4.3.1 Rollover Simulation with Bus
74
Structure Only
4.3.2 Rollover Simulation with Bus
76
Structure and Passengers’ Weight
4.3.3 Rollover Simulation with Bus
78
Structure, Passengers’ Weight
and Luggage Weight
4.4
The Simulation of Bus Superstructure
80
by MSC. Patran and MSC. Nastran
4.4.1 MSC. Patran and MSC. Nastran
80
Analysis Setup
4.4.2 The Results of Bus Superstructure
81
Simulation by MSC. Patran and
MSC. Nastran
4.4.2.1 Rollover Simulation with
81
Bus Structure Only
4.4.2.2 Rollover Simulation with
Bus Structure and
83
xi
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
Passengers’ Weight
4.4.2.3 Rollover Simulation with
84
Bus Structure, Passengers’
Weight and Luggage
Weight
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS ANALYSIS AND
86
DISCUSSION
5.1
The Summary and Discussion of
86
Overall Results
5.2
The Comparison of Summary Results
90
With Results from TEMSA
CHAPTER 6
FINAL CONCEPT DESIGN
91
6.1
The Overview Design of Bus Structure
92
6.1.1 The Design of Rollover Bar
92
6.1.2 The Design of Cross Section of
94
Rollover Bar
6.2
The Material Properties of Bus
95
Superstructure
6.3
The Mass Properties of Bus
96
Superstructure
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
98
7.1
99
Recommendations
REFERENCES
101
APPENDIX 1
105
APPENDIX 2
107
APPENDIX 3
108
APPENDIX 4
112
xii
LIST OF TABLES
NO.
TITLE
1.1
Injury distribution in coach accidents, Spain
PAGE
4
1995 – 1999. (Source: Martinez, (2003))
3.4.1
The details of material properties for carbon
57
steel (ASTM A500) (Source: Wikipedia (2010))
4.1.1
The important physical properties of the bus
66
structure
4.4.1.1
The value of impact force in difference
81
investigation scenarios
5.1.1
The summary of overall results
87
5.2.1
The comparison of summary results with results
90
from TEMSA
6.2.1
The details of material properties for high
96
carbon steel (ASTM A500 Grade A) based on
chemical composition, tensile strength, and heat
treatment. (Source: Wikipedia (2010))
6.3.1
The mass properties of carbon steel square
hollow section with standard material
– ASTM A500 Grade A
(Source: Markas Hardware Corporation)
97
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
NO.
TITLE
1.1
The percentage of rollover accident compared
PAGE
2
with the others type of accidents.
(Source: NASS-CDS, (2001))
1.2
Buses involved in crashes with fatalities by
3
rollover occurrence, 1999 – 2003.
(Source: National Institute of Aviation Research
, (2005))
2.1.3.2.1
Double-decker of Kowloon Motor Bus, Hong
10
Kong. (Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.3.3.1
Volvo B10M articulated bus in Adelaide, South
11
Australia. (Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.3.7.1
Coaches parked at Chicken Itza, Mexico.
13
(Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.4.1.1
A local transit bus in Canberra, Australia.
14
(Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.4.4.1
All-over advert bus for Landsbanki in Iceland.
16
(Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
.1.4.6.1
A New York police bus converted for use as a
17
command post. (Source: Wikipedia, 2008))
2.2.1
Chassis bus and space frame bus, deformation
20
comparison. (Source: Technet-alliance, (1990))
2.2.2
City bus sidewall assembly.
20
(Source: Technet-alliance, (1990))
2.3.1
An AEC Routemster, a pioneering 1950s bus
21
design. (Source: Leyland Leopard, (2008))
2.3.2
A 1986 van derived Ford Transit minibus
22
xiv
bodied by Carlyle. (Source: Leyland Leopard,
(2008))
2.3.3
A Volvo B10M chassis, bodied worldwide as a
23
single-decker bus, articulated bus, double-decker
bus and coach. (Source: Leyland Leopard, (2008))
2.4.2.1
ECE R66 bus superstructure
28
(Source: Daimler, (2004))
.4.2.2
The optimized seat structures and obligatory
28
integration of seatbelts.
(Source: Daimler, (2004))
2.5.1
Definition of residual space.
30
(Source: ECE Regulation No. 66, (2006))
2.5.2
Residual space. (Source: Elitok, (2006))
30
2.5.3
Specification of the rollover test.
31
(Source: ECE Regulation No. 66, (2006))
2.5.4
The stages of rollover
32
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.2.1
Bay section rollover test
33
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.3.1
Pendulum impact on bay section
34
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.1
Quasi-static component testing
35
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.2
Dynamic component testing
35
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.3
Typical quasi-static test set-ups
35
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.4
Quasi-static data processing
36
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.7.1.1
Pillar-structural behavior (Source: Anon)
37
2.7.1.1.1
Rollover model (Source: Anon)
38
2.7.1.1.2
Bay section rollover model (Source: Anon)
38
2.7.1.2.1
Rollover simulation (Source: Anon)
39
2.7.1.2.2
Rollover simulation (bay section)
40
xv
(Source: Anon)
2.9.1
Typical Finite Element Method process flow
45
2.10.1
The diagram of impact analysis of a falling
46
Object (Source: LivePhysics (2010))
3.1.1
Schematic flow of method software used
50
3.2.1
The flow chart of bus structure analysis and
55
simulation process
3.7.1
The geometry of tilting table
60
(Source: ECE Regulation No. 66, (2006))
3.7.2
ECE-R66 test setup in the ADAMS-View
61
(Source: Deshmukh, (2006))
3.8.1
Rollover simulation in ADAMS View.
62
(Source: Deshmukh, (2006))
4.1.1
The overall dimension of bus model (side view)
65
4.1.2
The overall dimension of bus model (front view)
65
4.2.1.1
ADAMS-View analysis setup
67
4.2.1.2
The bus structure just before impact on the
68
ground
4.4.1.1
The analysis setup of bus structure in the pre-
80
process of simulation by MSC. Patran
4.4.2.1.1
The result of translational displacement and
82
deformation of bus structure (front view)
4.4.2.1.2
The result of translational displacement and
82
deformation of bus structure (isometric view)
4.4.2.2.1
The result of translational displacement and
83
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight (front view)
4.4.2.2.2
The result of translational displacement and
84
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight (isometric view)
4.4.2.3.1
The result of translational displacement and
85
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight and luggage weight (front view)
4.4.2.3.2
The result of translational displacement and
85
xvi
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight and luggage weight (isometric view)
5.1.1
The deformed geometry of rollover bar
88
6.1.1
The design of ECE R66 bus superstructure
92
6.1.1.1
The arrangement distance of rollover bar of the
93
Bus superstructure
6.1.1.2
The dimensions of rollover bar
94
6.1.2.1
The dimension of the rollover bar cross section
95
xvii
LIST OF GRAPHS
NO.
TITLE
4.2.2.1.1
The graph of bus structure velocity versus time
PAGE
69
(for rollover simulation with bus structure only)
4.2.2.1.2
The graph of bus structure kinetic energy versus
69
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
only)
4.2.2.1.3
The graph of bus structure impact force versus
70
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
only)
4.2.2.2.1
The graph of bus structure velocity versus time
71
(for rollover simulation with bus structure and
passengers’ weight)
4.2.2.2.2
The graph of bus structure kinetic energy versus
71
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
and passengers’ weight)
4.2.2.2.3
The graph of bus structure impact force versus
72
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
and passengers’ weight)
4.2.2.3.1
The graph of bus structure velocity versus time
73
(for rollover simulation with bus structure,
passengers’ weight and luggage weight)
4.2.2.3.2
The graph of bus structure kinetic energy versus
73
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure,
passengers’ weight and luggage weight)
4.2.2.3.3
The graph of bus structure impact force versus
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure,
passengers’ weight and luggage weight)
74
xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
a
=
Acceleration of object
d
=
Crumpling distance or travel distance
Favg
=
Impact force
g
=
Gravity force
݄
=
Height
J
=
Joule
݉
=
Mass of object
N
=
Newton
t
=
Time
s
=
Second
u
=
Initial velocity of object
v
=
Final velocity of object
W
=
Work done
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
The gantt chart of final year project 1
105
1.2
The gantt chart of final year project 2
106
2.1
The mass properties of carbon steel
107
(ASTM A500) square hollow section
2.2
Bus structure coordination
108
3.1
The drawing of bus structure (3D)
112
3.2
The drawing of bus structure (2D)
113
3.3
The drawing of rollover-bar or pillar (3D)
114
3.4
The drawing of rollover-bar or pillar (2D)
115
4.1
The dynamic and kinematic analysis results of
116
bus structure simulated by ADAMS-View
(Rollover Simulation with Bus Structure Only)
4.2
The dynamic and kinematic analysis results of
117
bus structure simulated by ADAMS-View
(Rollover Simulation with Bus Structure and
Passengers’ Weight)
4.3
The dynamic and kinematic analysis results of
118
bus structure simulated by ADAMS-View
(Rollover Simulation with Bus Structure,
Passengers’ Weight and Luggage Weight)
4.4
The result of translational displacement and
deformation of bus structure (Rollover
Simulation with Bus Structure Only)
119
xx
4.5
The result of translational displacement and
120
deformation of bus structure (Rollover
Simulation with Bus Structure and Passengers’
Weight)
4.6
The result of translational displacement and
121
deformation of bus structure (Rollover
Simulation with Bus Structure, Passengers’
Weight and Luggage Weight)
4.7
The summary of overall results
122
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In this report, the discussion on study of ―R66 Bus Superstructure Concept
Design Development‖ will be called out.
In today’s competitive environment, one of the most powerful business
competencies is a fast product design and development process. Almost all of the
industries are keen to leverage advancements in CAE (Computer Aided Engineering)
to shorten development cycle time. It is very much required to meet the stringent
government norms before delivering product to the market and it is one of the
primary concerns for every manufacturer. With the increasing awareness for
occupant’s safety and crashworthiness in automotive industries, buses are also
receiving more attention for occupant’s safety. Mainly during rollover accident, it has
been observed that the deforming body structure of bus seriously threatens the lives
of passenger and driver. Therefore, the strength of bus structure has become main
concern of bus and coach manufacturers.
In Europe, the working party of the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (UNECE) had allowed the relevant regulation ECE R66 deals with
occupant protection and strength of bus superstructure during rollover accident.
According to ECE R66, the regulations calls for quasi-static rollover of the full scale
vehicle with un-laden kerb mass.
2
1.5
Background
Nowadays, many automotive manufacturers are investing large capital
in crashworthiness and automobile safety research. As a result, according to
Traffic Safety Facts (2004), the fatality rate dropped to a new historic low of
1.44 fatalities per 100 million of vehicles traveling in 2004. Currently,
automotive industries are more concentrating or focusing on vehicle rollover,
as rollover accidents have only decreased a little more than a half percent in
the last decade. It can be showed that vehicle rollover is one of the serious
highway accidents. The risk of fatal injuries is more in a rollover accident
than any other type of accident.
Figure 1.1: The percentage of rollover accident compared with the others type
of accidents. (Source: NASS-CDS, (2001))
Figure 1.1 shows the data from the 1997-2001 National Automotive
Sampling System (NASS) and Crashworthiness Data System (CDS).
―I verify that, I have read this report and from my opinion this thesis have fulfill the
scope and quality requirement for Bachelor Mechanical Engineering
(Structure and Material)‖
Signature
: …………………………
Supervisor Name
: MR. RAZALI BIN MOHD TIHTH
Date
: …………………………
R66 BUS SUPERSTRUCTURE CONCEPT DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
LAW SOO HAR
This report is submitted as partial requirement for the completion of the
Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (Structure and Material) Degree Program
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
APRIL 2009
i
DECLARATION
―I hereby, declare this thesis is result of my own research except as cited in the
references‖
Signature
: ………………………….
Author Name
: Law Soo Har
Date
: ………………………….
ii
DEDICATION
To
My Beloved Family
My Parent
Yin Teng
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Final year project is requisite to fulfill the Bachelor of mechanical
engineering. This report was written in order to fulfill the requirement of Bachelor of
mechanical engineering for Final Year Project. I was thankful to manage this report
writing on time.
In order to finish my project and make it successful, I owe a debt of thanks to
all those time, concern and efforts were given during the process of this project. Thus,
my heartfelt gratitude is extended to my beloved advisor; Mr. Razali Bin Mohd Tihth
who gives me advises and guides me in the project of ―R66 Bus Superstructure
Concept Design Development‖. He is always pushes me and giving many of
criticism, and always checking the progress.
Thanks to all my coursemates because they are always gave me some opinion
and comments on this project. Thanks also to my parents that understand my
situation, giving extra money for go somewhere, doing research and print it as a
report.
I would like to pray for you all with good health, and always happy.
iv
ABSTRAK
Masa sekarang, bas merupakan bahagian integral dari sistem pengangkutan
kebangsaan. Meskipun bas adalah salah satu sarana yang paling dalam angkutan
umum, tapi penghuninya kecederaan dan kematian di bas crash akan terjadi. Tingkat
kecederaan serius dan kematian ahli dalam kemalangan ―rollover‖ lebih tinggi bila
dibandingkan dengan semua jenis kemalangan. Dengan selalu meningkatkan
kesedaran untuk keselamatan penumpang, lebih diinginkan untuk mengembangkan
struktur bas hanya mempunyai kekuatan untuk memenuhi keselamatan penumpang.
Oleh kerana itu, kekuatan ―rollover‖ telah menjadi isu penting bagi pengeluar bas
dan jurulatih. Parti kerja (UNECE) telah membiarkan PADU R66 peraturan yang
berkaitan dengan perlindungan dan kekuatan bas struktur dalam kemalangan.
Objektif dari projek "Pembinaan reka concept Bas R66 Suprastruktur" adalah
reka ―data digital‖ untuk reka konsep bas chassis yang sesuai dengan R66 dan
mengembangkan reka konsep struktur bas akhir yang sedang dipertimbangkan
aplikasi yang optimum dalam hal berat badan, bahan, dan proses pembuatan. Projek
ini dibahas perkembangan terhadap struktur bas dari teori impak analisis atapnya
menghancurkan dan ―rollover‖ di ADAMS-View. ADAMS-View perisian ini
digunakan untuk mensimulasikan ―rollover‖ bas. Tenaga pergerakkan, kelajuan, daya
impak apabila impak di atas lantai dan sudut bas dengan lantai sebelum impak diukur
dalam ADAMS-View dan kemudian digunakan sebagai masukan untuk analisis teori
impak. Analisis kelengkungan struktur bas dengan menggunakan perisian MSC.
Patran dan MSC. Nastran untuk membandingkan keputusan dengan keputusan
daripada cara pengiraan teori impak. Menurut regulasi ECE-R66, seorang
penumpang ruangan kelangsungan hidup ditakrifkan dalam model bas untuk
memeriksa sama ada kerosakkan ke dalam ruangan kelangsungan hidup selama atau
setelah ―rollover‖. Hal ini memastikan bahawa struktur bas mempunyai cukup
kekuatan untuk menghindari kerosakkan ke ruangan kelangsungan hidup.
v
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, buses are an integral part of the national transportation system.
Although buses are one of the safest means of public transportation, but the occupant
cause in injuries and fatalities in bus crashes still occurred. The rate of serious
injuries and fatalities of occupants in rollover accidents is higher compared with all
other types of accidents. With the ever-increasing awareness for the occupant’s
safety, it is much desired to develop the bus structure which has enough strength to
meet the safety norms. Therefore, rollover strength has become an important issue
for buses and coaches manufacturers. The working party of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) had allowed the relevant regulation
ECE R66 deals with occupant protection and strength of bus superstructure during
accident which involved rollover.
The purpose of this project, ―R66 Bus Superstructure Concept Design
Development‖ is to design a digital data for bus chassis concept which comply with
R66 regulation and develop the final bus structure concept which being considered
the optimum application in term of weight, material, compliances, and manufacturing
process. This project is discussed the development of bus structure from theoretical
impact analysis of its roof crush in rollover analysis using ADAMS-View. ADAMSView software was used to simulate the rollover of the bus. Bus kinetic energies,
velocities, impact force of bus structure on the ground and its angle with the ground
just before impact was measured in ADAMS-View. By using these inputs for the
calculation structure deformation and energy absorb by bus structure using
theoretical impact calculation is execute. On the other hand, bus structure
deformation analysis by using MSC. Patran and MSC. Nastran is used for the
comparison purpose to the gain from theoretical impact calculation method.
According to the ECE-R66 regulation, a passenger’s survival space is defined in the
bus model to check whether, there is any intrusion into the survival space during or
after the rollover. This is to ensure the bus structure has sufficient strength to avoid
intrusions into the survival space.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1
CHPTER 2
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
i
DEDICATION
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iii
ABSTRAK
iv
ABSTRACT
v
TABLE OF CONTENT
vi
LIST OF TABLES
xxi
LIST OF FIGURES
xiii
LIST OF GRAPHS
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xix
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1
Background
2
1.2
Objectives
4
1.3
Scope of Works
5
1.4
Problem Statement
5
LITERATURE REVIEW
7
2.1
8
The Literatures on Any Things That
Related To Bus
2.1.1 History of Bus
8
2.1.2 Designs of Bus
9
2.1.3 Type of Bus
9
2.1.3.1 Single-deckers
10
vii
CHPTER
TITLE
PAGE
2.1.3.2 Double-deckers
10
2.1.3.3 Articulated Buses
11
2.1.3.4 Low-floor Buses
11
2.1.3.5 Bi-articulated
12
2.1.3.6 Open top
12
2.1.3.7 Coaches
12
2.1.3.8 Trolley Buses
13
2.1.4 The Use of Bus
2.2
14
2.1.4.1 Public Transport
14
2.1.4.2 Schools
15
2.1.4.3 Private Charter
15
2.1.4.4 Promotion
16
2.1.4.5 Not for Profit
16
2.1.4.6 Specialist Users
17
2.1.4.7 Tourism
17
2.1.5 Bus Manufacturing
18
The Interrelation Regarding the Bus
18
and the Structure
2.3
The Type of Chassis and Structure
21
Currently Available In the Bus
Industries
2.4
The Regulation That Related To the
23
Bus Structure
2.4.1 List of ECE Regulations
24
2.4.1.1 General Lighting
24
2.4.1.2 Headlamps
25
2.4.1.3 Instrumentation / Controls
25
2.4.1.4 Safety
26
2.4.1.5 Environmental /
26
Performance
2.4.2 The Regulations Used On Bus
Structure
27
viii
CHAPTER
TITLE
2.5
PAGE
The R66 Regulation and It’s
28
Important in Consideration during the
Bus Structure Design and Development
2.6
The Available Method of Testing
32
Related To the R66 Regulation
2.6.1 Full-scale vehicle rollover test
33
2.6.2 Bay Section Rollover Test
33
2.6.3 Bay Section Pendulum Impact
34
Test
2.7
2.6.4 Component Testing
34
The Available Method of Simulation
36
That Related To the R66 Regulations
2.7.1 Numerical Test Method
2.7.1.1 Numerical Simulation
36
37
Model for Vehicle
Structure
2.7.1.2 Numerical Simulation
39
Model for Occupant
Behavior
2.8
The Fundamental of Computer-aided
40
Engineering
2.8.1 CAE Fields and Phase
41
2.8.2 CAE in Automotive Industries
42
2.8.3 CAE Software
43
Finite Element Method (FEM)
44
2.10 Impact Analysis of a Falling Object
46
METHODOLOGY
48
3.1
49
2.9
CHAPTER 3
Method Used To Test the Bus
Structure to Achieve R66 Bus
Superstructure
ix
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
3.1.1 The Reason of Method Use and
51
Software Chosen
3.1.1.1 ADAMS-View
51
3.1.1.2 Theoretical Impact
51
Impact Calculation
Method
3.1.1.3 Static Structural
52
Simulation Method
3.2
Process Flow of Bus Structure
53
Analysis and Simulation
3.3
Residual Space in Bus Model
56
3.4
Material Properties of Bus Structure
56
3.5
Bus Structure Deformation and Energy
57
Absorb Calculation Solution by Using
Theoretical Impact Analysis Method
3.6
Scenarios Investigate
59
3.7
Test Setup in ADAMS-View for
59
ECE-R66 Rollover Test
3.8
The consideration of ADAMS
62
Rollover Simulation
3.9
The Consideration of MSC. Patran and
63
MSC. Nastran Bus Structure
Simulation
CHAPTER 4
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS RESULTS
64
4.1
65
Identification of Bus Structure
Dimension, Material and Mass
Properties
4.2
Dynamic and Kinematic analysis of
67
Rollover Bus Simulated by
ADAMS-View
4.2.1 ADAMS-View Analysis Setup
67
x
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
4.2.2 ADAMS-View Analysis Results
68
4.2.2.1 Rollover Simulation with
68
Bus Structure Only
4.2.2.2 Rollover Simulation with
70
Bus Structure and
Passengers’ Weight
4.2.2.3 Rollover Simulation with
72
Bus Structure, Passengers’
Weight and Luggage
Weight
4.3
Calculation of Bus Structure
74
Deformation and Energy Absorb by
Bus Structure by Using Theoretical
Impact Calculation Method
4.3.1 Rollover Simulation with Bus
74
Structure Only
4.3.2 Rollover Simulation with Bus
76
Structure and Passengers’ Weight
4.3.3 Rollover Simulation with Bus
78
Structure, Passengers’ Weight
and Luggage Weight
4.4
The Simulation of Bus Superstructure
80
by MSC. Patran and MSC. Nastran
4.4.1 MSC. Patran and MSC. Nastran
80
Analysis Setup
4.4.2 The Results of Bus Superstructure
81
Simulation by MSC. Patran and
MSC. Nastran
4.4.2.1 Rollover Simulation with
81
Bus Structure Only
4.4.2.2 Rollover Simulation with
Bus Structure and
83
xi
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
Passengers’ Weight
4.4.2.3 Rollover Simulation with
84
Bus Structure, Passengers’
Weight and Luggage
Weight
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS ANALYSIS AND
86
DISCUSSION
5.1
The Summary and Discussion of
86
Overall Results
5.2
The Comparison of Summary Results
90
With Results from TEMSA
CHAPTER 6
FINAL CONCEPT DESIGN
91
6.1
The Overview Design of Bus Structure
92
6.1.1 The Design of Rollover Bar
92
6.1.2 The Design of Cross Section of
94
Rollover Bar
6.2
The Material Properties of Bus
95
Superstructure
6.3
The Mass Properties of Bus
96
Superstructure
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
98
7.1
99
Recommendations
REFERENCES
101
APPENDIX 1
105
APPENDIX 2
107
APPENDIX 3
108
APPENDIX 4
112
xii
LIST OF TABLES
NO.
TITLE
1.1
Injury distribution in coach accidents, Spain
PAGE
4
1995 – 1999. (Source: Martinez, (2003))
3.4.1
The details of material properties for carbon
57
steel (ASTM A500) (Source: Wikipedia (2010))
4.1.1
The important physical properties of the bus
66
structure
4.4.1.1
The value of impact force in difference
81
investigation scenarios
5.1.1
The summary of overall results
87
5.2.1
The comparison of summary results with results
90
from TEMSA
6.2.1
The details of material properties for high
96
carbon steel (ASTM A500 Grade A) based on
chemical composition, tensile strength, and heat
treatment. (Source: Wikipedia (2010))
6.3.1
The mass properties of carbon steel square
hollow section with standard material
– ASTM A500 Grade A
(Source: Markas Hardware Corporation)
97
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
NO.
TITLE
1.1
The percentage of rollover accident compared
PAGE
2
with the others type of accidents.
(Source: NASS-CDS, (2001))
1.2
Buses involved in crashes with fatalities by
3
rollover occurrence, 1999 – 2003.
(Source: National Institute of Aviation Research
, (2005))
2.1.3.2.1
Double-decker of Kowloon Motor Bus, Hong
10
Kong. (Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.3.3.1
Volvo B10M articulated bus in Adelaide, South
11
Australia. (Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.3.7.1
Coaches parked at Chicken Itza, Mexico.
13
(Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.4.1.1
A local transit bus in Canberra, Australia.
14
(Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
2.1.4.4.1
All-over advert bus for Landsbanki in Iceland.
16
(Source: Wikipedia, (2008))
.1.4.6.1
A New York police bus converted for use as a
17
command post. (Source: Wikipedia, 2008))
2.2.1
Chassis bus and space frame bus, deformation
20
comparison. (Source: Technet-alliance, (1990))
2.2.2
City bus sidewall assembly.
20
(Source: Technet-alliance, (1990))
2.3.1
An AEC Routemster, a pioneering 1950s bus
21
design. (Source: Leyland Leopard, (2008))
2.3.2
A 1986 van derived Ford Transit minibus
22
xiv
bodied by Carlyle. (Source: Leyland Leopard,
(2008))
2.3.3
A Volvo B10M chassis, bodied worldwide as a
23
single-decker bus, articulated bus, double-decker
bus and coach. (Source: Leyland Leopard, (2008))
2.4.2.1
ECE R66 bus superstructure
28
(Source: Daimler, (2004))
.4.2.2
The optimized seat structures and obligatory
28
integration of seatbelts.
(Source: Daimler, (2004))
2.5.1
Definition of residual space.
30
(Source: ECE Regulation No. 66, (2006))
2.5.2
Residual space. (Source: Elitok, (2006))
30
2.5.3
Specification of the rollover test.
31
(Source: ECE Regulation No. 66, (2006))
2.5.4
The stages of rollover
32
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.2.1
Bay section rollover test
33
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.3.1
Pendulum impact on bay section
34
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.1
Quasi-static component testing
35
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.2
Dynamic component testing
35
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.3
Typical quasi-static test set-ups
35
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.6.4.4
Quasi-static data processing
36
(Source: Hashemi, (2005))
2.7.1.1
Pillar-structural behavior (Source: Anon)
37
2.7.1.1.1
Rollover model (Source: Anon)
38
2.7.1.1.2
Bay section rollover model (Source: Anon)
38
2.7.1.2.1
Rollover simulation (Source: Anon)
39
2.7.1.2.2
Rollover simulation (bay section)
40
xv
(Source: Anon)
2.9.1
Typical Finite Element Method process flow
45
2.10.1
The diagram of impact analysis of a falling
46
Object (Source: LivePhysics (2010))
3.1.1
Schematic flow of method software used
50
3.2.1
The flow chart of bus structure analysis and
55
simulation process
3.7.1
The geometry of tilting table
60
(Source: ECE Regulation No. 66, (2006))
3.7.2
ECE-R66 test setup in the ADAMS-View
61
(Source: Deshmukh, (2006))
3.8.1
Rollover simulation in ADAMS View.
62
(Source: Deshmukh, (2006))
4.1.1
The overall dimension of bus model (side view)
65
4.1.2
The overall dimension of bus model (front view)
65
4.2.1.1
ADAMS-View analysis setup
67
4.2.1.2
The bus structure just before impact on the
68
ground
4.4.1.1
The analysis setup of bus structure in the pre-
80
process of simulation by MSC. Patran
4.4.2.1.1
The result of translational displacement and
82
deformation of bus structure (front view)
4.4.2.1.2
The result of translational displacement and
82
deformation of bus structure (isometric view)
4.4.2.2.1
The result of translational displacement and
83
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight (front view)
4.4.2.2.2
The result of translational displacement and
84
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight (isometric view)
4.4.2.3.1
The result of translational displacement and
85
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight and luggage weight (front view)
4.4.2.3.2
The result of translational displacement and
85
xvi
deformation of bus structure with passengers’
weight and luggage weight (isometric view)
5.1.1
The deformed geometry of rollover bar
88
6.1.1
The design of ECE R66 bus superstructure
92
6.1.1.1
The arrangement distance of rollover bar of the
93
Bus superstructure
6.1.1.2
The dimensions of rollover bar
94
6.1.2.1
The dimension of the rollover bar cross section
95
xvii
LIST OF GRAPHS
NO.
TITLE
4.2.2.1.1
The graph of bus structure velocity versus time
PAGE
69
(for rollover simulation with bus structure only)
4.2.2.1.2
The graph of bus structure kinetic energy versus
69
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
only)
4.2.2.1.3
The graph of bus structure impact force versus
70
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
only)
4.2.2.2.1
The graph of bus structure velocity versus time
71
(for rollover simulation with bus structure and
passengers’ weight)
4.2.2.2.2
The graph of bus structure kinetic energy versus
71
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
and passengers’ weight)
4.2.2.2.3
The graph of bus structure impact force versus
72
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure
and passengers’ weight)
4.2.2.3.1
The graph of bus structure velocity versus time
73
(for rollover simulation with bus structure,
passengers’ weight and luggage weight)
4.2.2.3.2
The graph of bus structure kinetic energy versus
73
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure,
passengers’ weight and luggage weight)
4.2.2.3.3
The graph of bus structure impact force versus
time (for rollover simulation with bus structure,
passengers’ weight and luggage weight)
74
xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
a
=
Acceleration of object
d
=
Crumpling distance or travel distance
Favg
=
Impact force
g
=
Gravity force
݄
=
Height
J
=
Joule
݉
=
Mass of object
N
=
Newton
t
=
Time
s
=
Second
u
=
Initial velocity of object
v
=
Final velocity of object
W
=
Work done
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
The gantt chart of final year project 1
105
1.2
The gantt chart of final year project 2
106
2.1
The mass properties of carbon steel
107
(ASTM A500) square hollow section
2.2
Bus structure coordination
108
3.1
The drawing of bus structure (3D)
112
3.2
The drawing of bus structure (2D)
113
3.3
The drawing of rollover-bar or pillar (3D)
114
3.4
The drawing of rollover-bar or pillar (2D)
115
4.1
The dynamic and kinematic analysis results of
116
bus structure simulated by ADAMS-View
(Rollover Simulation with Bus Structure Only)
4.2
The dynamic and kinematic analysis results of
117
bus structure simulated by ADAMS-View
(Rollover Simulation with Bus Structure and
Passengers’ Weight)
4.3
The dynamic and kinematic analysis results of
118
bus structure simulated by ADAMS-View
(Rollover Simulation with Bus Structure,
Passengers’ Weight and Luggage Weight)
4.4
The result of translational displacement and
deformation of bus structure (Rollover
Simulation with Bus Structure Only)
119
xx
4.5
The result of translational displacement and
120
deformation of bus structure (Rollover
Simulation with Bus Structure and Passengers’
Weight)
4.6
The result of translational displacement and
121
deformation of bus structure (Rollover
Simulation with Bus Structure, Passengers’
Weight and Luggage Weight)
4.7
The summary of overall results
122
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In this report, the discussion on study of ―R66 Bus Superstructure Concept
Design Development‖ will be called out.
In today’s competitive environment, one of the most powerful business
competencies is a fast product design and development process. Almost all of the
industries are keen to leverage advancements in CAE (Computer Aided Engineering)
to shorten development cycle time. It is very much required to meet the stringent
government norms before delivering product to the market and it is one of the
primary concerns for every manufacturer. With the increasing awareness for
occupant’s safety and crashworthiness in automotive industries, buses are also
receiving more attention for occupant’s safety. Mainly during rollover accident, it has
been observed that the deforming body structure of bus seriously threatens the lives
of passenger and driver. Therefore, the strength of bus structure has become main
concern of bus and coach manufacturers.
In Europe, the working party of the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (UNECE) had allowed the relevant regulation ECE R66 deals with
occupant protection and strength of bus superstructure during rollover accident.
According to ECE R66, the regulations calls for quasi-static rollover of the full scale
vehicle with un-laden kerb mass.
2
1.5
Background
Nowadays, many automotive manufacturers are investing large capital
in crashworthiness and automobile safety research. As a result, according to
Traffic Safety Facts (2004), the fatality rate dropped to a new historic low of
1.44 fatalities per 100 million of vehicles traveling in 2004. Currently,
automotive industries are more concentrating or focusing on vehicle rollover,
as rollover accidents have only decreased a little more than a half percent in
the last decade. It can be showed that vehicle rollover is one of the serious
highway accidents. The risk of fatal injuries is more in a rollover accident
than any other type of accident.
Figure 1.1: The percentage of rollover accident compared with the others type
of accidents. (Source: NASS-CDS, (2001))
Figure 1.1 shows the data from the 1997-2001 National Automotive
Sampling System (NASS) and Crashworthiness Data System (CDS).