Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol10.Issue1.1999:
An analysis of the remediation of oil contaminated
refinery sites
J.J.W. M ol
Witte ve e n+Bo s, Co nsulting Engine e rs, Van Twic ke lo straat 2 , De ve nte r,
The Ne the rlands
Keywords
Co ntaminatio n, Enviro nme nt,
Oil industry
Abstract
Pe tro c he mic al and re fining o pe ratio ns c an c ause se ve re e nviro nme ntal damage due to e mmisio ns
to so il, air and gro und- and surfac e wate r. The ge ne ral frame wo rk fo r re me dial ac tio ns is
primarily de te rmine d by the le gal
frame wo rk and the ac tual risks
asso c iate d with le ve ls o f c o ntaminants pre se nt at a site . Within the
basic frame wo rk o f le gal pro c e dure s, site spe c ific c o nstraints
and e c o no mic mo tive s, the be st
available te c hnique s (BAT) fo r
re me dial ac tio n will have to be
e valuate d. In mo st c ase s this is
part o f an o ve rall e nviro nme ntal
impro ve me nt and inve stme nt
pro gram fo r a fac ility. This pape r
de sc ribe s the ge ne ral bac kgro und
o f so il re me diatio n at re fine rie s
and pro vide s an o ve rvie w o f
applic able re me dial te c hno lo gie s.
Introduction
Str in gen t en vir on m en ta l a n d sa fety r e gu la tion s a r e a pplied to a ll oil a n d ga s r ela ted
a ctivities w ith in E u r ope (E u r opea n Com m ission , 1996). Th ese in clu de r e gu la tion s con cer n in g con ta m in a ted la n d, oil spills a n d
disch a r ges of cu ttin gs a n d oil m u d.
Sin ce th e m a r gin s on r efi n in g a n d distr ibu tion a ctivities h ave been wea k in r ecen t
yea r s, m ost oil com pa n ies exa m in e th eir
r efin in g a n d distr ibu tion a ctivities ver y
closely. As a r esu lt, a n u m ber of r efi n er ies
w ith in E u r ope a r e bein g closed, wh ile oth er s
a r e bein g m oder n ised or br ou gh t ba ck in to
oper a tion . Th ese a ctivities on r efi n er y sites
togeth er w ith th e m or e str in gen t con ta m in a ted la n d le gisla tion r esu lts in a n in cr ea sin g dem a n d for cost-effective con su lta n cy a n d
r em edia l ser vices. Th is pa per sh ow s th e gen er a l envir on m en ta l a n d econ om ica l ba ck gr ou n d for r em edia l a ction s a t r efi n er y sites
a n d su ggests th e a pplica tion of sta te of th e a r t
cost-effective r em edia l tech n ologies.
Industry background
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [ 1999] 3 7 –4 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
Th e oil r efin in g in du str y m a n u fa ctu r es
r efin ed petr oleu m pr odu cts (e.g. n a ph th a ,
ga solin e, avia tion fu els, ga soil, lu br ica n ts)
fr om cr u de oils or sem i-fin ish ed petr oleu m
feedstock s. Tr en ds in pr odu ction fr om E u r opea n r efin er ies in gen er a l follow th e pa tter n
of m a r k et dem a n d (see Ta ble I). Sin ce th e
ea r ly 1980s th e r efi n in g in du str y a da pted
itself ver y well to th e n eeds of th e m a r k et,
both by br in gin g pr odu ction ca pa city in to
lin e w ith dem a n d a n d a lso by in vestin g in
n ew pr odu ction pr ocesses to en su r e a br oa d
m ix of pr odu cts wh ich su it th e m a r k et.
E n vir on m en ta l pr essu r es on r efi n in g a n d
distr ibu tion a ctivities in cr ea sed a s th e E U
com m itted itself to sta bilisin g CO 2 ou tpu t a t
th e 1990 levels (E u r opea n Com m ission , 1991;
1997b; 1998). Also th e tr en d tow a r ds a r edu ction of em ission s of toxic su bsta n ces, su ch a s
SO 2, N O x , CH 4, pa r ticu la tes a n d VOCs
(vola tile or ga n ic com pou n ds) h a s a sign ifica n t econ om ic im pa ct on th e r efi n in g in du str y (E u r opea n Com m ission , 1997a ; IP P C
Dir ective, 1996). In or der to a ddr ess
en vir on m en ta l a spects of th e oil r efin in g
pr ocess pr oper ly, en vir on m en ta l m a n a gem en t
pr ocedu r es (e.g. on w a ste w a ter ) a r e im plem en ted. Best ava ila ble tech n iqu es (BAT) h ave
been for m u la ted for oil r efin in g pr ocesses.
E n vir on m en ta l a u th or isa tion s of in dividu a l
r efi n er ies in clu de a ir em ission n or m s a n d
oth er r equ ir em en ts ba sed on BAT.
E n vir on m en ta l com plia n ce does r equ ir e
h eavy investm en ts by r efin er ies. Th e com bin a tion of h igh in vestm en ts in en vir on m en ta l
com plia n ce, n ew pr odu cts a n d tech n ology
a n d wea k m a r gin s on r efin er y pr odu cts,
r esu lt in a close exa m in a tion of cu r r en t
a ctivities a n d fu tu r e oppor tu n ities by th e oil
com pa n ies. Depen din g on com pa n y str a te gy,
th is r esu lts in closu r e, expa n sion or diver sifica tion of r efin er ies. E xa m ples a r e th e m er gin g of r efi n in g a n d r eta ilin g a ctivities of BP
a n d Mobil, th e closu r e of th e BP r efin er y in
Laver a (F r a n ce) a n d th e Gu lf a n d E xxon
r efi n er ies in Wa les.
Legal framework
N a tion a l soil qu a lity le gisla tion h a s developed in m ost E u r opea n cou n tr ies (see Appen dix). In ca se of con ta m in a ted la n d in m ost
ca ses a r isk -ba sed a ppr oa ch is ch osen . Risk ba sed soil qu a lity sta n da r ds ten d to becom e
in te gr a ted in n a tion a l or r e gion a l pla n n in g
a n d bu ildin g r e gu la tion s.
Th e a ctu a l r isk s a ssocia ted w ith con ta m in a ted la n d m ay, u n der cir cu m sta n ces, be
pr a ctica lly n e gligible. In th ese ca ses n o fu llsca le r em edia tion w ill be n ecessa r y a n d th e
la n d still m ay be u sed for cer ta in pu r poses
(e.g. h eavy in du str y). N a tion a l or r e gion a l
le gisla tion or gu idelin es give th e fr a m ewor k
for th e a ctu a l u se of soils a n d su bsu r fa ce.
Rem edia l a ction s a r e a w ay of r estor in g th e
in ten ded u se of la n d. For r efin er y sites E U
r e gu la tion s a n d per m its m ay give a ddition a l
sta n da r ds or gu idelin es.
Remedial approach
Petr och em ica l a n d r efin in g oper a tion s ca n
ca u se sever e envir on m en ta l da m a ge du e to
em ission s to soil, a ir a n d gr ou n d- a n d su r fa ce
w a ter. Most em ission s ta ke pla ce du r in g
[ 37 ]
J.J.W. Mo l
An analysis o f the re me diatio n
o f o il c o ntaminate d re fine ry
site s
Table I
Re fining and distributio n o f o il pro duc ts (fro m
EC, 1 9 9 7 )
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 7 –4 0
M illion tonnes/ year
1992
1993
1994
Belgium
France
Germany
The Netherlands
UK
Total EU (95 refineries)
34
91
111
63
90
610
34
91
112
60
90
604
35
90
113
60
91
595
n or m a l oper a tion s a s a r esu lt of a ir em ission s,
sm a ll sca le spills, ou tda ted tech n ology (su r plu s of w a ste pr odu ction a n d em ission s). Soil
of gr ou n dw a ter a t r efin er ies is often con ta m in a ted by oil pr odu cts (lu br ica n ts, h eavy a n d
ligh t fu els), VOCs (m a in ly vola tile a r om a tics),
PAH (polycyclic a r om a tic h ydr oca r bon s) a n d
m eta ls (a / o. lea d). Most r isk s a r e a ssocia ted
w ith m obile com pou n ds, su ch a s VOCs a n d
ligh t fu els, sin ce th ese com pou n ds m igh t
m igr a te off site or lea ch ou t in to gr ou n dw a ter
or su r fa ce w a ter system s. Also off-site
disposa l of w a ste m a ter ia ls (e.g. slu dge) in
pu blic la n dfills a r e con sider ed a r isk .
However th e r em edia l a ppr oa ch of off-site
la n dfills is con sider ed a n issu e sepa r a te fr om
th e tr ea tm en t of r efin er y sites.
Th e r em edia l a ppr oa ch on a r efin in g fa cility
is site specific a n d depen ds on fa ctor s su ch a s:
• n a tion a l a n d r e gion a l le gisla tion ;
• ba ck gr ou n d of r em edia tion (fu ll-sca le
r estor a tion of site com pa r ed to loca l spills
a t oper a tion a l fa cilities);
• levels of a n d r isk s a ssocia ted w ith con ta m in a n ts;
• h ydr ogeologica l settin gs;
• econ om ic fa ctor s.
Th e gen er a l fr a m ewor k for r em edia l a ction s
is pr im a r ily deter m in ed by th e le ga l fr a m ewor k a n d th e a ctu a l r isk s a ssocia ted w ith
levels of con ta m in a n ts pr esen t a t a site. Wh en
a m a jor con ta m in a tion is detected, gr ou n dw a ter a n d su r fa ce w a ter s a r e a t r isk a n d a fu ll
r estor a tion of a site is obliga tor y, a costly
r em edia tion m ay be th e r esu lt. On th e oth er
h a n d, a t n ew r efi n er y sites w ith on ly m in or
spillin g a n d clayey su bsoil, n o a ctu a l clea n u p
m ay be n ecessa r y.
Sin ce m ost r efi n er ies a r e loca ted in in du str ia l a r ea s or w ill con tin u e to be in oper a tion ,
con ta m in a ted la n d a t m ost r efi n er y sites w ill
be eva lu a ted on th e ba sis of a r isk a ssessm en t. Th is a lso m ea n s th a t r em edia l str a tegies ten d to be focu sed on a r isk r edu ction ,
r a th er th a n a “r em ova l of con ta m in a n ts”.
Su ch a r isk r edu ction m ay be qu a n tified on
th e ba sis of exposu r e or m igr a tion ca lcu la tion s du r in g th e r isk a ssessm en t. Most
[ 38 ]
im m obile com pou n ds (e.g. h eavy m eta ls,
PAH) ju st w ill be con ta in ed in or der to lim it
exposu r e, wh ile m obile com pou n ds (e.g.
VOCs) w ill be r em oved or a ctively con tr olled.
Rem edia tion of con ta m in ated la n d is a n
econ om ic fa ctor a n d even th e tem por a r y sh u tdow n of r efin er y oper a tion s in m ost ca ses is
n ot a ccepta ble. Lon g-ter m r em edia l a ctivities
pr efer a bly w ill h ave to be in tegr a ted in th e
n or m a l oper a tion a l pr ocesses.
Remedial technologies
In th e pa st excava tion a n d disposa l of con ta m in a ted soils a n d pu m p-a n d-tr ea t m eth ods for
gr ou n dw a ter wer e a ccepta ble (AGWSE , 1994),
th ou gh in ca se of la r ge-sca le fa cilities su ch a s
r efi n er ies th ese wer e ver y costly.
Cu r r en t sta te of th e a r t r em edia l tech n ologies a r e pr im a r ily dir ected tow a r ds a r isk
r edu ction r a th er th a n a fu ll-sca le clea n u p
pr ocess. In situ tech n ologies su ch a s “n a tu r a l
a tten u a tion ” (E ssa id et a l., 1995) fit ver y well
in to th is r isk -ba sed appr oa ch . However, befor e
im plem en tin g su ch in situ m eth ods on e h a s to
h ave a th or ou gh k n ow ledge of th e h ydr ogeology, biogeoch em istr y a n d con ta m in a n t beh aviou r in th e su bsu r fa ce. Of cor se, in cer ta in
ca ses (e.g. r em ova l of h ot spots or sou r ce
zon es) excava tion of con ta m in ated soil w ill be
th e best option . Th ou gh by a ssessin g th e possibilities for a n in situ a ppr oa ch in a n ea r ly
sta ge of th e pr oject, th e costs for r em edia tion
ca n be r edu ced sign ifica n tly (US E PA, 1994).
Th e m a in a dva n ta ges of in situ tech n ologies
a r e:
• m in im isa tion of im pa ct on on goin g oper a tion s;
• optim u m u se of in tr in sic (n a tu r a l) de gr a da tion of com pou n ds;
• r edu ction of r em edia l costs.
In situ tech n ology ca n be divided in to th r ee
m a in gr ou ps:
• extr a ctive tech n iqu es (pu m p-a n d-tr ea t; in
fa ct on -site tech n iqu es), su ch a s fl u sh in g,
ch em ica l extr a ction , soil va pou r extr a ction ,
in -well a ir str ippin g;
• en er getic tech n iqu es (in cr ea se of m obilisa tion ), su ch a s electr o r ecla m a tion , r a diofr equ en cy h ea tin g, fr a ctu r in g;
• biologica l/ geoch em ica l tech n iqu es (in situ
de gr a da tion ), su ch a s bior estor a tion ,
bioven tin g, ph ytor em edia tion , solidifica tion a n d n a tu r a l a tten u a tion .
On th e ba sis of th e r isk a ssessm en t a fea sibility stu dy focu sin g on th e r em edia l objectives
a n d str a te gy is ca r r ied ou t. With in th e ba sic
fr a m ewor k of le ga l pr ocedu r es, site-specific
con str a in ts a n d econ om ic m otives, th e best
ava ila ble tech n iqu es (BAT) for r em edia l
J.J.W. Mo l
An analysis o f the re me diatio n
o f o il c o ntaminate d re fine ry
site s
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 7 –4 0
a ction a r e eva lu a ted. In m ost ca ses th is is
pa r t of a n over a ll en vir on m en ta l im pr ovem en t a n d in vestm en t pr ogr a m for a fa cility.
Th e gen er a l r em edia l sch em e for oper a tion a l r efin er y sites ca n be descr ibed a s:
• iden tifica tion a n d clea n u p of sou r ce a r ea s;
• pr even tion of off-site m igr a tion of con ta m in a n ts;
• clea n u p of oth er r eleva n t con ta m in a ted
a r ea s.
In situ tech n ologies a r e con sider ed to be th e
m ost va lu a ble in th e a ppr oa ch of n on -sou r ce
a r ea s (N yer et a l., 1996), su ch a s off-site
gr ou n dw a ter con ta m in a tion a n d diffu sive
con ta m in a ted a r ea s. In sou r ce a r ea s (e.g.
floa tin g LNAP L-layer s) in situ tech n iqu es ca n
decr ea se th e levels a n d m a ss of ch em ica ls
con sider a bly. However in th a t ca se a fu ll clea n
u p is r a th er difficu lt. Sin ce th e m a in con ta m in a n ts a t r efin er ies a r e of a n or ga n ic n a tu r e,
biologica l in situ tech n ologies a r e ver y
pr om isin g. By optim isa tion of existin g fi eld
con dition s, th e n a tu r a l de gr a da tion of
or ga n ic com pou n ds (biologica l a ppr oa ch ) is
en h a n ced, or a n en vir on m en t is cr ea ted in
wh ich fu r th er m igr a tion of con ta m in a n ts is
lim ited (geoch em ica l a ppr oa ch ).
Conclusions
Cu r r en tly, str in gen t envir on m en ta l a n d sa fety
r egu la tion s a r e a pplied to a ll oil a n d ga s
r ela ted a ctivities w ith in E u r ope. Th ese
in clu de r egu la tion s con cer n in g con ta m in ated
la n d, oil spills a n d disch a r ges of cu ttin gs a n d
oil m u d. Th e r em edia tion of con ta m in ated
la n d on r efin er y sites is th er efor e on ly a pa r t
of over a ll envir on m en ta l investm en ts.
Petr och em ica l a n d r efi n in g oper a tion s ca n
ca u se sever e en vir on m en ta l da m a ge du e to
em ission s to soil, a ir a n d gr ou n d- a n d su r fa ce
w a ter. Th e gen er a l fr a m ewor k for r em edia l
a ction s is pr im a r ily deter m in ed by th e le ga l
fr a m ewor k a n d th e a ctu a l r isk s a ssocia ted
w ith levels of con ta m in a n ts pr esen t a t a site.
On th e ba sis of th e r isk a ssessm en t a fea sibility stu dy focu sed on th e r em edia l objectives
a n d str a te gy is ca r r ied ou t. With in th e ba sic
fr a m ewor k of le ga l pr ocedu r es, site-specifi c
con str a in ts a n d econ om ic m otives, th e best
ava ila ble tech n iqu es (BAT) for r em edia l
a ction a r e eva lu a ted. In m ost ca ses th is is
pa r t of a n over a ll en vir on m en ta l im pr ovem en t a n d in vestm en t pr ogr a m for a fa cility.
In th e pa st excava tion a n d disposa l of con ta m in a ted soils a n d pu m p-a n d-tr ea t m eth ods for
gr ou n dw a ter wer e a ccepta ble, th ou gh in ca se
of la r ge-sca le fa cilities su ch a s r efi n er ies ver y
costly. Cu r r en t sta te of th e a r t in situ tech n ologies a r e pr im a r ily dir ected tow a r ds a
r isk r edu ction r a th er th a n a fu ll-sca le clea n u p pr ocess.
References
AGWSE (1994), “Gr ou n d w a ter r em edia tion : existin g tech n ology a n d fu tu r e dir ection ”, Grou n d
Wa ter, Vol. 32 N o. 5, pp. 837-60.
E ssa id, H.I., Bek in s, B.A., Godsy, E .M., Wa r r en , E .,
Ba edeck er, M.J. a n d Cozza r elli, I.M. (1995),
“Sim u la tion of a er obic a n d a n a er obic
biodegr a da tion pr ocesses a t a cr u de oil spill
site”, Wa ter R es. R es., Vol. 31 No. 12, pp. 3309-27.
E u r opea n Com m ission (1991), “Com m u n ity str a te gy to lim it ca r bon dioxide em ission s a n d to
im pr ove en er gy efficien cy”, S EC(91) 1744
fi n a l, E u r opea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
E u r opea n Com m ission (1996), “Repor t on th e
situ a tion of oil su pply, r efi n in g a n d m a r k ets in
th e E u r opea n Com m u n ity”, COM (96)143,
E u r opea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
E u r opea n Com m ission (1997a ), “P a n or a m a of E U
In du str y 97”, E u r osta t, Br u ssels.
E u r opea n Com m ission (1997b), “Clim a te ch a n ge –
th e E U a ppr oa ch to Kyoto”, COM (97) 482,
E u r opea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
E u r opea n Com m ission (1998), “Secon d Com m u n ica tion fr om th e E u r opea n Com m u n ity u n der
th e UN fr a m ewor k con ven tion on clim a te
ch a n ge”, E u r opea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
IP P C Dir ective (1996), “E C Dir ective on In te gr a ted
Pollu tion P r even tion a n d Con tr ol”, Cou n cil
Directiv e, N o. 96/ 61, OJ E C L 257/ 26, E u r opea n
Un ion , Br u ssels.
Nyer, E .K., Kidd, D.F., Pa lm er, P.L., Fa m , S., J oh n s,
F.J., Boettch er, G. a n d Su th er sa n , S.S. (1996), In
situ T rea tm en t T ech n ology, Lew is P u blish er s,
Boca Ra ton , F L.
US E PA (1994), “In n ova tive Tr ea tm en t Tech n ologies: An n u a l Sta tu s Repor t, 6th E d.”, Tech n ology In n ova tion Office, E PA-542-R-94-005.
Appendix: National soil quality legislation
A su m m a r y of cu r r en t n a tion a l soil qu a lity
le gisla tion of a n u m ber of E U cou n tr ies is
given below.
Belgium (Flanders)
In F la n der s, th e le gisla tion gover n in g lia bility in r espect of soil r em edia tion h a s been
esta blish ed on 22 Febr u a r y, 1995 w ith th e
pu blica tion of th e Decree rela tin g to S oil
R em ed ia tion . Th e cen tr a l a u th or ity con cer n in g th is le gisla tion is th e P u blic Wa ste
Agen cy of F la n der s (OVAM). Th ey dea l w ith
a ll soil su r veys a n d con ta m in a ted sites.
OVAM m u st dr aw u p a r e gister of con ta m in a ted la n d a n d pr ovides soil cer tifica tes u pon
r equ est.
F lem ish la n dow n er s a r e obliged to ca r r y
ou t a n explor a tor y soil su r vey wh en th e la n d
is tr a n sfer r ed a n d in th e pa st th er e w a s a soilth r ea ten in g a ctivity or a n esta blish m en t is
closed, or oper a tion s a r e su spen ded a n d on
[ 39 ]
J.J.W. Mo l
An analysis o f the re me diatio n
o f o il c o ntaminate d re fine ry
site s
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 7 –4 0
th e ba sis of a per iodicity for specific ca tegor ies of esta blish m en ts or oper a tion s.
Lik e th e Du tch , th e F lem ish a u th or ities
a pply th e “pollu ter -pays-pr in ciple” for soil
a n d gr ou n dw a ter con ta m in a tion . In ca se of
h istor ica l con ta m in a tion (or igin a ted befor e
th e Decr ee) OVAM a pplies a r isk -ba sed
a ppr oa ch : th ese k in ds of con ta m in a tion w ill
on ly h ave to be h a n dled in ca se of cer ta in or
pr oba ble th r ea ts for h u m a n s, pla n ts a n d a n im a ls. N ew soil con ta m in a tion (or igin a ted
a fter th e Decr ee) w ill h ave to be clea n ed u p
im m edia tely wh en r em edia l va lu es a r e
exceeded. All con ta m in a ted gr ou n ds w ill be
r e gister ed in th e Re gister of Con ta m in a ted
La n ds.
France
As in oth er E u r opea n cou n tr ies, in F r a n ce
com pr eh en sive policy in th e fi eld of soil con ta m in a tion a n d clea n u p is r ela tively you n g. A
fir st in ven tor y of con ta m in a ted sites h a s been
esta blish ed in 1994, a n d h a s iden tified 669
sites a s con ta m in a ted. Site clea n u p h a s ta k en
pla ce sin ce th e ea r ly 1990s, on a n a d h oc ba sis.
In 1996, a n ew m in ister ia l cir cu la r w a s pu blish ed w ith r ega r d to con ta m in a ted soil. Th e
cir cu la r a im s to com plete th e 1994 in ven tor y
a n d to in tr odu ce a com pr eh en sive policy in
th is field. Th e n ew estim a tion for th e n u m ber
of possibly con ta m in a ted sites in F r a n ce w a s
th is tim e in th e or der of 300,000. A com pr eh en sive m eth odologica l gu ide h a s been ela bor a ted
to pr ovide gu ida n ce in th e soil in vestiga tion
a n d site a ssessm en t pr ocedu r e.
In pr in ciple, F r a n ce a pplies th e pollu ter pays-pr in ciple for soil r em edia tion . Mu ch
r em a in s yet still u n clea r. Th e a u th or ities
cla im th a t th e in ven tor ied sites m u st be
investiga ted on th e costs of th e com pa n y. Th e
clea n -u p costs a r e a lso r epor ted to be
in cu r r ed fu lly by th e com pa n ies.
Germany
On a sta te level (B u n d eslä n d er ) soil qu a lity
le gisla tion da tes fr om th e ea r ly 1990s. In 1998
th e Feder a l Soil P r otection Act w a s for m a lly
issu ed. Th is a ct issu ed n a tion a l u n ifor m
sta n da r ds for th e soil pr otection a n d th e clea n
u p of con ta m in a ted sites.
In gen er a l, con ta m in a ted la n d th a t con stitu tes a h a za r d to h u m a n s a n d th e en vir on m en t is to be clea n ed u p. Th e r espon sibility
for th e clea n u p lies pr im a r ily w ith th e pollu ter (or le ga l su ccessor s) a n d cu r r en t or
pr eviou s ow n er s of th e la n d.
Th e ta sk s of iden tifica tion of con ta m in a ted
la n d a n d th e execu tion of le ga l pr ocedu r es
[ 40 ]
a r e th e r espon sibilities of th e B u n d eslä n d er .
Th e le gisla tion is pr im a r ily con cer n ed w ith
solid soil; in ca se of con ta m in a ted w a ter bodies, a lso w a ter le gisla tion m ay be r eleva n t.
The Netherlands
E n vir on m en ta l le gisla tion in th e field of soil
a n d gr ou n dw a ter in Th e N eth er la n ds da tes
fr om th e ea r ly 1980s. Soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
qu a lity sta n da r ds h ave been issu ed by th e
Du tch gover n m en t in th e “Soil P r otection
Act”, pr om u lga ted on 10 May 1994.
In Th e N eth er la n ds th e pr ovin cia l a u th or ities (in clu din g th e fou r la r gest cities) dea l
w ith soil qu a lity m a tter s. Th ey dea l w ith
m ost of th e la r ger soil su r veys a n d con ta m in a ted sites. With in th e fr a m ewor k of th e
Bu ildin g a n d P la n n in g Acts a lso th e loca l
com m u n ities m ay be in volved in m in or soil
qu a lity a n d r em edia l issu es.
Th e Du tch a u th or ities a pply th e “pollu ter pays-pr in ciple” for soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
r em edia tion . However, r espon sibility/ lia bility
qu estion s r ela ted to soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
qu a lity issu es a r e r a th er difficu lt a n d ta k e a
lot of tim e. Th is for m a l a ppr oa ch r esu lted in a
sta gn a tion of th e Du tch soil r em edia tion
pr ogr a m . Cu r r en tly th e Du tch legisla tion is
bein g r e-eva lu a ted. Th e Du tch w ill tu r n to a
m or e r isk -ba sed a ppr oa ch . Rem edia l a ction s
w ill m ove to a m or e fu n ction a l m eth odology,
focu sed on th e (fu tu r e) u se of a con ta m in a ted
site. However, n ew soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
con ta m in a tion still h a s to be r em oved, wh ich
oper a tion in gen er a l is en for ced on th e ba sis of
th e envir on m en ta l per m its of fa cilities.
UK
Th e sta tu tor y r egim e gover n in g lia bility in
r espect of soil qu a lity h a s been esta blish ed in
1995 by th e E nvir on m en t Act. Th is Act r efer s
to th e or igin a l pollu ter to be r espon sible for
th e costs a n d th e ca r r yin g ou t of (possible)
r em edia l wor k s in ca se of sta tu tor y n u isa n ce.
Th e cu r r en t ow n er or occu pier w ill be lia ble if
th e or igin a l pollu ter ca n n ot be fou n d. Apa r t
fr om th e E nvir on m en t Act, a lso elem en ts of
th e Tow n a n d Cou n tr y P la n n in g Act, th e
E nvir on m en t P r otection Act, Wa ter Resou r ces
Act m ay be a pplica ble in th e ca se of con ta m in a ted la n d.
Dr a ft gu ida n ce n otes dea lin g w ith th e r isk s
involved w ith soil con ta m in a tion a r e issu ed
by th e Depa r tm en t of th e E n vir on m en t. At
th e pr esen t th e r e gion a l E n vir on m en t
Agen cies a r e u sin g ICRCL sta n da r ds or
wh er e a ppr opr ia te th e Du tch fr a m ewor k of
sta n da r ds for eva lu a tion of soil qu a lity.
refinery sites
J.J.W. M ol
Witte ve e n+Bo s, Co nsulting Engine e rs, Van Twic ke lo straat 2 , De ve nte r,
The Ne the rlands
Keywords
Co ntaminatio n, Enviro nme nt,
Oil industry
Abstract
Pe tro c he mic al and re fining o pe ratio ns c an c ause se ve re e nviro nme ntal damage due to e mmisio ns
to so il, air and gro und- and surfac e wate r. The ge ne ral frame wo rk fo r re me dial ac tio ns is
primarily de te rmine d by the le gal
frame wo rk and the ac tual risks
asso c iate d with le ve ls o f c o ntaminants pre se nt at a site . Within the
basic frame wo rk o f le gal pro c e dure s, site spe c ific c o nstraints
and e c o no mic mo tive s, the be st
available te c hnique s (BAT) fo r
re me dial ac tio n will have to be
e valuate d. In mo st c ase s this is
part o f an o ve rall e nviro nme ntal
impro ve me nt and inve stme nt
pro gram fo r a fac ility. This pape r
de sc ribe s the ge ne ral bac kgro und
o f so il re me diatio n at re fine rie s
and pro vide s an o ve rvie w o f
applic able re me dial te c hno lo gie s.
Introduction
Str in gen t en vir on m en ta l a n d sa fety r e gu la tion s a r e a pplied to a ll oil a n d ga s r ela ted
a ctivities w ith in E u r ope (E u r opea n Com m ission , 1996). Th ese in clu de r e gu la tion s con cer n in g con ta m in a ted la n d, oil spills a n d
disch a r ges of cu ttin gs a n d oil m u d.
Sin ce th e m a r gin s on r efi n in g a n d distr ibu tion a ctivities h ave been wea k in r ecen t
yea r s, m ost oil com pa n ies exa m in e th eir
r efin in g a n d distr ibu tion a ctivities ver y
closely. As a r esu lt, a n u m ber of r efi n er ies
w ith in E u r ope a r e bein g closed, wh ile oth er s
a r e bein g m oder n ised or br ou gh t ba ck in to
oper a tion . Th ese a ctivities on r efi n er y sites
togeth er w ith th e m or e str in gen t con ta m in a ted la n d le gisla tion r esu lts in a n in cr ea sin g dem a n d for cost-effective con su lta n cy a n d
r em edia l ser vices. Th is pa per sh ow s th e gen er a l envir on m en ta l a n d econ om ica l ba ck gr ou n d for r em edia l a ction s a t r efi n er y sites
a n d su ggests th e a pplica tion of sta te of th e a r t
cost-effective r em edia l tech n ologies.
Industry background
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [ 1999] 3 7 –4 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0956-6163]
Th e oil r efin in g in du str y m a n u fa ctu r es
r efin ed petr oleu m pr odu cts (e.g. n a ph th a ,
ga solin e, avia tion fu els, ga soil, lu br ica n ts)
fr om cr u de oils or sem i-fin ish ed petr oleu m
feedstock s. Tr en ds in pr odu ction fr om E u r opea n r efin er ies in gen er a l follow th e pa tter n
of m a r k et dem a n d (see Ta ble I). Sin ce th e
ea r ly 1980s th e r efi n in g in du str y a da pted
itself ver y well to th e n eeds of th e m a r k et,
both by br in gin g pr odu ction ca pa city in to
lin e w ith dem a n d a n d a lso by in vestin g in
n ew pr odu ction pr ocesses to en su r e a br oa d
m ix of pr odu cts wh ich su it th e m a r k et.
E n vir on m en ta l pr essu r es on r efi n in g a n d
distr ibu tion a ctivities in cr ea sed a s th e E U
com m itted itself to sta bilisin g CO 2 ou tpu t a t
th e 1990 levels (E u r opea n Com m ission , 1991;
1997b; 1998). Also th e tr en d tow a r ds a r edu ction of em ission s of toxic su bsta n ces, su ch a s
SO 2, N O x , CH 4, pa r ticu la tes a n d VOCs
(vola tile or ga n ic com pou n ds) h a s a sign ifica n t econ om ic im pa ct on th e r efi n in g in du str y (E u r opea n Com m ission , 1997a ; IP P C
Dir ective, 1996). In or der to a ddr ess
en vir on m en ta l a spects of th e oil r efin in g
pr ocess pr oper ly, en vir on m en ta l m a n a gem en t
pr ocedu r es (e.g. on w a ste w a ter ) a r e im plem en ted. Best ava ila ble tech n iqu es (BAT) h ave
been for m u la ted for oil r efin in g pr ocesses.
E n vir on m en ta l a u th or isa tion s of in dividu a l
r efi n er ies in clu de a ir em ission n or m s a n d
oth er r equ ir em en ts ba sed on BAT.
E n vir on m en ta l com plia n ce does r equ ir e
h eavy investm en ts by r efin er ies. Th e com bin a tion of h igh in vestm en ts in en vir on m en ta l
com plia n ce, n ew pr odu cts a n d tech n ology
a n d wea k m a r gin s on r efin er y pr odu cts,
r esu lt in a close exa m in a tion of cu r r en t
a ctivities a n d fu tu r e oppor tu n ities by th e oil
com pa n ies. Depen din g on com pa n y str a te gy,
th is r esu lts in closu r e, expa n sion or diver sifica tion of r efin er ies. E xa m ples a r e th e m er gin g of r efi n in g a n d r eta ilin g a ctivities of BP
a n d Mobil, th e closu r e of th e BP r efin er y in
Laver a (F r a n ce) a n d th e Gu lf a n d E xxon
r efi n er ies in Wa les.
Legal framework
N a tion a l soil qu a lity le gisla tion h a s developed in m ost E u r opea n cou n tr ies (see Appen dix). In ca se of con ta m in a ted la n d in m ost
ca ses a r isk -ba sed a ppr oa ch is ch osen . Risk ba sed soil qu a lity sta n da r ds ten d to becom e
in te gr a ted in n a tion a l or r e gion a l pla n n in g
a n d bu ildin g r e gu la tion s.
Th e a ctu a l r isk s a ssocia ted w ith con ta m in a ted la n d m ay, u n der cir cu m sta n ces, be
pr a ctica lly n e gligible. In th ese ca ses n o fu llsca le r em edia tion w ill be n ecessa r y a n d th e
la n d still m ay be u sed for cer ta in pu r poses
(e.g. h eavy in du str y). N a tion a l or r e gion a l
le gisla tion or gu idelin es give th e fr a m ewor k
for th e a ctu a l u se of soils a n d su bsu r fa ce.
Rem edia l a ction s a r e a w ay of r estor in g th e
in ten ded u se of la n d. For r efin er y sites E U
r e gu la tion s a n d per m its m ay give a ddition a l
sta n da r ds or gu idelin es.
Remedial approach
Petr och em ica l a n d r efin in g oper a tion s ca n
ca u se sever e envir on m en ta l da m a ge du e to
em ission s to soil, a ir a n d gr ou n d- a n d su r fa ce
w a ter. Most em ission s ta ke pla ce du r in g
[ 37 ]
J.J.W. Mo l
An analysis o f the re me diatio n
o f o il c o ntaminate d re fine ry
site s
Table I
Re fining and distributio n o f o il pro duc ts (fro m
EC, 1 9 9 7 )
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 7 –4 0
M illion tonnes/ year
1992
1993
1994
Belgium
France
Germany
The Netherlands
UK
Total EU (95 refineries)
34
91
111
63
90
610
34
91
112
60
90
604
35
90
113
60
91
595
n or m a l oper a tion s a s a r esu lt of a ir em ission s,
sm a ll sca le spills, ou tda ted tech n ology (su r plu s of w a ste pr odu ction a n d em ission s). Soil
of gr ou n dw a ter a t r efin er ies is often con ta m in a ted by oil pr odu cts (lu br ica n ts, h eavy a n d
ligh t fu els), VOCs (m a in ly vola tile a r om a tics),
PAH (polycyclic a r om a tic h ydr oca r bon s) a n d
m eta ls (a / o. lea d). Most r isk s a r e a ssocia ted
w ith m obile com pou n ds, su ch a s VOCs a n d
ligh t fu els, sin ce th ese com pou n ds m igh t
m igr a te off site or lea ch ou t in to gr ou n dw a ter
or su r fa ce w a ter system s. Also off-site
disposa l of w a ste m a ter ia ls (e.g. slu dge) in
pu blic la n dfills a r e con sider ed a r isk .
However th e r em edia l a ppr oa ch of off-site
la n dfills is con sider ed a n issu e sepa r a te fr om
th e tr ea tm en t of r efin er y sites.
Th e r em edia l a ppr oa ch on a r efin in g fa cility
is site specific a n d depen ds on fa ctor s su ch a s:
• n a tion a l a n d r e gion a l le gisla tion ;
• ba ck gr ou n d of r em edia tion (fu ll-sca le
r estor a tion of site com pa r ed to loca l spills
a t oper a tion a l fa cilities);
• levels of a n d r isk s a ssocia ted w ith con ta m in a n ts;
• h ydr ogeologica l settin gs;
• econ om ic fa ctor s.
Th e gen er a l fr a m ewor k for r em edia l a ction s
is pr im a r ily deter m in ed by th e le ga l fr a m ewor k a n d th e a ctu a l r isk s a ssocia ted w ith
levels of con ta m in a n ts pr esen t a t a site. Wh en
a m a jor con ta m in a tion is detected, gr ou n dw a ter a n d su r fa ce w a ter s a r e a t r isk a n d a fu ll
r estor a tion of a site is obliga tor y, a costly
r em edia tion m ay be th e r esu lt. On th e oth er
h a n d, a t n ew r efi n er y sites w ith on ly m in or
spillin g a n d clayey su bsoil, n o a ctu a l clea n u p
m ay be n ecessa r y.
Sin ce m ost r efi n er ies a r e loca ted in in du str ia l a r ea s or w ill con tin u e to be in oper a tion ,
con ta m in a ted la n d a t m ost r efi n er y sites w ill
be eva lu a ted on th e ba sis of a r isk a ssessm en t. Th is a lso m ea n s th a t r em edia l str a tegies ten d to be focu sed on a r isk r edu ction ,
r a th er th a n a “r em ova l of con ta m in a n ts”.
Su ch a r isk r edu ction m ay be qu a n tified on
th e ba sis of exposu r e or m igr a tion ca lcu la tion s du r in g th e r isk a ssessm en t. Most
[ 38 ]
im m obile com pou n ds (e.g. h eavy m eta ls,
PAH) ju st w ill be con ta in ed in or der to lim it
exposu r e, wh ile m obile com pou n ds (e.g.
VOCs) w ill be r em oved or a ctively con tr olled.
Rem edia tion of con ta m in ated la n d is a n
econ om ic fa ctor a n d even th e tem por a r y sh u tdow n of r efin er y oper a tion s in m ost ca ses is
n ot a ccepta ble. Lon g-ter m r em edia l a ctivities
pr efer a bly w ill h ave to be in tegr a ted in th e
n or m a l oper a tion a l pr ocesses.
Remedial technologies
In th e pa st excava tion a n d disposa l of con ta m in a ted soils a n d pu m p-a n d-tr ea t m eth ods for
gr ou n dw a ter wer e a ccepta ble (AGWSE , 1994),
th ou gh in ca se of la r ge-sca le fa cilities su ch a s
r efi n er ies th ese wer e ver y costly.
Cu r r en t sta te of th e a r t r em edia l tech n ologies a r e pr im a r ily dir ected tow a r ds a r isk
r edu ction r a th er th a n a fu ll-sca le clea n u p
pr ocess. In situ tech n ologies su ch a s “n a tu r a l
a tten u a tion ” (E ssa id et a l., 1995) fit ver y well
in to th is r isk -ba sed appr oa ch . However, befor e
im plem en tin g su ch in situ m eth ods on e h a s to
h ave a th or ou gh k n ow ledge of th e h ydr ogeology, biogeoch em istr y a n d con ta m in a n t beh aviou r in th e su bsu r fa ce. Of cor se, in cer ta in
ca ses (e.g. r em ova l of h ot spots or sou r ce
zon es) excava tion of con ta m in ated soil w ill be
th e best option . Th ou gh by a ssessin g th e possibilities for a n in situ a ppr oa ch in a n ea r ly
sta ge of th e pr oject, th e costs for r em edia tion
ca n be r edu ced sign ifica n tly (US E PA, 1994).
Th e m a in a dva n ta ges of in situ tech n ologies
a r e:
• m in im isa tion of im pa ct on on goin g oper a tion s;
• optim u m u se of in tr in sic (n a tu r a l) de gr a da tion of com pou n ds;
• r edu ction of r em edia l costs.
In situ tech n ology ca n be divided in to th r ee
m a in gr ou ps:
• extr a ctive tech n iqu es (pu m p-a n d-tr ea t; in
fa ct on -site tech n iqu es), su ch a s fl u sh in g,
ch em ica l extr a ction , soil va pou r extr a ction ,
in -well a ir str ippin g;
• en er getic tech n iqu es (in cr ea se of m obilisa tion ), su ch a s electr o r ecla m a tion , r a diofr equ en cy h ea tin g, fr a ctu r in g;
• biologica l/ geoch em ica l tech n iqu es (in situ
de gr a da tion ), su ch a s bior estor a tion ,
bioven tin g, ph ytor em edia tion , solidifica tion a n d n a tu r a l a tten u a tion .
On th e ba sis of th e r isk a ssessm en t a fea sibility stu dy focu sin g on th e r em edia l objectives
a n d str a te gy is ca r r ied ou t. With in th e ba sic
fr a m ewor k of le ga l pr ocedu r es, site-specific
con str a in ts a n d econ om ic m otives, th e best
ava ila ble tech n iqu es (BAT) for r em edia l
J.J.W. Mo l
An analysis o f the re me diatio n
o f o il c o ntaminate d re fine ry
site s
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 7 –4 0
a ction a r e eva lu a ted. In m ost ca ses th is is
pa r t of a n over a ll en vir on m en ta l im pr ovem en t a n d in vestm en t pr ogr a m for a fa cility.
Th e gen er a l r em edia l sch em e for oper a tion a l r efin er y sites ca n be descr ibed a s:
• iden tifica tion a n d clea n u p of sou r ce a r ea s;
• pr even tion of off-site m igr a tion of con ta m in a n ts;
• clea n u p of oth er r eleva n t con ta m in a ted
a r ea s.
In situ tech n ologies a r e con sider ed to be th e
m ost va lu a ble in th e a ppr oa ch of n on -sou r ce
a r ea s (N yer et a l., 1996), su ch a s off-site
gr ou n dw a ter con ta m in a tion a n d diffu sive
con ta m in a ted a r ea s. In sou r ce a r ea s (e.g.
floa tin g LNAP L-layer s) in situ tech n iqu es ca n
decr ea se th e levels a n d m a ss of ch em ica ls
con sider a bly. However in th a t ca se a fu ll clea n
u p is r a th er difficu lt. Sin ce th e m a in con ta m in a n ts a t r efin er ies a r e of a n or ga n ic n a tu r e,
biologica l in situ tech n ologies a r e ver y
pr om isin g. By optim isa tion of existin g fi eld
con dition s, th e n a tu r a l de gr a da tion of
or ga n ic com pou n ds (biologica l a ppr oa ch ) is
en h a n ced, or a n en vir on m en t is cr ea ted in
wh ich fu r th er m igr a tion of con ta m in a n ts is
lim ited (geoch em ica l a ppr oa ch ).
Conclusions
Cu r r en tly, str in gen t envir on m en ta l a n d sa fety
r egu la tion s a r e a pplied to a ll oil a n d ga s
r ela ted a ctivities w ith in E u r ope. Th ese
in clu de r egu la tion s con cer n in g con ta m in ated
la n d, oil spills a n d disch a r ges of cu ttin gs a n d
oil m u d. Th e r em edia tion of con ta m in ated
la n d on r efin er y sites is th er efor e on ly a pa r t
of over a ll envir on m en ta l investm en ts.
Petr och em ica l a n d r efi n in g oper a tion s ca n
ca u se sever e en vir on m en ta l da m a ge du e to
em ission s to soil, a ir a n d gr ou n d- a n d su r fa ce
w a ter. Th e gen er a l fr a m ewor k for r em edia l
a ction s is pr im a r ily deter m in ed by th e le ga l
fr a m ewor k a n d th e a ctu a l r isk s a ssocia ted
w ith levels of con ta m in a n ts pr esen t a t a site.
On th e ba sis of th e r isk a ssessm en t a fea sibility stu dy focu sed on th e r em edia l objectives
a n d str a te gy is ca r r ied ou t. With in th e ba sic
fr a m ewor k of le ga l pr ocedu r es, site-specifi c
con str a in ts a n d econ om ic m otives, th e best
ava ila ble tech n iqu es (BAT) for r em edia l
a ction a r e eva lu a ted. In m ost ca ses th is is
pa r t of a n over a ll en vir on m en ta l im pr ovem en t a n d in vestm en t pr ogr a m for a fa cility.
In th e pa st excava tion a n d disposa l of con ta m in a ted soils a n d pu m p-a n d-tr ea t m eth ods for
gr ou n dw a ter wer e a ccepta ble, th ou gh in ca se
of la r ge-sca le fa cilities su ch a s r efi n er ies ver y
costly. Cu r r en t sta te of th e a r t in situ tech n ologies a r e pr im a r ily dir ected tow a r ds a
r isk r edu ction r a th er th a n a fu ll-sca le clea n u p pr ocess.
References
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Wa ter, Vol. 32 N o. 5, pp. 837-60.
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Ba edeck er, M.J. a n d Cozza r elli, I.M. (1995),
“Sim u la tion of a er obic a n d a n a er obic
biodegr a da tion pr ocesses a t a cr u de oil spill
site”, Wa ter R es. R es., Vol. 31 No. 12, pp. 3309-27.
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im pr ove en er gy efficien cy”, S EC(91) 1744
fi n a l, E u r opea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
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situ a tion of oil su pply, r efi n in g a n d m a r k ets in
th e E u r opea n Com m u n ity”, COM (96)143,
E u r opea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
E u r opea n Com m ission (1997a ), “P a n or a m a of E U
In du str y 97”, E u r osta t, Br u ssels.
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th e E U a ppr oa ch to Kyoto”, COM (97) 482,
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th e UN fr a m ewor k con ven tion on clim a te
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Pollu tion P r even tion a n d Con tr ol”, Cou n cil
Directiv e, N o. 96/ 61, OJ E C L 257/ 26, E u r opea n
Un ion , Br u ssels.
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US E PA (1994), “In n ova tive Tr ea tm en t Tech n ologies: An n u a l Sta tu s Repor t, 6th E d.”, Tech n ology In n ova tion Office, E PA-542-R-94-005.
Appendix: National soil quality legislation
A su m m a r y of cu r r en t n a tion a l soil qu a lity
le gisla tion of a n u m ber of E U cou n tr ies is
given below.
Belgium (Flanders)
In F la n der s, th e le gisla tion gover n in g lia bility in r espect of soil r em edia tion h a s been
esta blish ed on 22 Febr u a r y, 1995 w ith th e
pu blica tion of th e Decree rela tin g to S oil
R em ed ia tion . Th e cen tr a l a u th or ity con cer n in g th is le gisla tion is th e P u blic Wa ste
Agen cy of F la n der s (OVAM). Th ey dea l w ith
a ll soil su r veys a n d con ta m in a ted sites.
OVAM m u st dr aw u p a r e gister of con ta m in a ted la n d a n d pr ovides soil cer tifica tes u pon
r equ est.
F lem ish la n dow n er s a r e obliged to ca r r y
ou t a n explor a tor y soil su r vey wh en th e la n d
is tr a n sfer r ed a n d in th e pa st th er e w a s a soilth r ea ten in g a ctivity or a n esta blish m en t is
closed, or oper a tion s a r e su spen ded a n d on
[ 39 ]
J.J.W. Mo l
An analysis o f the re me diatio n
o f o il c o ntaminate d re fine ry
site s
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt
and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1 9 9 9 ] 3 7 –4 0
th e ba sis of a per iodicity for specific ca tegor ies of esta blish m en ts or oper a tion s.
Lik e th e Du tch , th e F lem ish a u th or ities
a pply th e “pollu ter -pays-pr in ciple” for soil
a n d gr ou n dw a ter con ta m in a tion . In ca se of
h istor ica l con ta m in a tion (or igin a ted befor e
th e Decr ee) OVAM a pplies a r isk -ba sed
a ppr oa ch : th ese k in ds of con ta m in a tion w ill
on ly h ave to be h a n dled in ca se of cer ta in or
pr oba ble th r ea ts for h u m a n s, pla n ts a n d a n im a ls. N ew soil con ta m in a tion (or igin a ted
a fter th e Decr ee) w ill h ave to be clea n ed u p
im m edia tely wh en r em edia l va lu es a r e
exceeded. All con ta m in a ted gr ou n ds w ill be
r e gister ed in th e Re gister of Con ta m in a ted
La n ds.
France
As in oth er E u r opea n cou n tr ies, in F r a n ce
com pr eh en sive policy in th e fi eld of soil con ta m in a tion a n d clea n u p is r ela tively you n g. A
fir st in ven tor y of con ta m in a ted sites h a s been
esta blish ed in 1994, a n d h a s iden tified 669
sites a s con ta m in a ted. Site clea n u p h a s ta k en
pla ce sin ce th e ea r ly 1990s, on a n a d h oc ba sis.
In 1996, a n ew m in ister ia l cir cu la r w a s pu blish ed w ith r ega r d to con ta m in a ted soil. Th e
cir cu la r a im s to com plete th e 1994 in ven tor y
a n d to in tr odu ce a com pr eh en sive policy in
th is field. Th e n ew estim a tion for th e n u m ber
of possibly con ta m in a ted sites in F r a n ce w a s
th is tim e in th e or der of 300,000. A com pr eh en sive m eth odologica l gu ide h a s been ela bor a ted
to pr ovide gu ida n ce in th e soil in vestiga tion
a n d site a ssessm en t pr ocedu r e.
In pr in ciple, F r a n ce a pplies th e pollu ter pays-pr in ciple for soil r em edia tion . Mu ch
r em a in s yet still u n clea r. Th e a u th or ities
cla im th a t th e in ven tor ied sites m u st be
investiga ted on th e costs of th e com pa n y. Th e
clea n -u p costs a r e a lso r epor ted to be
in cu r r ed fu lly by th e com pa n ies.
Germany
On a sta te level (B u n d eslä n d er ) soil qu a lity
le gisla tion da tes fr om th e ea r ly 1990s. In 1998
th e Feder a l Soil P r otection Act w a s for m a lly
issu ed. Th is a ct issu ed n a tion a l u n ifor m
sta n da r ds for th e soil pr otection a n d th e clea n
u p of con ta m in a ted sites.
In gen er a l, con ta m in a ted la n d th a t con stitu tes a h a za r d to h u m a n s a n d th e en vir on m en t is to be clea n ed u p. Th e r espon sibility
for th e clea n u p lies pr im a r ily w ith th e pollu ter (or le ga l su ccessor s) a n d cu r r en t or
pr eviou s ow n er s of th e la n d.
Th e ta sk s of iden tifica tion of con ta m in a ted
la n d a n d th e execu tion of le ga l pr ocedu r es
[ 40 ]
a r e th e r espon sibilities of th e B u n d eslä n d er .
Th e le gisla tion is pr im a r ily con cer n ed w ith
solid soil; in ca se of con ta m in a ted w a ter bodies, a lso w a ter le gisla tion m ay be r eleva n t.
The Netherlands
E n vir on m en ta l le gisla tion in th e field of soil
a n d gr ou n dw a ter in Th e N eth er la n ds da tes
fr om th e ea r ly 1980s. Soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
qu a lity sta n da r ds h ave been issu ed by th e
Du tch gover n m en t in th e “Soil P r otection
Act”, pr om u lga ted on 10 May 1994.
In Th e N eth er la n ds th e pr ovin cia l a u th or ities (in clu din g th e fou r la r gest cities) dea l
w ith soil qu a lity m a tter s. Th ey dea l w ith
m ost of th e la r ger soil su r veys a n d con ta m in a ted sites. With in th e fr a m ewor k of th e
Bu ildin g a n d P la n n in g Acts a lso th e loca l
com m u n ities m ay be in volved in m in or soil
qu a lity a n d r em edia l issu es.
Th e Du tch a u th or ities a pply th e “pollu ter pays-pr in ciple” for soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
r em edia tion . However, r espon sibility/ lia bility
qu estion s r ela ted to soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
qu a lity issu es a r e r a th er difficu lt a n d ta k e a
lot of tim e. Th is for m a l a ppr oa ch r esu lted in a
sta gn a tion of th e Du tch soil r em edia tion
pr ogr a m . Cu r r en tly th e Du tch legisla tion is
bein g r e-eva lu a ted. Th e Du tch w ill tu r n to a
m or e r isk -ba sed a ppr oa ch . Rem edia l a ction s
w ill m ove to a m or e fu n ction a l m eth odology,
focu sed on th e (fu tu r e) u se of a con ta m in a ted
site. However, n ew soil a n d gr ou n dw a ter
con ta m in a tion still h a s to be r em oved, wh ich
oper a tion in gen er a l is en for ced on th e ba sis of
th e envir on m en ta l per m its of fa cilities.
UK
Th e sta tu tor y r egim e gover n in g lia bility in
r espect of soil qu a lity h a s been esta blish ed in
1995 by th e E nvir on m en t Act. Th is Act r efer s
to th e or igin a l pollu ter to be r espon sible for
th e costs a n d th e ca r r yin g ou t of (possible)
r em edia l wor k s in ca se of sta tu tor y n u isa n ce.
Th e cu r r en t ow n er or occu pier w ill be lia ble if
th e or igin a l pollu ter ca n n ot be fou n d. Apa r t
fr om th e E nvir on m en t Act, a lso elem en ts of
th e Tow n a n d Cou n tr y P la n n in g Act, th e
E nvir on m en t P r otection Act, Wa ter Resou r ces
Act m ay be a pplica ble in th e ca se of con ta m in a ted la n d.
Dr a ft gu ida n ce n otes dea lin g w ith th e r isk s
involved w ith soil con ta m in a tion a r e issu ed
by th e Depa r tm en t of th e E n vir on m en t. At
th e pr esen t th e r e gion a l E n vir on m en t
Agen cies a r e u sin g ICRCL sta n da r ds or
wh er e a ppr opr ia te th e Du tch fr a m ewor k of
sta n da r ds for eva lu a tion of soil qu a lity.