Forests under pressure – Local responses to global issues | RECOFTC ws32.compressed

International Union of Forest Research Organizations
Union Internationale des Instituts de Recherches Forestières
Internationaler Verband Forstlicher Forschungsanstalten
Unión Internacional de Organizaciones de Investigación Forestal

IUFRO World Series Vol. 32

Forests under pressure:
Local responses to
global issues
Editors:

Pia Katila
Glenn Galloway
Wil de Jong
Pablo Pacheco
Gerardo Mery

The contents of this book do not necessarily present the views of the organizations
supporting this work
The electronic version of this book is available at http://www.iufro.org/wfse

Publisher:

International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO)

Recommended catalogue entry:
Pia Katila, Glenn Galloway, Wil de Jong, Pablo Pacheco, Gerardo Mery (eds.). 2014.
Forests under pressure: Local responses to global issues.
IUFRO World Series Volume 32.Vienna. 561 p.

ISBN 978-3-902762-30-6
ISSN 1016-3263

Published by:
International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO)

Available from:
IUFRO-WFSE
c/o Pia Katila
Finnish Forest Research Institute

(After 1.1.2015 Natural Resources Institute Finland)
Jokiniemenkuja 1
01301 Vantaa
Finland
Tel: +358 29 532 2111
E-mail: pia.katila@metla.fi
www.iufro.org/wfse

Language editor: Ree Sheck
Lay out: Seppo Oja
Cover photographs:
Matti Nummelin; Metla/Erkki Oksanen; CIFOR

Printed in Finland by Tammerprint Oy, Tampere, 2014

Preface
Forests under Pressure – Local Responses to Global
Issues is the third major publication produced by the
Special Project World Forests, Society and Environment (WFSE) of the International Union of Forest
Research Organizations (IUFRO). The two previous

volumes are Forests in Global Balance: Changing
Paradigms (Mery et al. 2005) and Forests and Society
– Responding to Global Drivers of Change (Mery
et al. 2010).*
IUFRO-WFSE is an open, independent network
of scientists and practitioners steered by 10 international research organisations, involving more than
100 researchers from throughout the world. It supports sustainable natural resources management,
sustainable development and livelihoods, and related policy processes, focusing principally in two
main efforts: 1) collating, critically analysing, and
synthesising existing scientiic knowledge on topics
of international relevance in the forest, society, and
environment interface in order to draw out important
lessons learned and recommendations and 2) undertaking new research to ill in crucial gaps in existing knowledge. WFSE addresses these topics in a
cross-sectoral, holistic, and interdisciplinary fashion,
encouraging innovative approaches and anticipating
what will inluence future forest-related development
at different scales, from local to global.
The idea to produce this book originated from
discussions in the IUFRO-WFSE Steering Committee (SC) meetings in Vienna (2011) and Helsinki
(2012). The SC concluded that, despite the considerable attention devoted to advancing sustainable forest

management (SFM), increased understanding of the
aspects that foster or hinder progress towards SFM
is needed. The sustainable management of natural
resources, especially forests, is of vital importance
to global, regional, and national efforts to achieve

* Mery, G., Alfaro, R., Kanninen, M. & Lobovikov, M.
(eds.). 2005. Forests in the global balance – Changing paradigms. IUFRO World Series volume 17. Vienna. 318 p.
Mery, M., Katila, P., Galloway, G., Alfaro, R., Kanninen, M.,
Lobovikov, M. & Varjo, J. (eds.). 2010. Forests and society −
Responding to global drivers of change. IUFRO World Series
volume 25. Vienna. 509 p.

sustainable development and should play a key role
in efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change
and further low-carbon development.
The goal of this book, therefore, is to increase the
understanding of the conditions and combinations
of conditions that foster or hinder progress towards
SFM and forest-related sustainable development.

The book focuses on these conditions at the local
level and also includes processes and inluences
originating at broader national and global scales. The
book is divided into four parts: Part I introduces the
rationale, overall structure, and analytical framework
of the book; Part II consists of 27 local- and regionallevel case studies from different parts of the world;
Part III presents a synthesis of the case studies and
the main indings derived from an analysis across
the cases; Part IV is forward-looking and discusses
several of the issues and indings from Parts II and
III in the context of future outlooks and scenarios.
We hope that this publication provides invaluable insights that may help advance SFM and forest-related
livelihoods in different parts of the world.

Acknowledgements
This book is the product of collaborative work of 144
scientists and experts from IUFRO-WFSE partner
organisations and other universities and research
organisations who acted as authors in different capacities. Many of them contributed to this book on
their own time, in addition to their primary duties

and responsibilities. We sincerely thank all of them
for the quality of their contributions, commitment,
and outstanding efforts that made this publication
possible.
The case study chapters of Part II and the chapters
of Part IV were reviewed by renowned scientists and
experts. Part III, which presents a synthesis of the
case studies and the results of an analysis across the
cases, was reviewed by the convening lead authors of
the case study chapters. We especially acknowledge
the crucial role of external reviewers of the different
chapters of this book and offer our profound thanks
for their generous contributions, which undoubtedly
improved the quality of this publication.

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE – LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOGAL ISSUES

3

External reviewers:

Raf Aerts
Javier Arevalo
Sabine Augustin
Bruce Aylward
Romana Bandeira
David Barton Bray
Jean Paul Benavides
Charlotte Benneker
P.K. Biswas
Jan Börner
Carlos M. Carneiro
Paolo Omar Cerutti
Peter Cronkleton
Ronnie De Camino
Inés González Doncel
Jason Donovan
Elvira Durán Medina
Sophie Grouwels
Anthony Hall
Tanya Hayes

Karl Hogl
Pam Jagger

Ljiljana Keča
Carina Keskitalo
Daniel Klooster
Kasper Kok
Kari T. Korhonen
Arno Kourula
David Lamb
Marie-Eve Landry
Anne Larson
Ari Aukusti Lehtinen
Tim Lynam
Duncan Macqueen
Axel Marx
Jay Mistry
Augusta Molnar
Frank Muttenzer
Iben Nathan

Andreas Neef
Simon Norfolk
Ruth Nussbaum
Nuria Osés-Eraso
Tuula Packalen

We also gratefully acknowledge the inancial support from the Finnish Forest Research Institute and
the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, which
made the development, publishing, and distribution
of this book possible. Furthermore, we are grateful
for the support and valuable in-kind contributions
of all IUFRO-WFSE partner organisations: CATIE
(Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center), CIAS (Centre for Integrated Area
Studies, Kyoto University), CIFOR (Center for International Forestry Research), CIRAD (Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique
pour le développement), EFI (European Forest Institute), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations), Metla (Finnish Forest Research
Institute), von Thünen Institute of International Forestry and Forest Economics, University of Florida,
and VITRI (Viikki Tropical Resources Institute, University of Helsinki).
A workshop held in Helsinki (2012) brought together the majority of the convening lead authors
of the different chapters of the book and formally

initiated the development of the book. It was fol-

Rajat Panwar
Marielos Peña-Claros
Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez
Benno Pokorny
Jacques Pollini
Enrico Pompei
Jeremy Radachowsky
Kaisa Raitio
Dale Rothman
Teijo Rytteri
Heli Saarikoski
Kate Schreckenberg
Robin R. Sears
Erin O. Sills
Brent Steel
Anna Tikina
Bas van Ruijven
Jerry Vanclay

Jari Varjo
Dijana Vuletić
Julie Witcover

lowed by a series of smaller meetings and workshops
that focused on speciic parts or chapters. We are
particularly grateful to CATIE, CIFOR, CIRAD,
FAO, Metla, University of Florida, and Tropenbos
International for hosting these events.
Furthermore we would like to thank the members of the IUFRO-WFSE Steering Committee for
support and guidance to our efforts, as well as the
IUFRO Secretariat for supporting our work.
We are grateful to Ree Sheck for language editing
and guidance in the technical editing and to Seppo
Oja for designing and preparing the layout of this
publication. In addition, we thank Pablo Quiñónes
Montiel, Tuuli Somerma, and Leena Kettunen for
assistance with editorial tasks. Finally, we want to
express our appreciation to all other people and organisations that have contributed to this publication
in one way or another, including the countless community members, foresters, private sector representatives, and policy-makers who have played an active
role in the initiatives represented in the case studies
and who were willing to share their perspectives and
experiences with the case study authors.
The editors

4

Pia Katila, Glenn Galloway, Wil de Jong,
Pablo Pacheco, Gerardo Mery

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE: LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOGAL ISSUES

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3

PART I INTRODUCTION
Glenn Galloway, Pia Katila, Wil de Jong, and Pablo Pacheco
1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Forest under pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Derivation of the analytical framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11
13
17

PART II CASE STUDIES
1

Forest Citizenship in Acre, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Marianne Schmink
Contributing authors: Amy Duchelle, Jeffrey Hoelle, Flávia Leite, Marcus Vinício d’Oliveira,
Jacqueline Vadjunec, Judson Valentim, and Richard Wallace

2

Model Forests in Argentina: Creating place and time for participatory
sustainable forest management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordinating lead author: John E. Hall
Lead authors: Mónica Gabay, Sean Dolter, and Mercedes Sá

3

4

5

6

Current barriers threatening income generation from community-based
forest management in the Brazilian Amazon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Marie-Gabrielle Piketty
Lead authors: Isabel Drigo, Philippe Sablayrolles, Evandro Araujo, Jorge Wagner Pantoja Pena,
and Plinio Sist
New opportunities for small-scale farmers of the Amazon to strengthen
hazards resilience while preserving forests − field experiments combined
with agent-based modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Pierre Bommel
Lead authors: Marie-Gabrielle Piketty and Plinio Sist
Contributing authors: Amaury Burlamaqui Bendahan and Tienne Barbosa
Forest regulation flexibility, livelihoods, and community forest management
in northern Bolivian Amazon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Walter Cano Cardona
Lead authors: Mario Zenteno Claros and Anahi Llanque Cordoba
Challenges and opportunities of sustainable forest management through
community forestry concessions in the Maya Biosphere Reserve,
Petén, Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordinating lead author: Reginaldo Reyes Rodas
Lead authors: Justine Kent, Tania Ammour, and Juventino Gálvez

7

Community-based forest management in Quintana Roo, Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead authors: Edward A. Ellis and Karen A. Kainer
Lead authors: José Antonio Sierra Huelsz and Patricia Negreros-Castillo
Contributing author: Maria DiGiano

8

Achieving excellence in managing community forests:
What conditions for success arise from cases in Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: César Sabogal
Contributing authors: Jessica Casaza, Luis Chauchard, Juan Herrero, César Alvarado,
Rudy Guzmán, Miguel Segur, and Henry Moreno

9

Non-domestic sources of the Canadian boreal forest policy: Integrating
theories of internationalisation and pathways of forest policy change . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead authors: Devin Judge-Lord and Irene Scher
Lead author: Benjamin Cashore

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE: LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOGAL ISSUES

31

49

71

83

97

113

131

153

173

5

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Land grabbing and forest conflict in Cambodia: Implications for community
and sustainable forest management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Ahmad Dhiaulhaq
Lead authors: Yurdi Yasmi and David Gritten
Contributing authors: Lisa Kelley and Horm Chandet
Role of corporate responsibility: Insights from three forest-industry
multinationals investing in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Anne Toppinen
Lead authors: Yijing Zhang, Eric Hansen, Kaisa Korhonen-Kurki, and Ning Li
Khasi responses to forest pressures: A community REDD+ project from
Northeast India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mark Poffenberger
Global forest governance to address illegal logging:The rise of timber
legality verification to rescue Indonesia’s forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Erica Pohnan
Lead authors: Michael W. Stone and Benjamin Cashore
Forest Stewardship Council certification of natural forest management
in Indonesia: Required improvements, costs, incentives, and barriers . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Ruslandi
Lead authors: Art Klassen, Claudia Romero, and Francis E. Putz
Enabling forest users in Nepal to exercise their rights: Rethinking regulatory
barriers to communities and smallholders earning their living from timber . . . .
Convening lead author: David Gritten
Lead authors: Naya Sharma Paudel, Harisharan Luintel, Dil B. Khatri, Julian Atkinson,
James Bampton, Bernhard Mohns, and Kamal Bhandari
Contributing authors: Chandra Silori and Madankumar Janakiraman
Transformative mediation, a tool for maximising the positives out of
forest conflict: A case study from Kanchanaburi,Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Ahmad Dhiaulhaq
Lead authors: Toon De Bruyn, Kanchana Wiset, Rawee Thaworn, David Gritten, and Yurdi Yasmi
Contributing authors: Somying Soontornwong and Sureerat Kritsanarangsan
Rehabilitation of degraded forest and woodland ecosystems in Ethiopia
for sustenance of livelihoods and ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Eshetu Yirdaw
Lead authors: Mulualem Tigabu, Mulugeta Lemenih, Mesele Negash, and Demel Teketay

19

Small forest-based enterprises in The Gambia: Opportunities and challenges . . .
Convening lead authors: M. Fernanda Tomaselli and Robert Kozak
Lead authors: Reem Hajjar and Joleen Timko
Contributing authors: Alkali Jarjusey and Kanimang Camarai

20

Local livelihoods in the context of deforestation and forest degradation:
A study of three regions in Madagascar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Aziza Rqibate
Lead authors: Daniel Plugge, Tahiry Rabefahiry, Bruno Ramamonjisoa, and Michael Köhl

21

6

Sustainable forest management on federal lands in the US Pacific Northwest
– making sense of science, conflict, and collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Cassandra Moseley
Lead author: Georg Winkel

22

Community rights and participation in the face of new global interests in
forests and lands:The case of Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Almeida Sitoe
Lead authors: Sheila Wertz-Kanounnikoff, Natasha Ribeiro, Benard Guedes, and Nicia Givá
The impacts of decentralisation reforms on sustainable forest management
in Central Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Abwoli Y. Banana
Lead authors: Justine J. Namaalwa, Patrick Byakagaba, Daniel Waiswa, and Mukadasi Buyinza
Contributing author: William Gombya-Ssembajwe

189

205

217

229

241

255

275

285

299

315

329

345

357

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE: LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOGAL ISSUES

23

24

Assessing forest governance in the Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina:
Views of forestry professionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Mersudin Avdibegović
Lead authors: Margaret Shannon, Dženan Bećirović, Senka Mutabdžija, Bruno Marić,
and Špela Pezdevšek Malovrh
Heated and frozen forest conflicts: Cultural sustainability and forest
management in arctic Finland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mikko Jokinen

25

Old solutions for today’s problems in the Urbión Model Forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Miguel Segur
Lead authors: Sonia Martel, Álvaro Picardo, Pedro Medrano, and José Antonio Lucas Santolaya
Contributing authors: Amaya Martínez Rioja, Pilar Valbuena, José Alonso Alonso, Pedro Gil,
and Emilio Galindo

26

Forest monitoring in Europe and its importance to clean air policies and
sustainable forest management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convening lead author: Martin Lorenz
Contributing authors: Arnaud Brizay, Paola Deda, Peringe Grennfelt, and Roman Michalak

27

Water-related ecosystem services of forests: Learning from regional cases . . . . .
Convening lead author: Bart Muys
Lead authors: Jan Nyssen, Ben du Toit, and Enrico Vidale
Contributing authors: Irina Prokofieva, Robert Mavsar, and Marc Palahi

369

381
399

411

423

PART III PREREQUISITE CONDITIONS FOR SFM:
FINDINGS FROM THE CASE STUDY ANALYSES
1

Introduction to Part III and summary of the findings from the case studies . . . . .
Glenn Galloway, Pia Katila, Wil de Jong, and Pablo Pacheco

443

2

Overview of the case studies and their diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pablo Pacheco, Pia Katila, Gerardo Mery, and Glenn Galloway

449

3

Prerequisite conditions across cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glenn Galloway, Wil de Jong, Pia Katila, Pablo Pacheco, Gerardo Mery, and René Alfaro

453

4

Interactions among prerequisite conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glenn Galloway, Pia Katila, Wil de Jong, and Pablo Pacheco

475

5

Methodological and analytical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glenn Galloway

485

PART IV POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS
1

Introduction and synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wil de Jong

2

Management of natural tropical forests in the past and present and
projections for the future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plinio Sist, Pablo Pacheco, Robert Nasi, and Jürgen Blaser

489

497

3

Synopsis of FAO Regional Forest Outlook Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gerardo Mery, Sinikka Västilä, and Maxim Lobovikov

513

4

Linking global to local using multi-scale scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lauri Hetemäki

527

5

Forest futures: Linking global paths to local conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eric Kemp-Benedict, Wil de Jong, and Pablo Pacheco

539

Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

555

Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

561

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE: LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOGAL ISSUES

7

IN MEMORIAM
Matti Palo, founder of the research project World
Forests, Society and Environment, died in a car accident in February 2014. He was the professor of
forest economics and an active researcher in the
Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), where
he worked for about four decades, until his retirement
in 2003. He is renowned for his work in the ield of
forest economics and international forest policy. He
founded the World Forests, Society and Environment
(WFSE) project in 1996 as a joint initiative with
METLA, the European Forest Institute (EFI), and
the United Nations University (UNU). Palo was the
director of WFSE until 2001, when WFSE became
a special project of the International Union of Forest
Research Organizations (IUFRO).

Under his leadership, WFSE produced ive books
and achieved wide international recognition. The
current IUFRO-WFSE builds on the foundation he
laid. Palo emphasised the need to develop innovative research, and to focus particular attention on the
intricate relations between forests, society, and the
environment. He also saw the need to address these
issues from a broad, interdisciplinary perspective.
Palo participated actively in international scientiic
and policy fora and discussions and was among the
pioneers in modelling the issues related to deforestation in the tropics. Always full of energy and innovative ideas, he was passionate about his work. Palo
had a strong international orientation throughout his
career. He served as a professor of forest economics
at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University
KVL, Copenhagen, Denmark, and lectured about
forest economics, international forest development,
and environmental politics at the University of Helsinki and the University of Eastern Finland, where he
was an adjunct professor. In Costa Rica, he taught at
CATIE (Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher
Education Center) and the United Nations University
for Peace. During his long career, he also worked
as a consultant for FAO in Asia and Africa and as
a visiting professor at Seoul National University in
South Korea. Palo continued to work actively in international forest policy research after retirement,
until the last day.
As WFSE colleagues of Matti Palo, we express
our profound sense of loss at his passing and our
recognition of and lasting gratitude for his invaluable
contributions to forest research, and to our project.
Gerardo Mery, Pia Katila, and Sinikka Västilä

8

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE: LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOGAL ISSUES

© Grid Arendal/Peter Prokosch (http://www.grida.no/photolib/detail/costa-rica-linking-tourism-conservation_90f5)

PART I

INTRODUCTION

Glenn Galloway, Pia Katila, Wil de Jong, and Pablo Pacheco

9

PART I – Chapter 1

Introduction

T

he present book Forests under Pressure: Local
Responses to Global Issues is the third volume
produced by the International Union of Forest Research Organizations’ Special Project World Forests, Society, and Environment (IUFRO-WFSE).
The two previous volumes are: Forests and Society
– Responding to Global Drivers of Change (Mery et
al. 2010) and Forests in Global Balance: Changing
Paradigms (Mery et al. 2005).
This volume is divided into four parts. Within
each part there are a number of chapters. Part I introduces the overall structure of this volume and
provides an introduction to Part II, which consists
of local- and regional-level case studies. Part III presents a synthesis of the case studies, drawing on their
indings and important processes within individual
cases. Part IV is forward-looking and discusses several of the issues and indings from Parts II and III in
the context of future outlooks and scenarios.
In many parts of the world, forests and forestry
are undergoing far-reaching changes. Indeed forests
are under pressures that threaten the sustainable provision of forest-based goods and services. These
pressures and the drivers of change affecting forests and forestry were the focus of the two previous
WFSE volumes and are briely summarised in Part I,
chapter 2. Also, in the previous two WFSE volumes,
valuable insights were compiled and presented as key
messages to aid decision-makers and their advisors in
order to foster sustainable forest management (SFM)
and enhance forestry contributions to livelihoods,
well-being, and sustainable development.
To date, general principles and recommendations
provided in numerous publications and by various
processes and organisations have not led to suficient changes at the local level. In recognition of this
crucial problem, this volume focuses on local- and
regional-level initiatives from different parts of world
to shed light on the prerequisite conditions (PC) and
combinations of these conditions that seem to foster
SFM and forest-related sustainable development at
the local level, including processes and inluences
originating at broader national and global scales.
This volume maintains that sustainable management of natural resources, especially forests, is of
vital importance to global, regional, and national efforts to achieve sustainable development and should
play a key role in efforts to mitigate and adapt to
climate change and further low carbon development.

PART I: INTRODUCTION

In addition, an underlying premise is that there is no
universally agreed upon deinition of SFM and that
SFM incorporates diverse understandings, values,
and interests that change over time in response to dynamic and evolving needs of society. In general SFM
aims to maintain and enhance economic, social, and
environmental values of all types of forests for the
beneit of present and future generations (UN 2007).
Endeavours to further SFM often imply trade-offs
between the provision of different goods and services and a wide array of diverse, often conlicting,
interests having important effects on the distribution
of these goods and services (for discussion on the
sustainable management of tropical forests, see Part
IV, chapter 2).
SFM has become the general guiding principle
among the international forestry community. Numerous development programs, projects, and initiatives
implemented by governments, non-governmental
organisations, and donor agencies have aimed at
instituting this principle in an effort to increase the
contribution of forestry to livelihoods, local development, and conservation. Moving towards SFM has
involved undertaking important policy reforms and
institutional changes not only in the forest sector
but also in other sectors (e.g. land tenure, economic
policy). The outcomes of these efforts have varied
greatly. In many locations unsustainable practices
prevail, while in others, different stakeholders have
managed to develop and/or sustain management regimes and activities that support the sustainable use
of forest resources with contributions to people’s
livelihoods, rural development, and provision of
ecological services.
Major research efforts have been directed to
further increase the understanding of the different
issues and conditions that directly or indirectly affect how natural resources are used and managed
and consequent outcomes. This understanding is
crucial for developing policies and approaches to
foster sustainable resource management in the face of
the drivers of change that threaten forests and forestrelated livelihoods in many regions of the world.
The past decades of forestry research and practical
experiences have yielded important insights into how
forest management is inluenced by multiple external
factors linked to different dimensions and operating
at several scales, from local to global. Analysts have
proposed a variety of general frameworks, models,

11

1 INTRODUCTION

and theories that link social, economic, cultural,
political, environmental, and biophysical conditions
with the approaches employed by different actors
to access and manage forests and show how forests
respond to external inluences and the resulting tradeoffs. A brief overview of the existing knowledge on
these linkages is presented in Part I, chapter 3.
The analytical framework or “lens” for this book
is presented in Part I, chapter 4. The development
of this framework drew on lessons learned in previous WFSE volumes and other key sources. Its use
encouraged case analysis from a holistic perspective, focusing attention on the prerequisite conditions and combinations of conditions that seem to
foster progress towards SFM and sustainable local
development. The analytical framework not only
guided the preparation of the case studies but also
served to structure the development of the synthesis
of case studies.
Part II of this book consists of 27 case studies
applying the aforementioned analytical framework.
The case studies focus on areas where considerable
efforts have been undertaken to further SFM and
sustainable forest-related local development. While
most focus on the local level and the interaction
between policies and practices at that level, some
cases embody processes occurring at broader scales,
such as at regional or national levels. With regards to
the prerequisite conditions included in the analytical framework, beyond their presence or absence,
authors were also requested to focus attention on
interaction among them to foster or constrain SFM.
One of the book’s main objectives is to learn from
the array of local experiences and extract lessons
to boost progress towards SFM, implying greater
contributions to livelihoods and well-being, local rural development, and conservation of forests goods
and services. These outcomes are crucial to efforts
seeking to mitigate the impacts of global economic
shocks and climate change.
Part III presents a synthesis and comparative
analyses of the case studies. It begins with a concise summary of the indings from the case study
analyses, including relections on important implications of these indings for future efforts seeking to
further progress towards SFM (Part III, chapter 1).
It then presents a more comprehensive synthesis of
the cases, irst from the perspective of the primary
outcomes of interest of SFM − the contribution of
forests to livelihoods, and to forest extent and con-

dition − and then analysing each prerequisite condition included in the analytical framework across
the cases (Part III, chapters 2 and 3). Following the
across-cases analyses, chapter 4 of Part III directs
attention to interactions among prerequisite conditions within the case studies. This section makes
it clear that measures taken for each prerequisite
condition do not act in isolation, rather, outcomes
depend on complex interactions among them. In this
section, attention also focuses on the inluences of
regional/global processes on forest-related policies
and behaviour in the cases studied, demonstrating
that forces/inputs inluencing conditions for SFM
originate from different scales, from global to local.
Part III ends with a short section on methodological
and analytical considerations, especially in relation
to the availability and quality of information (Part
III, chapter 5).
Part IV focuses on the future of several of the
issues and insights discussed in Parts II and III. Part
IV, chapter 2 explores the evolution of the SFM concept over the past decades and how it might evolve
in coming years. This is an important issue since it
will also inluence the strategies required to achieve
SFM, which are at least partially conditional on our
shared understanding of SFM. Part IV, chapter 3 then
applies an analytical exercise deemed to be “forward
looking,” an evolving academic discipline inding
applicability in forest sciences. One important option of forward looking is the development of future
scenarios, relying primarily on expert knowledge
rather than on statistical models. By using so-called
multi-scale scenarios, forward -looking exercises
can draw on expertise from multiple stakeholders,
including rural communities, small and medium forest holders, corporations, administrators, and policymakers, thereby adding to the value and bolstering
the legitimacy of scenarios for multiple purposes,
including forest policy formulation. Forward looking
can also be done more speciically by anticipating
trends in the prerequisite conditions that contribute
to SFM. Part IV, chapter 3 summarises the various
FAO Outlook Studies to anticipate future trends in
the prerequisite conditions included in the analytical framework. The last chapter of Part IV (chapter
4), tries to show how the prerequisite conditions for
SFM might evolve under different Shared Socioeconomic Pathways that are one component of a new
round of climate scenarios, focusing primarily on
socio-economic conditions.

12

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE – LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOBAL ISSUES

PART I – Chapter 2

Forests under pressure

F

orests account for about one-third of the total
land area of the world (FAO 2010). Throughout
human history, forests have been essential for human well-being and currently contribute to the livelihoods of an estimated 1.6 billion people worldwide
(World Bank 2004). Forest resources are especially
important for the poor, contributing directly to the
livelihoods of 90% of those living with less than USD
1/day. Forests contribute to livelihoods by providing subsistence goods and income from the sale of
forest products, inputs to agriculture, and income
from employment. In addition to tangible wood
and non-wood forests products, forest ecosystems
provide a range of services at local, regional, and
global levels, including lood control, air iltration,
soil stabilisation, and climate regulation. Forests also
provide habitat for about two-thirds of the world’s
known terrestrial species. The world’s forests store
a large amount of carbon and it has been estimated
that they account for a large proportion of the world’s
land-based carbon uptake (Pan et al. 2011).
While sustainable management, planting, and
rehabilitation of forests can sustain or increase forest-based ecosystem services, deforestation, degradation, and poor forest management reduce their
provision. In many regions of the world, forests
and forestry in general are undergoing far-reaching
changes that threaten the sustainable provision of
forest-based goods and services. During the past decade about 13 million ha of forest at the global level
have been converted annually to other land uses or
lost through natural causes (FAO 2010). Deforestation, mainly due to conversion of forests to agricultural land, shows signs of decreasing in several
countries but continues at an alarmingly high rate in
others. Agricultural expansion, mainly large-scale
crop plantations, are the main direct cause leading
to forest conversion in the tropics (Chomitz 2007,
Rudel et al. 2009, Pacheco et al. 2011), along with
forest conversion to cattle ranching in the Amazon
(Margulis 2004 and Figure I 2.1). Additional pressures originating in other economic sectors include
such activities as biofuel development and mining.
Several underlying drivers prompting forest change
originate from human activities and include climate
change, population growth and urbanisation, associated changes in values and consumption patterns,
and globalisation of trade, inance, and investments
(Geits and Lambin 2002).

PART I: INTRODUCTION

By 2050, the world population is projected to exceed nine billion and the proportion of urban dwellers is likely to be 70%. Nearly all population growth
will take place in developing countries. At the same
time, incomes will rise (UN 2009). With increasing
population and incomes, the global demand for food,
feed, ibre, and energy will also increase. Without improved agricultural productivity, rising food demand
alone will perpetuate deforestation. Rising incomes
in developing countries, especially in emerging
economies, will also increase the consumption of
some products, such as livestock products and coffee, which require large extensions of land, further
increasing pressure on arable lands now under forests
(Gerbens-Leerns and Nonhebel 2005).
In coming years, the world’s energy consumption
is expected to increase dramatically, particularly in
Asia, which will place additional pressure on forests. While fossil fuels will account for most of the
increased energy supply, renewable sources of energy will gain importance (FAO 2008). There is great
variation in the role of wood as a source of energy
in different regions of the world. Many developing
countries rely heavily on fuelwood and charcoal for
energy, and the consumption of fuelwood is expected to grow due to population growth, especially in
Africa (FAO 2008). High fossil fuel prices, energy
security concerns, and climate mitigation policies in
developed countries aimed at replacing fossil fuels
with renewable energy have led to rapidly increasing
production of biofuels. Policy promoting the use of
renewable energy, particularly biofuels, to meet the
energy needs of the transport sector has accelerated
the demand for some energy crops, with some likely
direct and indirect effects on forest conversion in the
tropics (Timilsina and Shrestha 2010). Production of
biofuels has tripled since 2000 and is projected to
double again within the next decade (FAO 2009). Increasing biofuel production can lead to deforestation
directly when forests are cleared for biofuel crops or
indirectly when other agricultural crops are replaced
by biofuels, thus displacing crops or livestock into
forest areas (Gao et al. 2011).
The pressures on forestlands in many countries of
Africa, Asia, and South America are seen augmenting
due to the rapid increase in demand by foreign and
domestic investors for land suitable for producing
food and energy crops (IFAD 2009). For example,
between 2004 and 2009 the land area transferred to

13

2 FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE

Figure I 2.1 Forest cleared for agriculture in Mato Grosso, Brazil. ©Grid-Arendal/Riccardo Pravettoni
(http://www.grida.no/photolib/detail/cleared-land-in-the-amazon-jungle-brazil_65e5)

14

investors amounted to 2.7 million ha in Mozambique,
4 million ha in Sudan, and 1.6 million ha in Liberia
(Deininger and Byerlee 2011). It has been estimated
that during the past ive years, international investors have acquired about 50–80 million ha of land
in middle- and low-income countries, through either
purchases or lease agreements, mostly for the development of large-scale crop plantations (HLEP 2011).
Zagema (2011) has estimated that 227 million ha of
land have been sold or leased since 2011, mostly to
international investors. While there is not enough
information about where these land deals are located,
it is assumed that a portion of them are forestlands
that could fall prey to agricultural expansion.
Growing urban centres and infrastructure development (roads, mines, dams, etc.) increase pressure
on forests in many regions of the world. For example,
today the majority of the Amazonian population lives
in urban areas. Expanding road networks facilitate
access to previously remote forest areas and expand
opportunities for commercial utilisation of land and
forest resources and/or the conversion of forest to
agriculture (de Jong et al. 2010a). In addition, growing urban populations also imply higher consumption
demands for supply originated in forestlands converted to agriculture in order to meet such growing
demand (DeFries et al. 2010). Furthermore, oil and

gas exploration and exploitation and expanding mining concessions contribute to deforestation and are a
source of forest-related conlicts both in developing
and developed countries (Figure I 2.2). Increasingly,
urban population will also value forests for amenity
purposes and recreation, raising pressures to reserve
forests for recreation, especially near urban areas
(Hägerhäll et al. 2010).
Climate change is already affecting forest ecosystems and the services they provide and these effects
will increase in the future. Under most Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climatechange scenarios, climate change is projected to
alter the distribution of forest types and tree species
in all biomes; however, the nature and magnitude
as well as their socio-economic and environmental
implications vary. In some regions, forest productivity is expected to rise for some decades, however,
ultimately, in most areas productivity is expected to
decline (Alfaro et al. 2014). Disturbances associated
with climate change, such as loods, droughts, wildires, and pest outbreaks, can lead to further changes
in forest ecosystems (Seppälä et al. 2009, Alfaro et
al. 2010). Climate change will also indirectly affect
forestry by changing the production possibilities and
yields of agricultural crops. Although there will be
gains in some agricultural crops in some regions of

FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE – LOCAL RESPONSES TO GLOBAL ISSUES

2 FORESTS UNDER PRESSURE

Figure I 2.2 The search for minerals and the subsequent road constructions are often the first steps for
deforestation as is occurring here in the province of Riau in Sumatra, Indonesia.
©Grid-Arendal/Peter Prokosch (http://www.grida.no/photolib/detail/rainforest-in-sumatra-indonesia_aa2c)

the world, the overall impact of climate change on
agriculture is expected to be negative (Nelson et al.
2009) and could thus increase land demand for agriculture and shift production to new areas.
Increasing global demand for and trade in forest and agricultural products can have important
ramiications at regional and local levels, affecting
forest industries, local livelihoods and forests. As
already mentioned, global trade may expand the market opportunities for commodity crops that may be
produced at the expense of forestlands, either targeting conventional food export markets or expanding
biofuel markets. Large-scale agricultural investment
often follows market opportunities, in many cases
favouring the expansion of mono-crop plantations,
mainly soybeans and oil palms (HLPE 2011). In addition, expansion of timber trade tends to prompt
timber extraction, often using unsustainable logging
practices. Both, global agricultural and timber trade
have contributed to deforestation and forest degradation, especially when illegality and poor institutional
capacity have resulted in unsustainable practices
(Galloway et al. 2010).
It is noteworthy that the sources and intensity
of the various pressures on forests differ between
regions and countries, but are affecting the sustainability of forests and forest ecosystem services in all
parts of the world, with differential effects on people’s livelihoods and economic development across

PART I: INTRODUCTION

regions. Nonetheless, the impacts of the drivers of
change on forests and forest-dependent people are,
and will continue to be, most severe in less-developed regions where the pressures on forest are most
urgent and where people lack adaptive capacity due
to poverty and political and institutional marginalisation. The impacts resulting from those changes tend
also to affect the rural poor most severely, including
smallholders and communities whose livelihoods depend to a large degree on forest resources. In many
cases, a handful of companies and corporations tend
to beneit most from forest intervention and conversion due to unequal social distribution of economic
beneits. The drivers of change affecting forests and
forest-dependent people cut across different scales,
from global to local and vice versa. Global processes
can directly affect the resilience and sustainability
of forests and socio-cultural systems at the local and
regional levels. At the same time, land-use decisions
at the local and regional levels contribute in a cumulative fashion across time and space to global
environmental, social, and economic sustainability,
or lack thereof.
Sustainable management and conservation of the
world’s remaining forests is essential for the continuous provision of forest-based products and ecosystem services. With climate change and the crucial
role that forests have in global climate regulation,
the need to sustain forests is greater than ever.

15

PART I – Chapter 3

Derivation of the analytical framework
3.1 Revisiting current analytical
perspectives

V

arious concepts, models, and theoretical frameworks have guided the extensive literature that
addresses natural resource management and the use
and conservation of these resources as well as the
diverse governance modes that are in use to steer
resource use and management. These approaches
have directed attention to different dimensions of
governance and human-environment interactions. A
brief summary of this literature is presented here,
structured around the main themes that feature predominantly in the existing literature.

3.1.1 Tenure and property rights
Land and forest tenure and property rights to forests
and trees have received increasing attention as crucial social institutions that deine access, use, and
management options for natural resources. Tenure
regimes have been broadly classiied into private,
state, and common-property regimes, while under
open access, there are no property rights and no deined group of users or owners. Situations resembling
open access arise when the state does not impose
constraints on access or when they are not enforced
and unauthorised or illegal use becomes possible
(Bromley 1991). Property rights consist of a bundle
of rights that include access, withdrawal, management, exclusion, and transfer rights and may relate to
different elements or beneit streams of the property.
These rights are divided in different ways between
the state and other actors. In most tropical countries
forest lands are property of the state, and the state
can under different mechanisms grant speciic rights
to single persons and legal entities, for instance families, companies, communities or community organisations. These rights are often conditional, meaning
that owners have speciic rights, but the state reserves
the right to revoke such rights under given circumstances, or the rights have a deinite duration. The
resulting property regimes are characterised by the
distribution of the right bundles between different
actors as well as the duration and security of the
rights (Schlager and Ostrom 1992). The nature and

PART I: INTRODUCTION

characteristics of the right bundles inluence resource
use and management as well as the outcomes for
rights holders. They deine the options and opportunities to beneit from the resource and thus shape
the incentives for sustainable resource management,
including investing in, sustaining, and improving the
resource (e.g. Ostrom and Schlager 1996, Wiebe and
Meinzen-Dick 1998, Deinigner 2003).
Despite the considerable attention devoted to
property right regimes and changes in these regimes,
conclusive information about the relationship between different regimes and natural resource and
livelihood outcomes remains evasive. A recent extensive review of literature on the relationship between
tenure and forest cover concludes that “globally, the
relationship between tenure regime and forest cover
change is mixed and there is no clear evidence to
suggest that a speciic tenure type will ensure forest conservation” (Aryal and Pokharel 2011, p. 7).
However, the review also found that tenure security,
including enforcement and monitoring aspects, and
local rule-making were strongly related to improved
forest cover.
A large body of research has focused on the recent changes in forest tenure, especially the devolution of forest rights to communities and smallholders.
Overall, the devolution of forest rights has not always
led to the improvements predicted by the property
rights theory (Edmunds et al. 2003). Communitybased resource management has been shown to result
in improved management of natural resources and
increased beneits to local actors in some locations
(see e.g. Dev et al. 2003 for Nepal and Beaucham
and Incram 2011 for Cameroon) but not in others.
One explanation is that the devolution polices have
not led to substantive changes in decision-making
rights and beneit-sharing arrangements (Agrawal
and Ostrom 2001, Larson and Dahal 2012). Also, in
order to beneit from forests, those who hold rights
must also have the capacities, know-how, and technologies necessary for obtaining beneits (Ribot and
Peluso 2003), and these are often lacking.
In many countries the legal framework that deines rights to natural resources (constitution, laws,
and lower-level regulations) has not been created or
developed in a vacuum; instead, it has been overlaid
on existing rule structures that are based on customary systems. Diverse customary resource management systems continue to prevail in rural areas

17

3 DERIVATION OF THE ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

in many countries. For example, while almost all
land is formally under government ownership and
administration in Africa, de facto land ownership is
still dominantly based on customary tenure systems
(Alden Wily 2012, Larson and Dahal 2012). More
recently, government policies in some countries have
instituted forest management built on customary regimes or introduced new management arrangements
based on communities or user-groups. However,
overlapping statutory and customary land tenure