Manajemen | Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji joeb.82.1.50-55

Journal of Education for Business

ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20

Implications for an Aging Workforce
Shari McMahan & Dominick Sturz
To cite this article: Shari McMahan & Dominick Sturz (2006) Implications for an Aging
Workforce, Journal of Education for Business, 82:1, 50-55, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.82.1.50-55
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.82.1.50-55

Published online: 07 Aug 2010.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 156

View related articles

Citing articles: 4 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=vjeb20
Download by: [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji]

Date: 11 January 2016, At: 23:20

VIEWPOINT

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:20 11 January 2016

Implications for an Aging Workforce
SHARI MC MAHAN
DOMINICK STURZ
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY–FULLERTON
FULLERTON, CALIFORNIA

ABSTRACT. America’s workforce is
aging, with over 20% of the workforce
expected to be aged 55 and over by the year
2015, an increase of nearly 50% through
2014. As people age, their resistance to

harmful exposures is reduced. Injury data
suggest that although elderly workers are
less likely to be hurt seriously enough to
lose worktime, they often take twice the
time needed to return to work. Very little is
known about physiological changes and
how these changes affect individual performance, productivity, and safety. This article
highlights some of these changes and offers
suggestions to employers and academic
institutions to support employees as they
adapt and cope with these changes.
Key words: age-related changes, older
workforce, productivity
Copyright © 2006 Heldref Publications

50

Journal of Education for Business

A

merica’s workforce is aging, with
over 20% of the workforce
expected to be aged 55 and over by the
year 2015, an increase of nearly 50%
through 2014 (AARP Public Policy
Institute, 2006). According to the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, between
1998–2008, the number of civilian
workers aged 55 and over will increase
by 49.9%, whereas those 25–54 will
increase by only 5.5% and those 16–24
will actually decrease by 2.8% (Fullerton, 1999). This decline will lead to a
proportionally smaller pool of younger
workers. Legislation and public attention have focused on the protection of
older workers. In 1967, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act
(ADEA; United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 1997)
was passed. It prevented workers aged
over 40 years from being denied
employment based solely on age. In

1990, the Americans With Disabilities
Act (ADA; United States Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission,
2002) provided further protection for
older workers. Under the ADA, employers are required to make job modifications to accommodate workers with sensory or manual deficits. Along with
demographic changes and legislation
that protects older workers, the nation
will continue to see an unprecedented
increase in the number of companies
employing older workers.

These demographic changes will
have serious social and economic consequences. In fact, policymakers have
turned their attention toward increasing
employment opportunities for older
workers because of the serious demand
that may be placed on alternative
sources of income such as social security benefits. A Harris Survey finds that
there are 3.7 million people aged over
55 years who are not currently working

but who would like to work and are
ready, willing, and able to work. This
includes 1 million people aged 55–64
and 2.7 million aged 65 and over
(Humphrey, 1999).
As people age, they are at a higher
risk for several diseases and their resistance to harmful exposures is reduced.
In addition, injuries are often much
more severe, if not fatal (Runge, 1993).
Major findings from the Census of Fatal
Occupational Injuries state that elderly
persons have a higher risk of workplace
fatalities relative to their share of
employment. Workers over 55 years
have higher fatality rates from transportation accidents and falls compared
with any other age category (Toscano &
Windau, 1993). Some of the major reasons for falls include environmental
hazards, loss of physical fitness, and
adverse effects of medications (Tibbitts,
1996). The consequences are often devastating, resulting in substantial morbidity and psychological trauma. The inter-

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:20 11 January 2016

action effect of age and height of falls is
interesting. Investigators using National
Institute of Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) data found that older
workers are at increased risk of falls,
and after age 45 this increase becomes
dramatic (Agnew & Saruda, 1993). The
height of a fatal fall in those aged 15–44
is 15+ feet, whereas the average height
of a fatal fall in those aged over 45 is
less than 7 feet (Agnew & Saruda).
Over 250,000 older adults annually
experience fall-related hip fractures.
This number is expected to increase dramatically in the coming decades. In
addition, the annual cost of physical
frailty has been estimated to be between
$54–80 billion nationally and is expected to increase to over $132 billion by

the year 2030 unless disability rates
among older adults can be reduced.
In addition to workplace fatality, injury
and illness data suggest that although
elderly workers are less likely to be hurt
seriously enough to lose worktime, they
often take twice the time needed to return
to work (Douglas & Muran, 2000; Walton, 2001). This time away may contribute to increased economic burden on
workers’ compensation and our medical
care system, corporation costs, and individual hardships. Two factors contribute
to the length of time needed to recuperate
from an injury. First, older workers sustain disabling conditions such as broken
bones, fractures, and multiple injuries
more often than do younger workers, and
second, these conditions require more
time to heal in older individuals (Garg,
1991). In addition, hospitalization usually
results from a fracture in older workers
(Layne & Landen, 1997). Very little is
known about physiological changes (e.g.,

changes in vision, hearing, musculoskeletal system) and how these changes affect
individual performance, productivity, and
workplace safety. It is important to note
that there is no single age that marks
when age-related changes begin to occur.
In addition, there are substantial individual differences in the rates at which they
will occur. For some, these changes may
be debilitating; for others, these changes
may be negligible depending on the individual. The purpose of this article is to
highlight some of the more salient agerelated changes and how employers, particularly academic institutions, can sup-

port employees as they adapt and cope
with these changes. Individual, environmental, and organizational approaches
are among some of the strategies employers will need to consider.
Vision
There are a number of changes in
visual abilities that have the potential to
impair work performance among aging
individuals. These changes include a
decline in static and dynamic visual

acuity, a reduction in the range of
accommodation, a loss of contrast sensitivity, a decrease in dark adaptation,
an increase in susceptibility to glare, a
decline in the ability to detect targets
against a background, and a decline in
the ability to discriminate between certain colors, primarily blue and green
(Czaja, 1995; Kline & Scheiber, 1985).
In addition, diseases such as cataracts,
glaucoma, and macular degeneration
are more common as people age. After
the age of 60, the lens of the eye
becomes thicker, harder, and more yellow, and the pupil reduces in size. The
hardening of the lens reduces its ability
to change shape and, therefore, to
accommodate for variations in distance.
Impaired depth perception may cause a
person to perceive a shadow as a step or
a hole, and the visual misinterpretation
can severely impair an individual’s ability to function safely (Gaither, 2003).
These alterations can have a substantial

impact on the older worker’s ability to
sense cues from the environment and
can increase the likelihood of falling
(Walton, 2001).
More lighting is also required as people age. Nighttime legibility distances
of highway signs for drivers aged older
than 60 was 65–77% of the legibility
distance for drivers aged under 25 years
with equal phototropic acuity. Dynamic
visual acuity (DVA) is the ability to
resolve details of a moving target
(Haight, 2003). The decline of DVA
occurs beginning around age 45, which
would affect close to 30% of the workforce (Haight). Because older people
have a reduced field of view and are
more susceptible to scene clutter, they
make much larger eye movements to
scan the entire scene. Clutter (i.e., nontarget information in the visual field)

and search deficiencies make it more

difficult for older workers to see critical
information and easier to miss it
because of the clutter (Haight).
Older individuals would benefit from
controls that were well lit; clean, uncluttered displays; and individual task lighting. The illumination should increase
without creating glare. Glare is a minor
problem for young people, but can
cause a visual discomfort for older
adults (Green, 2002). Facilities personnel should also be cautious in using
reflective paints, polished floors, or
floor tiles that could cause glare. The
Illuminating Engineering Society recommends a brightness difference of no
greater than three to one (Green). Printed material, including instructions and
warnings, should be large (in at least 12point font) and have high brightness
contrast. Large type reduces eyestrain
by decreasing vergence stress on the
oculomotor muscles (Green). Black
print on white is far superior to white on
black for several reasons, including
improved light adaptation, less glare on
computer screens, and less contrast with
the surrounding environment (Green).
The proper size of signs is more difficult
to specify because it depends on several
factors, including the expected viewing
distance. Older people have a restricted
field of view, so they are least likely to
notice signs that are not in their direct
line of sight. Therefore, employers
should study where workers are likely
to be looking and place signs at eye
level (Green). Company policies regarding eye exams should be implemented
for personnel who work with computers
or perform tasks that cause eyestrain
(e.g., fine motor movements in an
assembly line). For individuals experiencing presbyopia, a loss of visual acuity at short distances, American National Standards Institute (ANSI) safety
glasses can be provided with bifocal
lenses. Eyestrain increases as people
spend more time at their computers.
Staff members at universities are typically susceptible to visual problems
because they spend over 5hr per day
working at their computers (Berner &
Jacobs, 2002).
Because older people are slower to
adapt to changes in lightness and darkness, the lighting from one area to
September/October 2006

51

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:20 11 January 2016

another should be kept at a similar level
(Green, 2002). Color-coding should be
provided on changes in ramps and surfaces to prevent falls, which are the
leading occupational fatality among
older workers (Hansson, DeKoekkoek,
Neece, & Patterson, 1997; Toscano &
Windau, 1993). Employers need to (a)
identify specific hazards for slipping
and tripping; (b) incorporate engineering and administrative initiatives to
reduce hazards, such as flooring and
matting designed to deter slips, trips,
and falls; (c) seek help immediately
after falls; (d) treat musculoskeletal disorders promptly and effectively; (e)
conduct periodic vision screening at the
worksite; (f) raise awareness of medication side effects that may contribute to
drowsiness; and (g) refer any worker
who feels faint or dizzy to a doctor
(Healthy Living Work Smart, 1999).
Employers should make handrails
accessible, make landings well lit, and
make steps and risers different colors or
brightness compared with other traffic
areas so they are more distinguishable
(Green). Employers should avoid using
a complex pattern on the steps because
it can mask edges and encourage falls.
They should use antislip surfaces on the
treads to minimize potential hazards.
Hearing
Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) is thought to begin at about age 35,
but becomes more pronounced with
advancing age (Haight, 2003). Most
older adults experience some decline in
auditory function. Age-associated loss
of hearing includes loss of sensitivity to
pure tones and high-frequency tones,
difficulty understanding speech, problems localizing sounds, increased sensitivity to loud noises, and imbalance in
equilibrium (Czaja, 1995; Scheiber,
Fozard, Gordon-Salent, & Weiffenbach,
1991). This may lead to older workers’
inability to hear or recognize alarms,
understand speech, or maintain balance
and could cause them to develop vertigo
(Province, Hadley, Hornbrook, Lipsitz,
& Miller, 1995).
Research performed in a multiple- task
environment shows that older workers
score significantly lower than do younger
workers in auditory task performance
52

Journal of Education for Business

(Haight, 2003). Older workers show poor
auditory discrimination performance
because of a reduced ability to strategically allocate attention toward performance of auditory monitoring (Haight).
There are many ways to control noise
exposure in the environment. Employers
can do so by minimizing loud machinery
and air conditioning as well as by making any music soft (Green, 2002). They
could use sound-absorbing materials,
including plants, carpeting, and window
treatments, to reduce noise exposure.
Another strategy is to avoid room
designs or objects that create an echo. In
conference rooms, tables should be
made smaller and circular to facilitate
communication. In addition, the use of
light enhancements in conjunction with
ringers and back-up alarms should be
used to further alert those individuals
with hearing difficulties.
Moreover, to detect hearing-related
changes, it is integral to conduct audiometric exams, which always should be
done at baseline and annually for new
employees in noisy work environments.
Use of hearing protection should be
required in both occupational and
nonoccupational environments where
exposure to loud noise may occur (Carsia, 2002; Kotarbinska, 2005; Laitinen,
2005).
Musculoskeletal Changes
Decrease in Muscular Strength
Muscular strength, in general, peaks
between the ages of 25 and 30. On average, a person’s strength at 51–55 years
of age is approximately 80% of what
that person’s strength was at 31–35
years. There is a decline of approximately 40% from 71–75 years compared with strength at ages 31–35
(Viitasalo, Era, Leskinen, & Heikkenen,
1985). Reduction of physical strength
with increasing age is generally
believed to be hazardous, especially to
older workers in jobs requiring exertion
of high muscular forces, such as lifting,
lowering, carrying of moderate to heavy
loads, and pushing and pulling of heavy
carts on broken or inclined floors.
There are numerous studies that have
indicated the benefits of strength training and physical activity in older people
to offset the natural physical declines of

aging. Processes should be automated
whenever possible. In addition, job
tasks should be modified to avoid prolonged and excessive muscle contractions. Policies should be developed that
encourage sharp edges on tools (this is
to avoid greater force using dull blades
or objects), use of jigs and clamps
instead of the hand to grip parts,
mechanical assists rather than muscle,
and partner-assisted lifts. Actions such
as reaching above the head, twisting at
the spine, and leaning to one side should
be avoided (Gagnon, Plamondon, &
Gravel, 1993; Patrick, 2004). These
policies will benefit all age groups.
Reduction in Joint Mobility and
Manual Dexterity
The most significant changes in our
ability to move occur in our joints, particularly small motor movements associated with grasping, gripping, twisting,
and turning, and large motor movements
associated with walking, bending, sitting, climbing, stooping, and reaching.
Changes in small motor movements
affect one’s dexterity and ability to grasp,
hold, and manipulate objects. As their
ability to locate and identify textures and
surfaces becomes impaired, it is increasingly difficult for people to grasp, hold,
or manipulate small, smooth objects
(Pirkl, 1995). Schwoerer and May (1996)
examined the relationship between age,
quality of tool design, and job performance. Results indicated that, among
younger workers, tool quality was unrelated to job performance. However,
among older workers, quality of tool
design made a significant difference.
Those older workers with tools viewed to
be poorly designed had the lowest performance ratings of all groups. In contrast, older workers with tools of high
design quality had the highest performance ratings of all groups.
Older adults tend to exhibit a more
conservative reach by keeping elbows
closer to the torso and do not elevate the
shoulders as much as younger adults.
Although this behavior is unexplained,
it could be due to a concern for overextension injury and a perceived lack of
strength rather than a true loss of range
of motion (Haight, 2003). The difference is more pronounced in longer

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:20 11 January 2016

reaches. Reach should be minimized for
tasks performed by older workers
(Haight). Driving and similar tasks
(e.g., operating a large piece of machinery) require responding continuously to
spatial and temporal information from
the environment and the equipment. In
doing so, one must coordinate movement of the head, neck, and upper and
lower limbs. Motor control is critical
when one must brake, steer, turn,
change lanes, merge, recover from a
skid, start a pump, or drop the level in a
storage tank (Haight). One of the most
pervasive findings in age-related
research is that motor performance
slows with aging.
When working with fine motor skills
or repetitive tasks, stretching and exercise techniques should be implemented.
The work environment should be evaluated for unhealthy person–environment
fit. For example, substituting levers or
push buttons for knobs may help with
people’s abilities to manipulate small
objects. In addition, all tasks should be
within a comfortable range of movement
(Derebery, 1998; Frederick, 1992).
Slowing of Reaction and Movement
Times
With age, all behavioral responses
slow down. Part of this slowing down is
explained by the declining efficiencies of
the sensory organs and the musculoskeletal system (Davies & Mebarki,
1983). Depending on task complexity,
older adults are slower to respond.
Response speed has a linear relationship
with task complexity (Haight, 2003).
Older adults have more difficulty managing or coordinating multiple tasks. Some
research has suggested that age-related
difference in performance of multiple
tasks is reduced through training
(Haight). Other research has suggested
that performance is improved further if
task performance order is flexible, meaning that the worker can decide in what
order to perform tasks without penalty.
From a performance standpoint, however, older workers have much more experience than younger workers. Through
selective optimization by compensation
(SOC), older workers apply previously
learned skills to current situations, resulting in comparable performance with

younger workers (Baltes & Baltes,
1990). This experience may enable older
workers to achieve satisfactory performance, which will help them compensate
for any slowing. However, when the job
demands exceed the workers’ capacity,
older workers may compensate by using
increased physical effort or taking fewer
rest periods to complete the task in a
timely manner. Key considerations
include allowance of longer response
time, additional practice to increase
familiarity, frequent refresher training,
frequent reinforcement of task priority,
reduction in the need for simultaneous
performance of multiple tasks, or designing the system to be operated with low
sensitivity to task order (Haight). Given
the perceptual and cognitive changes that
accompany the aging process, it is essential that training programs be tailored to
meet the needs of older adults. Studies
have found that online training programs
for staff workers in a University are generally effective but need personal support
and encouragement (Hayes et al., 2004).
Comorbidities and Chronic
Diseases
Arthritis, high blood pressure, visual
and hearing impairments, and obesity are
among the disabling afflictions that
affect workers (Healthcare Hazard Management Monitor, 2002). For example,
arthritis affects only 50.1 in 1000 people
aged 18–44 years, but leaps to 240.7 in
1,000 people aged 45–64 years, and
453.1 in 1,000 people aged 65–74 years
(Healthcare Hazard Management Monitor). In people aged 55–64, more than
one in four men and one in three women
are considered obese (Healthcare Hazard
Management Monitor). In the university
environment, individuals who disclosed
their pain to their peers and supervisors
showed a reduction in symptoms of
chronic illness at work compared with
individuals who did not disclose their
pain (Munir, Leka, & Griffiths, 2005).
Another emerging problem in the workplace deals with the use of medications
in older adults. The use of medications
may impact cognitive or physical abilities, as well as increase the risk of drug
interactions when multiple medications
are prescribed. Workers should understand side effects of medication and risks

of combining medications for safety purposes. In addition, the aging process
includes increased incidence of sleep disorders and greater risk of depression,
which can negatively impact physical
and cognitive functioning (Healy, 2001).
Many of these conditions could be
reduced through behavior change. For
example, weight loss has been shown to
reduce coronary artery disease risk factors, exercise can reduce mortality and
risk of falls, and smoking cessation can
result in rapid improvements in circulatory and pulmonary functions. Further,
within the first year of quitting smoking,
risks for coronary artery disease and
stroke begin to decline. Although
approximately one fifth of those aged
between 55–64 years are limited in their
ability to carry out major activities, most
chronic conditions are not debilitating or
can be alleviated with medication, assistive devices, improved diet, or exercise
(Healthcare Hazard Management Monitor). There is research on aging that indicates that chronological age is a weak
predictor of capacity for productive performance in general and that performance does not decline with age (Healthcare Hazard Management Monitor).
The University Environment
Faculty and staff at academic institutions are aging along with the rest of
society. Low retirement rates and slow
growth limit the hiring opportunities at
most institutions (Clark & d’Ambrosio,
2005). To maintain high-quality faculty
and staff, universities must develop
employment practices that are appropriate for the new demographic environment. Retirement programs that worked
in the past may no longer be effective for
the institution (Sugar, Pruitt, Anstee, &
Harris, 2005). Educational programs for
the older adult should include health
issues, financial issues, and interpersonal
issues. Proper training programs can also
help workers perform their jobs safely.
The physical workplace must also be
prepared to accommodate workers aged
older than 60 years. These accommodations can be beneficial to all employees.
Conclusion
Among older adults, deterioration in
health seriously affects the odds of
September/October 2006

53

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:20 11 January 2016

dropping out of the workforce. However, age-related changes do not always
translate into impaired performance.
Moreover, a body of research indicates
that interventions to promote health and
minimize these changes can have
important beneficial effects (Clark &
Nothwehr, 1999; Hultsch, Small, Hertzog, & Dixon, 1999; King et al., 2000;
Shipp & Branch, 1999).
The academic institution can play a
seminal role in educating other public
and private entities about aging in the
work environment. Through a variety of
academic, nonacademic, and continuing
education alternatives, older adults can
be trained to meet workforce demands.
Emeriti or retiree centers that serve
retired faculty, retired staff, and their
spouse beneficiaries are emerging.
These on-campus centers provide
opportunities to cultivate retirees’ connections to the campus community
(Glazer, Redmon, & Robinson, 2005).
The culture and values of the older
worker are significant assets for the
companies that choose to attract and
retain them. These values include commitment and loyalty to the employer,
fewer sick days, reduced injuries, and
enhanced length of service. Accommodations for older workers are important
in the changing workforce. Employers
must be aware of the issues faced by
older adults and how to accommodate
them in the workplace. They should recognize older workers’ importance in the
workforce and their changing roles in
their fields.
The multidisciplinary strategies
detailed in this article provide a number
of practical and inexpensive solutions to
support employees across their working
life span. Researchers have observed
social and ecological health promotion
approaches (using individual, organizational, environmental, and regulatory
tactics as leverage points for change) to
be efficacious in other studies (Stokols,
1996; Stokols, McMahan, & Phillips,
2000). Collaborations with other workplace health promotion practitioners
(i.e., safety, occupational health
resources, wellness organizations, benefits, employee-assistance programs, and
others) will provide the synergy to
design, implement, and evaluate the
strategies described in this article.
54

Journal of Education for Business

NOTE
Correspondence concerning this article
should be addressed to Shari McMahan, Professor and Chair, Department of Health Science,
California State University, Fullerton, PO Box
6870.
E-mail: smcmahan@fullerton.edu
REFERENCES
AARP Public Policy Institute. (2006, May).
Update on the aged 55+ worker: 2005 (Data
Digest No. 136). Washington, DC: S. E. Rix.
Agnew, J., & Saruda, A. J. (1993). Age and fatal
work related falls. Human Factors: Journal of
Human Factors and Ergonomic Society, 35,
731–736.
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The
model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes, & M. M. Baltes (Eds.),
Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1–26). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Berner, K., & Jacobs, K. (2002). The gap between
exposure and implementation of computer
workstation ergonomics in the workplace.
Work: Journal of Prevention, Assessment &
Rehabilitation, 19, 193–199.
Carsia, T. (2002). Hearing protection. Designing
workplaces for higher productivity. Occupational Health and Safety, 71(9), 192–195.
Clark, D. O., & Nothwehr, F. (1999). Exercise
self-efficacy and its correlates among socioeconomically disadvantaged older adults. Health
Education and Behavior, 26, 535–546.
Clark, R. L., & d’Ambrosio, M. (2005). Recruitment, retention, and retirement: Compensation
and employment policies for higher education.
Educational Gerontology, 31, 385–403.
Czaja, S. J. (1995). Aging and work performance.
Review of Public Personnel Administration, 15,
447–461.
Davies, B. T., & Mebarki, M. (1983). Speed of forward hand movement—the effects of age, sex,
posture and hand. Ergonomics, 26, 1077–1079.
Derebery, V. J. (1998). Determining the cause of
upper extremity complaints in the workplace.
Occupational Medicine, 13, 569–582.
Douglas, B., & Muran, S. (2000). The graying
workforce. Public Risk, 14(4), 22–24.
Frederick, L. J. (1992). Cumulative trauma disorders—an overview. American Association of
Occupational Health Nurses, 40, 113–116.
Fullerton, H. N., Jr. (1999, November). The labor
force: Steady growth, changing composition.
The Monthly Labor Review, 122(11), 19–32.
Gagnon, M., Plamondon, A., & Gravel, D. (1993).
Pivoting with the load. An alternative for protecting the back in asymmetrical lifting. Spine,
18, 1515–1524.
Gaither, A., (2003). Health and safety in an aging
workforce. Retrieved October 23, 2003, from
http://www.asse.org/gaitherpdcpaper.htm
Garg, A. (1991). Ergonomics and the older worker: An overview. Experimental Aging Research
17, 143–155.
Glazer, S. D., Redmon, E. L., & Robinson, K. L.
(2005). Continuing the connection: Emeriti/
retiree centers on campus. Educational Gerontology, 31, 363–383.
Green, M. (2002). Environmental design for the
older worker. Occupational Health and Safety.
Retrieved June 10, 2002, from http://www
.ahealthyme.com/article/bellhowell/101804874;
$sessionid$L32
Haight, J. M. (2003). Human error & the chal-

lenges of an aging workforce: Considerations
for improving workplace safety. Professional
Safety, 12, 18–24.
Hansson, R., DeKoekkoek, P. D., Neece, W. M, &
Patterson, D. W. (1997). Successful aging at
work annual review, 1992–1996: The older
worker and transitions to retirement. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 51, 202–233.
Hayes, P., Ip, K., Saintas, P., Stanier, S., Palmer,
H., Thomas, N., et al. (2004). Responding to
technological change: IT skills and the academic teaching profession. Active Learning in
Higher Education, 5, 152–165.
Healthcare Hazard Management Monitor. (2002).
The aging healthcare workforce: Implications
for worker health and safety. Healthcare Hazard Management Monitor, 16(4), 1–8.
Healthy Living Work Smart. (1999). Older workers and falls. Healthy Living: Work Smart.
Retrieved May 13, 2002, from http://www
.health-alliance.com/contentarchive/september
99/work.html
Healy, M. L. (2001). Management strategies for
an aging work force. AAOHN Journal, 49,
523–529.
Hultsch, D. F., Small, B. J., Hertzog, C., & Dixon,
R. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle
as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, 14, 245–263.
Humphrey, T. (1999, October 27). 3.7 million
people over 55 not working now are ready, willing and able to work. The Harris Poll #62. Harris Interactive, 1–9.
King, A. C., Pruitt, L. A., Phillips, W., Oka, R.,
Rodenburg, A., & Haskell, W. L. (2000). Comparative effects of two physical activity programs on measured and perceived physical
functioning and other health related quality of
life outcomes in older adults. Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 55A, M74–M83.
Kline, D. W., & Scheiber, F. (1985). Vision and
aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.),
Handbook of psychology and aging (pp.
296–331). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Kotarbinska, E. (2005). The influence of aging on
the noise attenuation of ear-muffs. Noise
Health, 7(26), 39–45.
Laitinen, H. (2005). Factors affecting the use of
hearing protectors among classical music players. Noise Health, 7(26), 21–29.
Layne, L., & Landen, D. (1997). A descriptive
analysis of nonfatal occupational injuries to
older workers, using a national probability sample of hospital emergency departments. Journal
of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,
39, 855–865.
Munir, F., Leka, S., & Griffiths, A. (2005). Dealing with self-management of chronic illness at
work: Predictors for self-disclosure. Social Science & Medicine, 60, 1397–1407.
Patrick, R. W. (2004). Watch your back. Emergency Medical Services, 33(5), 128.
Pirkl, J. J. (1995). Transgenerational design: Prolonging the American dream. American Society
on Aging, 19(1), 1–14.
Province, M. A., Hadley, E. C., Hornbrook, M. C.,
Lipsitz, L. A., & Miller, P. (1995). The effects
of exercise on falls in elderly patients. Journal
of the American Medical Association, 27,
1341–1347.
Runge, J. (1993). The cost of injury. Emergency
Medicine Clinics of North America, 11(1),
241–253.
Scheiber, F., Fozard, J. L., Gordon-Salent, S., &
Weiffenbach, J. W. (1991). Optimizing sensation
and perception in older adults. International
Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 7, 133–162.
Schwoerer, C. E., & May, D. R. (1996). Age and

the workplace (3rd ed., pp. 493–518). Albany,
NY: Delmar.
Sugar, J. A., Pruitt, K., Anstee, J. L., & Harris, S.
G. (2005). Academic administrators and faculty
retirement in a new era. Educational Gerontology, 31, 405–418.
Tibbitts, G. (1996). Patients who fall: How to predict
and prevent injuries. Geriatrics, 51(9), 24–30.
Toscano, G., & Windau, J. (1993). Fatal work
injuries: Results from the 1992 census. Monthly Labor Review, 116, 30–48.
United States Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1997). The Age Discrimination in
Employment Act of 1967. Retrieved June 2, 2006,
from http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/adea.html

United States Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission. (2002). The Americans With Disabilities Act. Retrieved June 2, 2006, from
http://www.eeoc.gov/ada/adatext.html
Viitasalo, J., Era, P., Leskinen, A., & Heikkenen,
E. (1985). Muscular strength profiles and
anthropometry in random samples of men aged
31–35, 51–55, and 71–75 years. Ergonomics,
28, 1563–1574.
Walton, M. (2001). Graying, not falling. Occupational Health and Safety. Retrieved July 25,
2005, from http://www.ohsonline.com/Stevens/
OHSPub.nsf/frame?open&redirect=http://
www.ohsonline.com/stevens/OHSpub.nsf/
PubArchive?openview

Downloaded by [Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji] at 23:20 11 January 2016

work outcomes: The moderating effects of
self-efficacy and tool design effectiveness.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17,
469–487.
Shipp, K. M., & Branch, L. G. (1999). Physical
environment as a determinant of the health status of older populations. Canadian Journal on
Aging, 18, 313–327.
Stokols, D. (1996). Translating social ecological
theory into guidelines for community health
promotion. American Journal of Health Promotion, 10, 282–298.
Stokols, D., McMahan, S., & Phillips, K. (2000).
Workplace health promotion in small business.
In M. P. O’Donnell (Ed.), Health promotion in

September/October 2006

55