Manajemen | Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji joeb.83.4.233-238

Journal of Education for Business

ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20

Integrating Six Sigma Concepts in an MBA Quality
Management Class
Larry B. Weinstein , Joseph Petrick , Joseph Castellano & Robert J. Vokurka
To cite this article: Larry B. Weinstein , Joseph Petrick , Joseph Castellano & Robert J. Vokurka
(2008) Integrating Six Sigma Concepts in an MBA Quality Management Class, Journal of
Education for Business, 83:4, 233-238, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.83.4.233-238
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.83.4.233-238

Published online: 07 Aug 2010.

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Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:10 11 January 2016

Integrating฀Six฀Sigma฀Concepts฀
in฀an฀MBA฀Quality฀Management฀Class
LARRY฀B.฀WEINSTEIN฀
WRIGHT฀STATE฀UNIVERSITY฀
DAYTON,฀OHIO฀

JOSEPH฀PETRICK฀
WRIGHT฀STATE฀UNIVERSITY฀
DAYTON,฀OHIO

JOSEPH฀CASTELLANO฀

UNIVERSITY฀OF฀DAYTON฀
DAYTON,฀OHIO฀

ROBERT฀J.฀VOKURKA฀
TEXAS฀A&M฀UNIVERSITY฀
CORPUS฀CHRISTI,฀TEXAS

ABSTRACT.฀Instructors฀face฀enormous฀
challenges฀in฀presenting฀effective฀instruction฀on฀concepts฀and฀tools฀of฀quality฀
management.฀Most฀textbooks฀focus฀on฀
presenting฀individual฀concepts฀or฀tools฀and฀
fail฀to฀address฀complex฀issues฀confronted฀
in฀real-world฀problem-solving฀situations.฀
The฀supplementary฀use฀of฀cases฀does฀not฀
help฀students฀to฀understand฀the฀dynamic฀
challenges฀that฀professionals฀encounter฀
in฀organizational฀settings.฀In฀this฀article,฀
the฀authors฀describe฀an฀approach฀used฀to฀
direct฀students฀through฀Six฀Sigma฀process฀
improvement฀projects฀at฀local฀companies฀

to฀reinforce฀the฀students’฀classroom฀experience.฀These฀projects฀provide฀excellent฀tools฀
for฀enhancing฀learning฀and฀strengthening฀
the฀bonds฀between฀universities฀and฀business฀
communities.฀
Keywords:฀higher฀education,฀master฀of฀
business฀administration,฀quality,฀Six฀Sigma,฀
total฀quality฀management,฀total฀quality฀
management
Copyright฀©฀2008฀Heldref฀Publications

฀

I

n฀ 1991,฀ in฀ An฀ Open฀ Letter:฀TQM฀ on฀
Campus,฀ six฀ senior฀ executives฀ from฀
American฀Express,฀Ford,฀IBM,฀Motorola,฀
Proctor฀&฀Gamble,฀and฀Xerox฀expressed฀
a฀ concern฀ of฀ the฀ business฀ community฀
for฀ universities฀ to฀ integrate฀ total฀ quality฀

management฀(TQM)฀into฀their฀curricula.฀
They฀wrote฀the฀following:
If฀the฀United฀States฀expects฀to฀improve฀its฀
global฀competitive฀performance,฀business฀
and฀ academic฀ leaders฀ must฀ close฀ ranks฀
behind฀an฀agenda฀that฀stresses฀the฀importance฀ and฀ value฀ of฀ TQM.฀ .฀ .฀ .฀ Academic฀ institutions฀ that฀ are฀ slow฀ to฀ embrace฀
TQM,฀ at฀ best,฀ miss฀ the฀ opportunity฀ to฀
lead฀ change฀ and,฀ at฀ worst,฀ run฀ the฀ risk฀
of฀becoming฀less฀relevant฀to฀the฀business฀
world.฀(Robinson฀et฀al.,฀1991,฀pp.฀94–95)

Evans฀(1996)฀described฀the฀responses฀
of฀ employees฀ of฀ companies฀ that฀ had฀
won฀ the฀ Malcolm฀ Baldrige฀ National฀
Quality฀ Award฀ to฀ a฀ request฀ to฀ list฀ the฀
10฀ most฀ important฀ quality-related฀ concepts฀ or฀ skills฀ that฀ any฀ entry-level฀ college฀graduate฀should฀possess.฀However,฀
among฀the฀respondents,฀there฀was฀little฀
emphasis฀ on฀ specific฀ quality฀ tools฀ and฀
techniques.฀Rather,฀the฀responses฀corresponded฀closely฀to฀accepted฀core฀values฀
of฀ TQM:฀ customer฀ focus,฀ continuous฀

process฀ improvement,฀ teamwork,฀ and฀
participation.
Respondents฀ generally฀ agreed฀ that฀
college฀graduates฀should฀have฀an฀understanding฀of฀customer–supplier฀relationships,฀know฀the฀importance฀of฀viewing฀
work฀as฀a฀process฀and฀seeking฀improve-

ments,฀ and฀ be฀ able฀ to฀ work฀ independently฀ and฀ in฀ teams.฀ The฀ survey฀ asked฀
respondents฀ to฀ rate฀ how฀ important฀ it฀
was฀for฀entry-level฀college฀graduates฀to฀
know฀ specific฀ quality-related฀ concepts฀
and฀ skills.฀ Evans฀ (1996)฀ adopted฀ these฀
from฀ a฀ list฀ of฀ 60฀ items฀ identified฀ in฀
a฀ 1994฀ Association฀ to฀ Advance฀ Collegiate฀Schools฀of฀Business฀International฀
study฀ (Gitlow,฀ Einspruch,฀ Laredo,฀ &฀
Percival,฀1994).฀The฀top฀23฀ranked฀factors฀ involved฀ teamwork,฀ communication,฀ customer฀ focus,฀ and฀ continuous฀
process-improvement฀issues฀(Evans).
How฀ well฀ have฀ quality฀ educators฀
addressed฀ the฀ need฀ to฀ cover฀ these฀ topics?฀In฀a฀survey฀sent฀to฀104฀schools฀with฀
undergraduate฀ and฀ graduate฀ programs฀
that฀ had฀ indicated฀ in฀ Quality฀ Progress’฀

Sixth฀Annual฀Quality฀in฀Education฀Listing฀that฀their฀academic฀programs฀offered฀
a฀course฀in฀quality฀control,฀the฀correlation฀between฀what฀Baldrige฀experts฀said฀
should฀be฀covered฀at฀the฀undergraduate฀
level฀ and฀ what฀ faculty฀ members฀ teaching฀classes฀in฀quality฀management฀actually฀ emphasized฀ in฀ their฀ undergraduate฀
programs฀was฀only฀.06฀(Weinstein,฀Petrick,฀&฀Saunders,฀1998).
Weinstein฀ et฀ al.฀ (1998)฀ argued฀ that฀
educators฀ should฀ improve฀ their฀ skills฀
in฀ quality฀ curriculum฀ development฀ by฀
increasing฀their฀understanding฀of฀industry’s฀ requirements฀ for฀ knowledge฀ of฀
specific฀ quality฀ topics.฀ Educators฀ have฀
the฀ responsibility฀ to฀ ensure฀ that฀ future฀
March/April฀2008฀

233

managers฀understand฀the฀importance฀of฀
quality฀tools฀and฀concepts฀and฀how฀they฀
can฀be฀used฀to฀improve฀organizations.฀In฀
light฀ of฀ the฀ apparent฀ success฀ of฀ corporate฀ training฀ programs,฀ there฀ should฀ be฀
a฀ heightened฀ urgency฀ for฀ educators฀ to฀

offer฀programs฀that฀more฀closely฀match฀
industry฀ needs.฀ Relegating฀ these฀ skills฀
to฀such฀corporate฀programs฀relinquishes฀
a฀major฀responsibility฀of฀higher฀education฀ to฀ the฀ business฀ community฀ (Weinstein฀et฀al.).฀

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The฀Case฀for฀Teaching฀Quality
Instructors฀in฀a฀traditional฀classroom฀
setting฀ face฀ enormous฀ challenges฀ in฀
presenting฀ effective฀ instruction฀ in฀ the฀
concepts฀ and฀ tools฀ of฀ quality฀ management.฀Most฀textbooks฀focus฀on฀presenting฀ individual฀ concepts฀ or฀ tools฀ (e.g.,฀
understanding฀variation฀by฀using฀control฀
charts)฀and฀fail฀to฀address฀more฀complex฀
issues฀ that฀ graduates฀ confront฀ in฀ realworld฀ problem-solving฀ situations.฀ The฀
supplementary฀ use฀ of฀ cases,฀ although฀
an฀improvement฀over฀using฀quality฀tools฀
alone,฀ does฀ not฀ help฀ students฀ to฀ understand฀ the฀ dynamic฀ challenges฀ quality฀
professionals฀encounter฀in฀organizational฀ settings.฀ Educators฀ should฀ recognize฀
that฀ quality฀ is฀ not฀ just฀ a฀ collection฀ of฀

facts,฀theories,฀and฀tools.฀It฀is฀an฀orientation,฀a฀way฀of฀thinking,฀and฀a฀culture฀
of฀ beliefs,฀ values,฀ and฀ behaviors.฀ They฀
must฀teach฀quality฀concepts฀and฀tools฀as฀
part฀of฀a฀culture฀of฀quality฀that฀supports฀
continuous฀improvement.฀Without฀such฀
a฀culture,฀efforts฀to฀improve฀quality฀may฀
not฀ succeed.฀ As฀ more฀ organizations฀
introduce฀an฀organizational฀culture฀that฀
emphasizes฀TQM,฀the฀need฀to฀disseminate฀ quality฀ knowledge฀ throughout฀ the฀
managerial฀ structure฀ increases฀ (Disney,฀
Crabtree,฀&฀Harrison,฀2000).฀
Mitra฀ (2004)฀ argued฀ that฀ the฀ role฀ of฀
academia฀ is฀ to฀ design฀ a฀ curriculum฀ that฀
exposes฀ students฀ to฀ the฀ essential฀ concepts฀ and฀ methodologies฀ of฀ Six฀ Sigma.฀
In฀the฀present฀article,฀our฀purpose฀was฀to฀
describe฀a฀model฀that฀incorporates฀these฀
Six฀ Sigma฀ concepts฀ and฀ methodologies฀
in฀ a฀ master฀ of฀ business฀ administration฀
(MBA)฀quality฀management฀course.฀This฀
model฀ challenges฀ students฀ to฀ identify฀

and฀ solve฀ real-world฀ quality฀ problems฀
by฀ using฀ the฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ method.฀ It฀ also฀
incorporates฀ those฀ elements฀ that฀ Evans฀
234฀

Journal฀of฀Education฀for฀Business

(1996)฀ identified฀ in฀ his฀ study฀ as฀ being฀
the฀ most฀ important฀ to฀ employers.฀ Our฀
purpose฀ is฀ to฀ illustrate฀ an฀ approach฀ that฀
other฀educators฀can฀use฀to฀enhance฀their฀
students’฀educational฀experience.
Six฀Sigma฀
Six฀ Sigma฀ is฀ a฀ process-focused,฀ statistically฀ based฀ approach฀ to฀ business฀
improvement฀ that฀ numerous฀ organizations฀have฀implemented฀successfully.฀It฀
includes฀ the฀ use฀ of฀ statistical฀ process-฀
control฀concepts฀dating฀back฀to฀the฀1920s฀
with฀the฀work฀of฀Walter฀Shewhart฀(1931)฀
at฀the฀Western฀Electric฀Hawthorne฀plant.฀
Six฀ Sigma฀ is฀ a฀ business฀ improvement฀

strategy฀used฀to฀improve฀business฀profitability,฀drive฀out฀waste,฀reduce฀costs฀of฀
poor฀quality,฀and฀improve฀the฀effectiveness฀and฀efficiency฀of฀all฀operations฀so฀
as฀ to฀ meet฀ or฀ even฀ exceed฀ customers’฀
needs฀ and฀ expectations฀ (Bañuelas฀ &฀
Antony,฀2001).฀Companies฀have฀shown฀
that฀they฀can฀attain฀dramatic฀results฀by฀
applying฀Six฀Sigma฀methods฀toward฀the฀
improvement฀of฀process฀quality.฀This฀is฀
because฀the฀Six฀Sigma฀method฀requires฀
that฀ practitioners฀ measure฀ and฀ analyze฀
their฀processes.฀Six฀Sigma฀also฀requires฀
that฀ companies฀ build฀ their฀ business฀ so฀
that฀it฀is฀centered฀on฀the฀requirements฀of฀
their฀customers,฀with฀as฀much฀discipline฀
and฀ focus฀ on฀ this฀ external฀ activity฀ as฀
they฀apply฀to฀internal฀process฀improvement฀efforts฀(Blakeslee,฀1999).
Firms฀ such฀ as฀ Motorola,฀ General฀
Electric,฀ Allied-Signal฀ (Honeywell),฀
Asea฀ Brown฀ Boveri฀ (ABB),฀ Lockheed฀ Martin,฀ Polaroid,฀ Sony,฀ Honda,฀
American฀Express,฀Ford,฀Lear฀Corporation,฀ Solectron,฀ and฀ many฀ others฀ have฀

successfully฀ implemented฀ Six฀ Sigma.฀
Motorola฀ saved฀ $15฀ billion฀ in฀ an฀ 11year฀period฀(McClusky,฀2000).฀General฀
Electric฀saved฀$2฀billion฀in฀1999฀alone฀
(Sandholm฀ &฀ Sorqvist,฀ 2002).฀ Raytheon฀realized฀a฀cumulative฀gross฀financial฀
benefit฀of฀$1.8฀billion฀(Tatham฀&฀Mackertich,฀2003),฀and฀Raytheon฀Six฀Sigma฀
projects฀ have฀ generated฀ more฀ than฀฀
$1฀billion฀in฀cumulative฀savings฀(Barth,฀
2005).฀ Although฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ initiatives฀
have฀ focused฀ primarily฀ on฀ improving฀
the฀ performance฀ of฀ manufacturing฀ processes,฀the฀concepts฀are฀widely฀applied฀
to฀ nonmanufacturing,฀ administrative,฀
and฀service฀functions.฀

Organizations฀ that฀ have฀ successfully฀
implemented฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ have฀ typically฀ reported฀ that฀ this฀ approach฀ enabled฀
them฀ to฀ reduce฀ costs฀ and฀ improve฀ productivity฀ in฀ their฀ processes,฀ eliminate฀
errors฀ and฀ improve฀ customer฀ satisfaction฀ in฀ processes,฀ and฀ develop฀ nearly฀
defect-free฀ new฀ products฀ that฀ delight฀
customers฀ (Mutize,฀ 2003).฀Among฀ reasons฀ given฀ for฀ Six฀ Sigma’s฀ success฀
have฀ been฀ that฀ it฀ achieved฀ bottom-line฀
results,฀ used฀ a฀ disciplined฀ approach฀
(i.e.,฀DMAIC:฀define,฀measure,฀analyze,฀
improve,฀ and฀ control),฀ required฀ short฀
project฀ completion฀ times฀ (3–6฀ months฀
per฀ project),฀ required฀ clearly฀ defined฀
measures฀ of฀ success,฀ focused฀ on฀ customers฀and฀processes,฀and฀used฀a฀sound฀
statistical฀approach฀(Mutize).
Although฀the฀body฀of฀knowledge฀for฀
the฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ black฀ belt฀ (expert)฀ is฀
similar฀ to฀ that฀ of฀ the฀ certified฀ quality฀
engineer฀ (Munro,฀ 2000),฀ Hoerl฀ (2001)฀
emphasized฀ that฀ in฀ most฀ cases฀ the฀ role฀
of฀the฀Six฀Sigma฀black฀belt฀is฀that฀of฀a฀
leader฀of฀a฀team฀working฀on฀a฀problem.฀
Although฀ the฀ black฀ belt฀ needs฀ statistical฀ tools฀ to฀ perform฀ his฀ or฀ her฀ role,฀
the฀ black฀ belt฀ needs฀ other฀ vital฀ skills฀
as฀ well.฀ These฀ include฀ organizational฀
effectiveness฀ skills,฀ such฀ as฀ team฀ and฀
project฀ leadership฀ and฀ management฀
skills.฀ Other฀ soft฀ skills฀ required฀ to฀ be฀
effective฀ include฀ the฀ ability฀ to฀ clearly฀
present฀ the฀ project฀ results,฀ both฀ orally฀
and฀ in฀ writing,฀ and฀ the฀ ability฀ to฀ train฀
team฀ members฀ (Hoerl).฀ Therefore,฀ we฀
address฀ not฀ only฀ the฀ technical฀ aspects฀
of฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ but฀ also฀ the฀ managerial฀
issues฀ that฀ any฀ team฀ leader฀ should฀ be฀
able฀to฀address.
Six฀ Sigma฀ encompasses฀ the฀ method฀
of฀problem฀solving฀and฀focuses฀on฀optimization฀ and฀ cultural฀ change.฀ It฀ uses฀
a฀ well-defined฀ method฀ and฀ an฀ extensive฀ set฀ of฀ quality฀ and฀ statistical฀ tools฀
(Raisinghani,฀ Ette,฀ Pierce,฀ Cannon,฀ &฀
Daripaly,฀ 2005).฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ bases฀ its฀
processes฀on฀a฀defined฀five-step฀method฀
called฀DMAIC฀(Mutize,฀2003):
Define:฀Select฀an฀appropriate฀customerfocused฀defect฀or฀problem,฀document฀
business฀ impact฀ and฀ project฀ deliverables฀in฀the฀project฀charter,฀and฀form฀
a฀multidisciplinary฀team.
Measure:฀Develop฀a฀factual฀understanding฀ of฀ current฀ process฀ and฀ locate฀

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sources฀ of฀ problems,฀ establish฀ an฀
as-is฀ process฀ map,฀ measure฀ process฀
capability,฀and฀collect฀data฀to฀serve฀as฀
a฀baseline฀of฀the฀current฀process.
Analyze:฀ Identify฀ potential฀ root฀ causes฀
of฀ defects฀ or฀ sources฀ of฀ variation,฀
investigate฀ the฀ causes฀ of฀ defects฀ by฀
using฀ experiments฀ and฀ statistical฀
analysis,฀ and฀ verify฀ the฀ root฀ causes฀
of฀problems.
Improve:฀ Eliminate฀ the฀ verified฀ root฀
causes฀or฀reduce฀sources฀of฀variation฀
and฀ demonstrate฀ with฀ data฀ that฀ you฀
have฀solved฀the฀problem฀or฀that฀there฀
has฀been฀a฀measurable฀improvement.
Control:฀ Implement฀ methods฀ such฀ as฀
standard฀ operating฀ procedures฀ and฀
statistical฀process฀control฀to฀hold฀the฀
gains.฀
Common฀ tools฀ used฀ in฀ Six฀ Sigma฀
include฀ descriptive฀ statistics,฀ run฀ chart,฀
control฀ chart,฀ probability฀ plot,฀ check฀
sheets,฀pareto฀chart,฀brainstorming,฀nominal฀ group฀ technique,฀ forcefield฀ analysis,฀ cause-and-effect฀ diagram,฀ affinity฀
diagram,฀ interrelationship฀ digraph,฀ and฀
scatter฀diagram.
Descriptive฀statistics฀is฀a฀tabular฀output฀ that฀ summarizes฀ information฀ about฀
a฀ data฀ set.฀ Run฀ chart฀ is฀ a฀ time฀ series฀
plot฀ that฀ permits฀ the฀ study฀ of฀ observed฀
data฀ for฀ trends฀ or฀ patterns฀ over฀ time.฀
Control฀ chart฀ is฀ a฀ study฀ of฀ variation฀
at฀ its฀ source-process฀ monitoring฀ and฀
control฀ and฀ separation฀ of฀ special฀ cause฀
variation฀from฀common฀cause฀variation.฀
Probability฀plot฀assesses฀the฀validity฀of฀
normality฀assumptions.฀Check฀sheet฀is฀a฀
systematic฀data฀recording฀and฀compilation฀from฀historical฀observations.฀Pareto฀
chart฀ separates฀ chronic฀ problems฀ (vital฀
few฀ from฀ trivial฀ many).฀ Brainstorming฀
generates฀ new฀ ideas฀ and฀ obtains฀ group฀
involvement.฀ Nominal฀ group฀ technique฀
expedites฀team฀consensus฀on฀the฀relative฀
importance฀of฀problems,฀issues,฀or฀solutions.฀Force฀field฀analysis฀analyzes฀what฀
organizational฀forces฀are฀supporting฀and฀
driving฀toward฀a฀solution฀and฀which฀are฀
restraining฀ progress.฀ Cause-and-effect฀
diagram฀ triggers฀ ideas฀ and฀ promotes฀
a฀ balanced฀ approach฀ in฀ group฀ brainstorming฀sessions.฀Affinity฀diagram฀is฀a฀
method฀to฀organize฀and฀summarize฀the฀
natural฀ groupings฀ from฀ a฀ large฀ number฀
of฀ ideas฀ and฀ issues.฀ Interrelationship฀
digraph฀(ID)฀permits฀systematic฀identi฀

fication฀and฀analysis฀of฀cause-and-effect฀
relationships.฀ Scatter฀ diagram฀ is฀ a฀ plot฀
to฀ assess฀ the฀ relationship฀ between฀ two฀
variables฀(Breyfogle,฀1999).฀
The฀curriculum฀covers฀these฀topics฀in฀
the฀general฀order฀in฀which฀practitioners฀
would฀use฀these฀tools฀in฀a฀project.฀In฀this฀
way,฀ students฀ learn฀ the฀ tools฀ and฀ then,฀
within฀ a฀ short฀ period฀ of฀ time,฀ have฀ the฀
opportunity฀to฀use฀them฀in฀a฀real-world฀
situation.฀This฀approach฀reinforces,฀in฀a฀
practical฀ situation,฀ the฀ students’฀ understanding฀of฀the฀role฀of฀each฀tool.฀
Prerequisites฀for฀Implementing฀
Six฀Sigma฀Projects
Mitra฀ (2004)฀ proposed฀ that฀ business฀
and฀ engineering฀ students฀ should฀ have฀
at฀ least฀ one฀ semester-level฀ course฀ in฀
statistics฀ that฀ covers฀ topics฀ in฀ descriptive฀statistics,฀measurement฀scales,฀certain฀ probability฀ distributions,฀ sampling฀
schemes,฀ inferential฀ statistics,฀ linear฀
regression,฀ correlation฀ analysis,฀ and฀฀
hypotheses฀ testing฀ methods.฀ The฀ students฀ in฀ our฀ MBA฀ quality฀ class฀ have฀
covered฀these฀topics฀in฀the฀prerequisite฀
statistics฀ class฀ for฀ the฀ MBA฀ program.฀
The฀ class฀ is฀ an฀ elective฀ with฀ a฀ usual฀
enrollment฀ of฀ 20–30฀ students.฀ Before฀
approaching฀ the฀ topic฀ of฀ Six฀ Sigma฀
techniques,฀students฀also฀should฀have฀a฀
basic฀ foundation฀ in฀ quality฀ philosophy฀
and฀ principles.฀ The฀ first฀ class฀ session฀
will฀ cover฀ several฀ broad฀ topics:฀ defining฀quality,฀strategic฀priority฀of฀customer฀ satisfaction,฀ operational฀ priority฀ of฀
continual฀ process฀ improvement,฀ quality฀systems,฀and฀quality฀costs.฀Students฀
need฀to฀understand฀the฀nature฀and฀value฀
of฀ quality฀ management฀ to฀ achieve฀ Six฀
Sigma฀ performance฀ (Evans฀ &฀ Lindsay,฀
2004).฀ The฀ class฀ usually฀ begins฀ with฀ a฀
discussion฀of฀the฀evolution฀of฀the฀quality฀ movement฀ and฀ how฀ it฀ has฀ gained฀
strategic฀ importance฀ in฀ business.฀ An฀
introduction฀ to฀ the฀ historical฀ types฀ of฀
quality฀systems฀and฀a฀discussion฀of฀how฀
we฀identify฀and฀design฀process฀to฀meet฀
the฀ needs฀ and฀ expectations฀ of฀ internal฀
and฀external฀customers฀follow.
Six฀Sigma฀Student฀Project฀Teams
Students฀also฀need฀to฀understand฀the฀
importance฀ of฀ project฀ management.฀
Among฀ the฀ project฀ management฀ topics฀ the฀ class฀ covers฀ are฀ (a)฀ five-stage฀

project฀ quality฀ process฀ model฀ (project฀
initiation,฀ planning,฀ assurance,฀ quality฀
control,฀ and฀ closure),฀ (b)฀ project-team฀
charter,฀ (c)฀ projects฀ metrics,฀ and฀ (d)฀
project฀ standards฀ for฀ Six฀ Sigma฀ closure฀ (Kloppenborg฀ &฀ Petrick,฀ 2002).฀
Most฀ student฀ teams฀ start฀ as฀ uncoordinated฀ groups,฀ mature฀ into฀ potential฀
teams฀under฀sound฀leadership,฀and฀may฀
eventually฀become฀empowered฀to฀function฀as฀real฀teams฀composed฀of฀a฀small฀
number฀ of฀ people฀ with฀ complementary฀
skills฀ who฀ are฀ equally฀ committed฀ to฀
common฀ purposes,฀ goals,฀ and฀ working฀ approaches฀ for฀ which฀ they฀ hold฀
themselves฀mutually฀accountable.฀Class฀
time฀ constraints฀ and฀ the฀ exacting฀ project฀ expectations฀ force฀ the฀ Six฀ Sigma฀
student฀project฀teams฀to฀accelerate฀that฀
developmental฀process฀(Evans฀&฀Lindsay,฀2004).
Six฀Sigma฀Class฀Project
Completing฀Six฀Sigma฀projects฀in฀the฀
allotted฀ time฀ for฀ a฀ semester฀ or฀ quarter฀
is฀ extremely฀ difficult฀ and฀ requires฀ the฀
instructor฀ to฀ carefully฀ plan฀ the฀ course฀
syllabus.฀ During฀ the฀ first฀ class฀ meeting,฀the฀instructor฀describes฀the฀project฀
requirements฀ in฀ detail.฀ Students฀ introduce฀ themselves฀ to฀ the฀ other฀ members฀
of฀ the฀ class฀ and฀ state฀ their฀ majors฀ and฀
relevant฀ work฀ experience.฀ A฀ break฀ in฀
class฀time฀provides฀students฀the฀opportunity฀to฀form฀their฀teams฀and฀examine฀
project฀reports฀completed฀during฀previous฀ terms.฀ The฀ instructor฀ requires฀ that฀
each฀ team฀ submit฀ a฀ proposal฀ for฀ its฀
project฀ by฀ the฀ third฀ class฀ meeting฀ and฀
sets฀ other฀ interim฀ deadlines฀ to฀ prevent฀
students฀ from฀ procrastinating฀ in฀ the฀
development฀of฀their฀projects.฀Although฀
most฀MBA฀students฀enrolled฀in฀the฀class฀
are฀ employed฀ full฀ time,฀ it฀ often฀ is฀ difficult฀for฀them฀to฀identify฀projects฀at฀an฀
early฀ stage฀ of฀ the฀ term.฀ Therefore,฀ the฀
instructor฀ will฀ find฀ it฀ helpful฀ to฀ have฀ a฀
number฀of฀projects฀to฀offer฀to฀the฀teams.฀
These฀ may฀ originate฀ with฀ alumni฀ or฀
through฀ contacts฀ in฀ professional฀ organizations฀ or฀ consulting฀ projects.฀ The฀
instructor฀ provides฀ students฀ with฀ criteria฀for฀their฀project฀selection.฀The฀criteria฀ are฀ part฀ of฀ a฀ conscientious฀ effort฀ to฀
ensure฀ that฀ each฀ project฀ will฀ culminate฀
in฀recommendations฀the฀client฀organization฀can฀implement.฀These฀criteria฀serve฀
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as฀guidelines฀rather฀than฀as฀a฀set฀of฀rigid฀
requirements.฀
1.฀The฀ project฀ should฀ involve฀ an฀ existing฀process.฀
2.฀That฀process฀should฀either฀have฀valid฀
data฀available฀or฀be฀capable฀of฀generating฀ data฀ within฀ the฀ time฀ limitation฀
of฀the฀quarter฀or฀semester.
3.฀The฀ project฀ should฀ be฀ achievable฀
within฀the฀course’s฀time฀frame.฀
4.฀Process฀change฀should฀be฀within฀the฀
span฀of฀control฀of฀the฀client฀organization’s฀ representative฀ with฀ whom฀ the฀
students฀are฀working.
5.฀The฀ project฀ should฀ be฀ important฀ to฀
the฀team฀and฀to฀the฀organization.
6.฀The฀project฀should฀have฀a฀high฀potential฀for฀success.฀
7.฀Results฀should฀be฀measurable.
8.฀The฀ project฀ should฀ never฀ be฀ viewed฀
solely฀as฀an฀academic฀exercise.฀
Use฀of฀Tools
After฀ the฀ team฀ identifies฀ a฀ process฀
for฀analysis,฀it฀will฀use฀flowcharting฀to฀
define฀and฀document฀the฀system฀it฀will฀
study.฀A฀flowchart฀is฀a฀graphical฀representation฀of฀the฀activities฀involved฀in฀a฀
process.฀It฀enables฀all฀team฀members฀to฀
understand฀the฀process.฀The฀flowchart’s฀
representation฀ of฀ the฀ system฀ should฀
contain฀ sufficient฀ detail฀ to฀ incorporate฀
all฀ of฀ the฀ activities฀ that฀ affect฀ the฀ process฀ outcome฀ under฀ investigation.฀ Students฀often฀will฀use฀multiple฀flowcharts,฀
arranged฀ hierarchically,฀ to฀ capture฀ the฀
necessary฀process฀detail.฀
Cause-and-Effect฀Analysis
A฀ cause-and-effect฀ diagram฀ (C&E฀
diagram)฀depicts฀the฀various฀system฀elements฀that฀may฀contribute฀to฀a฀problem.฀
We฀ also฀ refer฀ to฀ the฀ C&E฀ diagram฀ as฀
an฀Ishikawa฀diagram฀in฀reference฀to฀its฀
developer,฀ Kaoru฀ Ishikawa,฀ president฀
of฀ the฀ Musashi฀ Institute฀ of฀Technology฀
in฀Tokyo,฀ Japan.฀The฀ team฀ uses฀ this฀ to฀
identify฀ possible฀ causes฀ of฀ a฀ specific฀
problem฀or฀effect,฀usually฀through฀brainstorming฀ by฀ team฀ members฀ and฀ those฀
knowledgeable฀about฀the฀process฀under฀
study฀(Total฀Quality฀Tools,฀1996).
Sampling฀Plan
The฀student฀team฀must฀design฀a฀measurement฀ system฀ before฀ it฀ can฀ collect฀
236฀

Journal฀of฀Education฀for฀Business

data.฀This฀requires฀that฀the฀team฀develops฀ clear,฀ concise,฀ and฀ detailed฀ operational฀ definitions฀ to฀ ensure฀ consistency฀
in฀ its฀ data฀ collection.฀ Because฀ the฀ reliability฀ of฀ the฀ data฀ collected฀ early฀ in฀ a฀
project฀is฀crucial฀to฀the฀remaining฀steps฀
of฀the฀project,฀the฀team฀should฀use฀operational฀ definitions฀ whenever฀ defining฀
quality฀ measures฀ (Total฀ Quality฀ Tools,฀
1996).฀ Each฀ student฀ team฀ develops฀ a฀
sampling฀ plan฀ to฀ ensure฀ the฀ economic฀
collection฀ of฀ data฀ and฀ to฀ provide฀ the฀
best฀ representation฀ of฀ the฀ population,฀
consistent฀ with฀ the฀ objectives฀ of฀ precision฀and฀reliability.฀Because฀the฀method฀
the฀ student฀ teams฀ use฀ to฀ select฀ data฀
will฀ significantly฀ influence฀ the฀ sample฀
results,฀each฀team฀must฀address฀several฀
questions฀ before฀ establishing฀ a฀ sampling฀ plan:฀ Who฀ should฀ collect฀ data?฀
What฀ training฀ and฀ documentation฀ is฀
required?฀When฀should฀the฀team฀collect฀
data?฀ Where฀ in฀ the฀ process฀ should฀ the฀
team฀collect฀data?฀For฀how฀long฀should฀
the฀team฀collect฀data?฀What฀sample฀size฀
should฀the฀team฀use?฀
Project฀Direction:฀Role฀of฀Control฀
Chart
The฀control฀chart฀is฀one฀of฀the฀more฀
important฀ statistical฀ process฀ control฀
tools฀ used฀ to฀ evaluate฀ the฀ state฀ of฀ a฀
process.฀A฀major฀decision฀for฀Six฀Sigma฀
practitioners฀ is฀ what฀ type฀ of฀ control฀
chart฀ to฀ use฀ and฀ what฀ corresponding฀
type฀ of฀ data฀ to฀ measure฀ and฀ track.฀ A฀
control฀ chart฀ provides฀ a฀ graphic฀ comparison฀ of฀ performance฀ data,฀ such฀ as฀
sample฀ statistics,฀ to฀ compute฀ control฀
limits฀ drawn฀ on฀ the฀ chart.฀ It฀ is฀ used฀ to฀
detect฀ assignable฀ causes฀ of฀ variation฀
in฀ the฀ process.฀ One฀ describes฀ a฀ process฀that฀is฀operating฀without฀assignable฀
causes฀ of฀ variation฀ as฀ stable,฀ predictable,฀ or฀ in฀ a฀ state฀ of฀ statistical฀ control.฀
We฀assume฀that฀variation฀falling฀outside฀
the฀ calculated฀ control฀ limits฀ is฀ not฀ due฀
to฀random฀causes฀but฀to฀assignable฀ones.฀
Although฀control฀charts฀can฀be฀effective฀
tools฀ for฀ evaluating฀ performance฀ and฀
improvement฀in฀a฀Six฀Sigma฀project,฀the฀
team฀must฀carefully฀evaluate฀the฀different฀ charts฀ available฀ to฀ ensure฀ the฀ type฀
selected฀ can฀ provide฀ the฀ most฀ useful฀
information฀for฀the฀project.฀Its฀decision฀
should฀ take฀ into฀ account฀ factors฀ such฀
as฀sample฀size,฀data฀characteristics,฀and฀

whether฀the฀data฀is฀an฀attribute฀or฀variable฀(Weinstein฀&฀Vokurka,฀2006).
Each฀ team฀ uses฀ its฀ data฀ to฀ create฀ an฀
appropriate฀ control฀ chart฀ to฀ determine฀
the฀state฀of฀the฀process.฀This฀is฀a฀critical฀
step฀ in฀ the฀ process฀ because฀ the฀ results฀
from฀using฀the฀control฀chart฀will฀determine฀ the฀ focus฀ of฀ the฀ team’s฀ efforts฀
for฀the฀remainder฀of฀the฀project.฀If฀the฀
student฀team฀discovers฀that฀the฀process฀
is฀ unstable฀ and฀ exhibits฀ special฀ cause฀
variation,฀ it฀ will฀ focus฀ on฀ identifying฀
sources฀of฀special฀or฀assignable฀causes฀
of฀variation฀and฀developing฀recommendations฀for฀their฀elimination.฀This฀may฀
involve฀ more฀ detailed฀ flowcharting฀ of฀
the฀ process฀ and฀ even฀ new฀ data฀ collection.฀If฀the฀process฀is฀stable—that฀is,฀the฀
analysis฀ determines฀ that฀ only฀ common฀
cause฀ variation฀ is฀ present—the฀ student฀
team’s฀ next฀ step฀ will฀ be฀ to฀ perform฀ a฀
capability฀analysis฀to฀determine฀whether฀ the฀ process฀ is฀ capable฀ of฀ meeting฀
customer฀ requirements.฀ If฀ the฀ process฀
is฀ not฀ capable,฀ the฀ student฀ team฀ will฀
focus฀ on฀ developing฀ recommendations฀
to฀make฀it฀capable฀either฀through฀reducing฀ variation฀ in฀ the฀ process,฀ through฀
shifting฀ the฀ process฀ output฀ so฀ that฀ it฀
is฀ more฀ closely฀ centered฀ on฀ the฀ customer฀ specification฀ target,฀ or฀ both.฀ If฀
the฀ capability฀ analysis฀ determines฀ that฀
the฀process฀is฀capable,฀the฀student฀team฀
will฀focus฀on฀developing฀recommendations฀to฀improve฀the฀process฀by฀further฀
reducing฀variation฀or฀by฀improving฀productivity฀or฀profitability.
In฀ some฀ cases,฀ special฀ cause฀ variation฀ may฀ result฀ in฀ a฀ desired฀ improvement฀in฀the฀process.฀If฀the฀special฀cause฀
improves฀ the฀ system฀ performance,฀ the฀
team฀ should฀ identify฀ its฀ source฀ and฀
recommend฀ to฀ incorporate฀ it฀ into฀ the฀
operating฀procedures฀for฀the฀process.฀If฀
it฀ hinders฀ the฀ system฀ performance,฀ the฀
team฀ should฀ prevent฀ it฀ from฀ recurring฀
(Total฀Quality฀Tools,฀1996).
Capability฀Analysis
A฀ stable฀ system฀ that฀ exhibits฀ only฀
common฀ cause฀ variation฀ may฀ display฀
too฀ much฀ variation฀ to฀ consistently฀
meet฀ the฀ customer’s฀ requirements.฀ In฀
this฀ case,฀ it฀ is฀ necessary฀ to฀ assess฀ the฀
capability฀ of฀ the฀ system’s฀ performance฀
through฀capability฀analysis.฀Two฀indexes฀ practitioners฀ commonly฀ use฀ to฀ mea-

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sure฀process฀capability฀are฀Cp฀and฀Cpk.฀
In฀a฀capable฀process,฀both฀Cp฀and฀Cpk฀
values฀ are฀ greater฀ than฀ 1.0.฀ Industry฀
standards฀ often฀ require฀ companies฀ to฀
set฀ targets฀ for฀ Cp฀ and฀ Cpk฀ ratios฀ at฀
values฀ of฀ 1.33฀ or฀ greater.฀These฀ values฀
provide฀a฀small฀cushion฀for฀unexpected฀
variation฀ in฀ the฀ process.฀ If฀ the฀ capability฀ analysis฀ shows฀ that฀ the฀ process฀
is฀ not฀ capable,฀ the฀ student฀ team’s฀ recommendations฀ will฀ focus฀ on฀ strategies฀
for฀ reducing฀ variation฀ in฀ the฀ process,฀
adjusting฀ the฀ process฀ average฀ in฀ relation฀to฀the฀specification฀target,฀or฀both.฀
To฀ reduce฀ the฀ common฀ cause฀ variation฀
present,฀ practitioners฀ need฀ to฀ identify฀
the฀ possible฀ common฀ causes฀ of฀ variability.฀ If฀ the฀ capability฀ analysis฀ demonstrates฀that฀the฀process฀is฀capable,฀the฀
team’s฀ recommendations฀ should฀ focus฀
on฀ improving฀ the฀ process฀ through,฀ for฀
example,฀reductions฀in฀costs฀and฀variation฀or฀improvements฀in฀productivity.
Implementation฀Plan
The฀ course฀ emphasizes฀ the฀ importance฀ of฀ developing฀ a฀ thorough฀ implementation฀ plan฀ for฀ each฀ recommendation.฀ The฀ student฀ team’s฀ first฀ step฀ in฀
this฀development฀is฀to฀generate฀a฀force฀
field฀ analysis฀ for฀ each฀ recommendation.฀ Developed฀ by฀ Lewin฀ (1943),฀ this฀
tool฀views฀systems฀change฀as฀a฀struggle฀
between฀driving฀forces฀that฀help฀change฀
to฀occur฀and฀restraining฀forces฀that฀block฀
change.฀The฀student฀team฀identifies฀the฀
driving฀ and฀ restraining฀ forces฀ that฀ surround฀ each฀ proposed฀ change฀ by฀ brainstorming฀ with฀ the฀ client฀ to฀ rank฀ these฀
forces฀ and฀ plan฀ a฀ sequence฀ of฀ actions฀
that฀will฀reinforce฀the฀driving฀forces฀and฀
eliminate฀the฀restraining฀forces฀(Besterfield,฀ Besterfield-Michna,฀ Besterfield,฀
&฀ Besterfield-Sacre,฀ 1999;฀ Total฀ Quality฀ Tools,฀ 1996).฀ The฀ teams฀ also฀ must฀
develop฀a฀cost–benefit฀analysis฀for฀each฀
recommendation.฀ This฀ step฀ provides฀ a฀
reality฀ check฀ to฀ ensure฀ that฀ the฀ final฀
proposal฀to฀the฀client฀will฀include฀only฀
cost-effective฀recommendations.
During฀ the฀ last฀ week฀ of฀ the฀ term,฀
each฀team฀presents฀its฀findings฀in฀class.฀
This฀ enables฀ all฀ of฀ the฀ students฀ in฀ the฀
class฀to฀see฀a฀variety฀of฀applications฀for฀
the฀ techniques฀ they฀ learned฀ during฀ the฀
term.฀ Each฀ team฀ submits฀ a฀ final฀ report฀
to฀the฀instructor฀and฀the฀client.
฀

Client฀Feedback
As฀ a฀ final฀ check฀ of฀ each฀ project’s฀
value,฀ the฀ instructor฀ sends฀ a฀ feedback฀
form฀ to฀ all฀ clients฀ at฀ the฀ conclusion฀ of฀
the฀ term.฀ The฀ organizational฀ representative฀ is฀ asked฀ to฀ evaluate฀ the฀ teams’฀
efforts฀using฀a฀5-point฀Likert฀scale฀that฀
records฀the฀representative’s฀reactions฀to฀
the฀following฀statements:
1.฀The฀project฀improved฀our฀understanding฀of฀our฀process.
2.฀The฀ project฀ provided฀ us฀ with฀ information฀or฀recommendations฀that฀will฀
result฀in฀significant฀cost฀savings.
3.฀The฀ project฀ provided฀ us฀ with฀ information฀or฀recommendations฀that฀will฀
significantly฀improve฀productivity.
4.฀The฀ project฀ provided฀ us฀ with฀ information฀or฀recommendations฀that฀will฀
significantly฀improve฀quality.
5.฀Overall,฀ we฀ were฀ very฀ satisfied฀ with฀
project฀outcomes.
6.฀Students฀ participating฀ in฀ this฀ project฀
were฀conscientious฀and฀professional.
The฀feedback฀form฀asks฀clients฀to฀estimate฀ the฀ savings฀ realized฀ based฀ on฀ the฀
team’s฀recommendations฀and฀to฀consider฀
if฀ the฀ company฀ would฀ be฀ interested฀ in฀
hosting฀ another฀ team฀ at฀ their฀ facility.฀ In฀
the฀ experience฀ of฀ one฀ of฀ us฀ whose฀ students฀have฀completed฀more฀than฀100฀projects,฀most฀companies฀that฀were฀surveyed฀
have฀ expressed฀ positive฀ feedback฀ about฀
the฀ students’฀ efforts฀ and฀ welcomed฀ the฀
opportunity฀to฀work฀with฀them฀again.
Lessons฀Learned
The฀program฀that฀we฀describe฀in฀this฀
article฀ not฀ only฀ supports฀ the฀ university฀ mission฀ as฀ a฀ metropolitan฀ campus฀
but฀ also฀ reinforces฀ students’฀ learning฀
in฀ the฀ classroom.฀ However,฀ since฀ we฀
initiated฀these฀projects,฀we฀have฀identified฀ several฀ problems฀ that฀ faculty฀ who฀
teach฀ similar฀ courses฀ should฀ consider.฀
First฀ and฀ perhaps฀ foremost,฀ completing฀ these฀ projects฀ in฀ the฀ allotted฀ time฀
for฀ a฀ semester฀ or฀ quarter฀ is฀ extremely฀
difficult฀ and฀ requires฀ the฀ instructor฀ to฀
carefully฀ plan฀ the฀ course฀ syllabus.฀ The฀
instructor฀ should฀ set฀ interim฀ deadlines฀
to฀ prevent฀ any฀ team฀ from฀ procrastinating฀in฀developing฀its฀project.฀If฀any฀team฀
cannot฀complete฀its฀project฀in฀the฀allotted฀ time฀ for฀ the฀ term,฀ team฀ members฀
have฀the฀option฀of฀taking฀an฀incomplete฀

for฀ the฀ term.฀ Second,฀ although฀ most฀
MBA฀students฀enrolled฀in฀the฀class฀are฀
employed฀ full฀ time,฀ often฀ it฀ is฀ difficult฀
for฀them฀to฀identify฀projects฀at฀an฀early฀
stage฀of฀the฀term.฀Therefore,฀the฀instructor฀will฀find฀it฀helpful฀to฀have฀a฀number฀
of฀projects฀to฀offer฀to฀the฀teams.฀Last,฀it฀
is฀useful฀to฀provide฀some฀class฀time฀for฀
students฀to฀meet฀with฀their฀teams.฀This฀
gives฀ the฀ instructor฀ an฀ opportunity฀ to฀
observe฀ team฀ behaviors฀ and฀ contribute฀
to฀the฀students’฀positive฀attitudes฀(Hansen,฀2006).฀The฀use฀of฀peer฀evaluations฀
at฀ the฀ end฀ of฀ the฀ quarter฀ also฀ helps฀ to฀
ensure฀student฀accountability฀and฀gives฀
students฀a฀greater฀feeling฀of฀control฀over฀
the฀results฀of฀their฀efforts—in฀particular฀
when฀these฀evaluations฀contribute฀to฀the฀
course฀grade฀(Hansen).
Summary฀and฀Conclusions
Faculty฀ in฀ higher฀ education฀ must฀ be฀
able฀ to฀ bridge฀ the฀ gap฀ between฀ theory฀ and฀ practice฀ to฀ ensure฀ that฀ future฀
managers฀ understand฀ the฀ importance฀
of฀ how฀ quality฀ tools฀ can฀ be฀ used฀ for฀
organizational฀ improvement.฀ These฀
projects,฀ focusing฀ on฀ the฀ solution฀ of฀
real-world฀ problems,฀ have฀ provided฀ an฀
excellent฀ tool฀ for฀ enhancing฀ learning฀
and฀ for฀ meeting฀ this฀ challenge.฀ These฀
projects฀also฀have฀provided฀a฀means฀for฀
engaging฀ local฀ quality฀ practitioners฀ in฀
the฀university’s฀activities.฀Such฀involvement฀strengthens฀the฀bonds฀between฀the฀
university฀ and฀ the฀ business฀ community฀
while฀ adding฀ significant฀ value฀ to฀ the฀
educational฀ experience฀ of฀ the฀ authors’฀
MBA฀ students.฀ And฀ perhaps—this฀ is฀
just฀ as฀ important—the฀ students’฀ efforts฀
have฀ provided฀ tangible฀ benefits฀ to฀ the฀
numerous฀ organizations฀ that฀ have฀ chosen฀to฀participate฀in฀the฀process.
NOTES
Dr.฀Larry฀B.฀Weinstein’s฀research฀interests฀are฀
organizational฀assessment,฀interfirm฀collaboration฀
and฀learning,฀total฀quality฀management,฀and฀business฀applications฀in฀nonprofit฀organizations.
Dr.฀Joseph฀Castellano’s฀research฀interests฀are฀
application฀ of฀ lean฀ thinking฀ and฀ the฀ Toyota฀ Production฀System,฀operational฀systems฀for฀manufacturing,฀service,฀and฀nonprofit฀organizations.
Dr.฀ Joseph฀ Petrick’s฀ research฀ interests฀ are฀
management฀ and฀ organizational฀ ethics,฀ international฀ management,฀ strategic฀ leadership,฀ environmental฀management,฀sustainable฀development,฀
quality฀and฀project฀management,฀human฀resource฀
management,฀organization฀development,฀and฀business฀and฀public฀policy.

March/April฀2008฀

237

Dr.฀ Robert฀ J.฀ Vokurka’s฀ research฀ interests฀
are฀ manufacturing฀ strategy,฀ total฀ quality฀ management,฀ purchasing,฀ cycle฀ time฀ management,฀
performance฀ measurements,฀ and฀ supply฀ chain฀
management.
Correspondence฀ concerning฀ this฀ article฀ should฀
be฀ addressed฀ to฀ Dr.฀ Larry฀ B.฀ Weinstein,฀ Wright฀
State฀University,฀Information฀Systems฀and฀Operations฀Management,฀Raj฀Soin฀College฀of฀Business,฀
Col.฀Glenn฀Hwy.,฀Dayton,฀OH฀45435.
E-mail:฀larry.weinstein@wright.edu

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:10 11 January 2016

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