Framing the Early Middle Ages

  Framing the Early Middle Ages

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Framing the Early

Middle Ages

Europe and the Mediterranean

400–800

  

C H R I S W I C K H A M

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Acknowledgements

I have been working on this book for nearly seven years, and have discussed issues

relating to it with nearly every late Romanist and early medievalist I have met during

that time; I have gained insights from too many people to list. First of all, I should like

to thank those who commented on sections of the book: Leslie Brubaker, who read

almost the whole text; Paul Fouracre, John Haldon, Hugh Kennedy, and Eduardo

Manzano, who read sections of Chapter 3; Mayke de Jong, Paul Fouracre, John

Haldon, Guy Halsall, Peter Heather, Eduardo Manzano, and Peter Sarris, who read

sections of Chapter 4; Jean-Pierre Devroey and Domenico Vera, who read sections of

Chapter 5; Steven Bassett, Nicholas Brooks, Wendy Davies, Simon Esmonde-Cleary,

and Patrick Wormald, who read Chapter 6; Steven Bassett, Matt Innes, and Peter

Sarris, who read sections of Chapter 7; Sonia Gutie´rrez, Helena Hamerow, Simon

Loseby, and Mark Whittow, who read sections of Chapter 8; Domenico Vera and

Chris Dyer, who read Chapter 9; Simon Loseby, who read all of, and Lisa Fentress

and John Haldon, who read sections of, Chapter 10; Paul Arthur, Lisa Fentress, Jodi

Magness, Olga Magoula, Eduardo Manzano, Paul Van Ossel, and Bryan Ward-

Perkins, who read some or all of Chapter 11. They were often sharp critics, and

I gained immensely from their insights, suggestions, and bibliographical references; I

know they do not all agree with my conclusions.

  

Another group of people, partially overlapping, consists of friends with whom I

started when I needed to get a sense of the bibliography of a given region: people I

could not do without as guides to one area or another. These include Steven Bassett,

Julio Escalona, Simon Esmonde-Cleary, Lisa Fentress, Riccardo Francovich, Hugh

Kennedy, Eduardo Manzano, Ulf Na¨sman, Pierre Ouzoulias, Claude Raynaud, Peter

Sarris, and Paul Van Ossel. I must also here express my great debt to Rosamond

McKitterick, Ghislaine Noye´, and Pierre Toubert, who invited me to teach in,

respectively, the University of Cambridge (to give the 2003 Trevelyan Lectures), the

E´cole des Chartes, and the Colle`ge de France; the lectures I gave there are all, in more

or less revised form, in this book and I gained enormously from the conversations and

library access—and the time to research and write—that I had both in Cambridge

and in Paris.

  

I benefited from ideas and bibliographical or other help from, apart from those

mentioned above, Stuart Airlie, Donald Bailey, Franc¸ois Baratte, Bernard Bavant,

Andrea Berlin, Franc¸ois Bougard, Monique Bourin, Alan Bowman, Luis Caballero,

Federico Cantini, Gill Clark, Simon Corcoran, Bill Day, Paolo Delogu, Archie Dunn,

Santiago Feijoo, Laurent Feller, Rebecca Foote, Sauro Gelichi, Sharon Gerstel, Mary

Harlow, Jill Harries, Catherine Hills, Richard Hodges, Sonja Jilek, Jeremy Johns,

Olga Karagiorgiou, Sean Kingsley, Luke Lavan, Ste´phane Lebecq, Re´gine Le Jan,

Wolf Liebeschuetz, Antonio Malpica, Cyril Mango, Alessandra Molinari, Jinty Nel-

son, Margaret O’Hea, Lauro Olmo, Helen Patterson, Walter Pohl, Andrew Poulter,

Dominic Rathbone, Mark Redknap, Paul Reynolds, Charlotte Roueche´, Riccardo

  Acknowledgements viii

  

Trement, Marco Valenti, Alan Walmsley, Mark Whyman, Ian Wood, and Enrico

Zanini. A particular thanks is owed to Sue Bowen, who has spent what amounts to

years typing this book, and to Harry Buglass, who drew the maps. The index was

compiled by Alicia Correˆa. Here the list is certainly incomplete, but can be added to

with some of the more specific acknowledgements in footnotes; I am also very

grateful to the wide range of people who sent me their books and articles, many

unpublished, including doctoral theses; I could not have written this book without

you. I have tried to restrict this list to those who, knowingly or unknowingly, had a

direct effect on the book; if I was to include the rest of the people with whom I have

dealt fruitfully and intellectually since 1997, the list would be at least twice as long.

  

I must finally thank three institutions: the University of Birmingham Main Library,

and the Ashmolean (now Sackler) Library in Oxford, where I did most of my

research—I could not have written without the latter in particular; and the British

Academy, whose granting of a Research Readership in 1997–9 enabled me to start

this project in the first place. This book is the (delayed) result of that Readership.

  Birmingham C.J.W. April 2004

  

Contents

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  1. The regions discussed in this book and other placenames xvi

  2. The Roman empire in 400 xvii

  3. Africa xviii

  4. Egypt xix

  5. Syria and Palestine xx

  6. The Byzantine heartland xxi

  7. Italy xxii

  8. Spain and Mauretania xxiii

  9. Central and southern Gaul xxiv

  10. Northern Gaul xxv

  11. Britain xxvi

  12. Ireland xxvii

  13. Denmark xxviii

  In Maps 3–10: BENEVENTO Roman city . MURCIA New city in the post-Roman period

  þ Farfa Monastery

  

  AA Auctores antiquissimi AEA Archivo espan˜ol de arqueologı´a Æthelberht The laws of the earliest English kings, pp. 4–16 Aistulf Leges Aistulfi Alfred The laws of the earliest English kings, pp. 62–92 AM Archeologia medievale APEL Arabic papyri in the Egyptian library ARS African Red Slip ware

  b. ibn BAR British archaeological reports BCS Cartularium saxonicum Cap. Capitularia CB Breviarium ecclesiae Ravennatis (Codice Bavaro) CDL Codice diplomatico longobardo ChLA Chartae latinae antiquiores CJ Codex Iustinianus CPR Corpus papyrorum Raineri CTh Theodosiani libri XVI Dip. Diplomata Dip. Kar. Diplomata Karolinorum Dip. Merov. Diplomata regum francorum e stirpe merovingica DSP derive´es des sigille´es pale´ochre´tiennes Ep., Epp. Epistula (or Epistola), Epistulae (or Epistolae) ERS Egyptian Red Slip ware Form. Formulae Form. Wis. Formulae Wisigothicae GC Gregory of Tours, Liber in gloria confessorum GM Gregory of Tours, Liber in gloria martyrum GWW Glazed White ware HE Bede, Historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum HGL Histoire ge´ne´rale de Languedoc HL Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum Hlothhere The laws of the earliest English kings, pp. 18–22 Ine The laws of the earliest English kings, pp. 36–60 JRA Journal of Roman archaeology KRU Koptische Rechtsurkunden des achten Jahrhunderts aus

  LH Gregory of Tours, Decem libri historiarum Liutprand Leges Liutprandi LRA Late Roman amphora (see Ch. 11, n. 24) LRE

  A. H. M. Jones, The later Roman empire LV Leges Visigothorum MDL Memorie e documenti per servire all’istoria di Lucca MEFR Me´langes de l’E´cole franc¸aise de Rome MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica NJ Novellae Iustiniani Nov. Maj. Novellae Maioriani Nov. Val. Novellae Valentiniani P. Ant. The Antinoopolis papyri P. Apoll. Papyrus grecs d’Apolloˆnos Anoˆ P. Bad. Vero¨ffentlichungen aus den badischen Papyrus-

  Sammlungen P. Cair. Masp. Papyrus grecs d’e´poque byzantine P. Flor. Papiri greco-egizii, III P. Ital. Die nichtliterarischer lateinischen Papyri Italiens aus der Zeit 445–700 P. Laur. Dai papiri della Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana P. Lond. Greek papyri in the British museum P. Mich. The Aphrodite papyri in the University of Michigan papyrus collection P. Ness. Excavations at Nessana, III P. Oxy. The Oxyrhynchus papyri P. Petra The Petra papyri P. Ross.-Georg. Papyri russischer und georgischer Sammlungen library, Manchester P. Ryl. Copt. Catalogue of the Coptic manuscripts in the collection of the John Rylands library, Manchester P. Vatic. Aphrod. I papiri vaticani greci di Aphrodito PBE J. R. Martindale (ed.), Prosopography of the Byzan- tine empire PBSR Papers of the British School at Rome PERF Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer. Fu¨hrer durch die Ausstel- lung PG Patrologiae cursus completus, series latina PL Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca PLRE J. R. Martindale, et al. (eds.), Prosopography of the later Roman empire PO Patrologia orientalis Pol. St-Germain Polyptique de l’abbaye de Saint-Germain-des-Pre´s, xii

  Abbreviations PSR Papyri Schott-Reinhardt Ratchis Leges Ratchis RF Regesto di Farfa Rothari Edictus Rothari RS Red Slip ware S P. H. Sawyer, Anglo-Saxon charters SRG Scriptores rerum germanicarum SRL Scriptores rerum langobardicarum et italicarum, saec. VI–IX SRM Scriptores rerum merovingicarum SS Scriptores Trad. Wiz. Traditiones Wizenburgenses TSHT terra sigillata hispa´nica tardı´a Ub. Urkundenbuch

  VM Gregory of Tours, De virtutibus sancti Martini

  VP Gregory of Tours, Liber vitae patrum Wihtred The laws of the earliest English kings, pp. 24–30 ZPR Zeitschrift fu¨r Papyrologie und Epigraphik

  Abbreviations xiii

  

Placenames

I have done my best to refer to placenames in their modern, not ancient or medieval,

spellings, so Me´rida not Emerita, Bologna not Bononia, only using English spellings

(generally in fact borrowed from French) for places like Milan, Athens, or Cologne,

where Milano, Athe¯nai, Ko¨ln would seem precious. In the West this creates few

problems, for most medieval historians do the same (ancient historians often use

classical forms, however). For regions of the Roman empire now in Arab-speaking

countries, and sometimes in Turkey and the Balkans, historians frequently use

ancient or medieval names to the exclusion of modern ones, particularly when they

are very different. Here I have used both, putting the modern one in brackets without

an initial article, so Arsinoe¨ (Madı¯nat al-Fayyu¯m); only where the ancient name (or

an Anglicization of it) is so well known that to use the modern one genuinely

contributes nothing, like Constantinople or Antioch, have I left it. So also I have

left well-known ancient names where there is no modern settlement, as with Caesa-

rea in modern Israel. Caesarea is also one of a handful of ancient Greek names that

have been left in Latinized versions (others are Nicaea and Phocaea), on the grounds

that they are so well known in this form that consistency would confuse. In Egypt,

where Coptic texts often provide a third name, I have put in all three when using

Coptic sources, so Sioout (Greek Lykopolis, modern Asyu¯t.). Arabic transliterations

are also very variable; when I have been able to pin down a classical Arabic form

I have normally used it, except in the Maghreb, where I have used the Francicized

transliterations current in the countries themselves, so Kairouan not Qayrawa¯n. Personal names

These create other difficulties. In general I have Anglicized the names of rulers, and

names from the standard lexicon of saints: so Justinian not Justinianus/Ioustinianos,

Clovis not Chlodovech(-us), John and George not Johannes, Geo¯rgios, etc. I have left

nearly everybody else in the language of the texts, except that I have cut -us from

Germanic names, so Gundulf not Gundulfus, and have sought to use modern stand-

ard transliterations of classical Arabic names, not the specific spelling forms of texts.

In Greek, I have transliterated kappa as k, upsilon as y (except in diphthongs) and chi

as ch. In Old Norse and Anglo-Saxon, I have transliterated thorn as th, and kept ð.

I have used modern forms for well-known literary figures, such as Augustine or Bede.

I have resisted the tendency of some Byzantinists to Latinize Greek names, which

does violence to intellectuals as Hellenic as Prokopios, and I have also avoided their

(even stranger) habit of Latinizing the titles of texts, though here I have generally

  Notes on terminology xv

  

used English, not the less familiar Greek, so Prokopios’ Buildings, not De aedificiis or Peri ktismato¯n. Geographical terminology

The ten geographical units discussed in this book will normally be called ‘regions’,

although, when they coincided with political units, I shall also use the names of these

units for variation, as in the period, after the 620s, when the Visigothic kingdom

roughly coincided with ‘Spain’. How to name larger and smaller subdivisions of these

regions caused me some difficulty, not least because the word ‘region’ is used for

relatively small units in many countries, both in official usage and popular speech

(the regione of Lazio, for example). I have had to choose, and stick by, one termino-

logical system, to avoid confusion, even if it sometimes looks odd. Accordingly,

formal subdivisions of my regions will be referred to by their then-used names,

provinces, duchies, themes, and so on; but the major subdivisions will be referred

to in general as ‘sub-regions’, a suitably imprecise and therefore neutral term that

makes comparison between, say, the Lombard kingdom of northern Italy and Tus-

cany, the papal patrimonium S. Petri (i.e. Lazio), and the duchy of Benevento a

linguistically more straightforward process. Smaller units will be called areas, zones,

(city) territories—as well as, sometimes, counties or dioceses where this would be a

technically exact usage. The smallest blocks, small river-valleys or groups of villages, will be called ‘microregions’. On villas

‘Villa’ in the text (pl. ‘villas’) means an isolated rural estate-complex from the Roman

period, discoverable by archaeology or air photography. ‘ Villa’ (pl. ‘villae’) is a Latin

term, which may mean estate, or estate-centre (i.e. ‘villa’) or village, or even—later

than our period—town; what it means in any given context will be discussed in the text, if it matters for the arguments, as in Chapter 8. xvi Dumbarton Edinburgh _Scotland

  North _{IRELAND Sea DENMARK} N

  Feddersen Wierde _BRITAIN Wijnaldum _{F r i s i a} Issendorf Odoorn Wijster Austrasia _Saxony Warendorf _Thuringia

  Brittany Burgundy

  Neustria Freising h

  R _GAUL/ . _{Alemannia FRANCIA} R Bavaria Kirchheim Augsburg

  Staffelsee Halmyris Aquitaine Galicia

  (Independenta) , Asturias Basque e Cherson

  Languedoc Provence R ub

  Country . Dan Trapezos

  

Iustiniana

Aragón (Trabzon) _{SPAIN Catalonia ITALY}

Prima

_{Balkans Armenia} Maps

  Portugal _{Sardinia THE} Samosata Otranto Anatolia

  Andalucía (Samsat) _{BYZANTINE R} Mosul Cagliari _Iraq

  .T _HEARTLAND Jazira Samarra igr is _{N O R T H A F R I C A}

  Deir al-Zor Baghdad R _SYRIA

  . E u _{Atlas Mountains} ph _AND r at e s

  Leptis PALESTINE Magna Sabratha

  Gulf of _SPAIN Ghirza naica _{r e Scotland region not discussed in this book} region discussed in this book Sirte _Cy Wijster placename not on other maps EGYPT Hijaz

  R. Nile

S a h a r a

kilometres

  Red 500 1000

   Sea Madina Map 1. The regions discussed in this book and other placenames. approximate borders of the Roman empire, 400 North

  N Numidia some Roman provinces and territories

  Sea major movements of goods kilometres

  R .

  500 1000 R h

  Belgica II i n

  Armorica e Pannonia

  Noricum Rhaetia Aquitaine Galicia

  Scythia Tarraconensis

  R. D e an

  Narbonensis u b

Illyricum

  Corsica Moesia II Lusitania Maps

  Campania Carthaginiensis

  ROME Thrace Armenia CONSTANTINOPLE

  Makedonia Baetica Sardinia Galatia

  Epiros Lucania

  Bithynia Cappadocia Phrygia

  R. Tigris Bruttii Lydia Pisidia

  Tingitana M a u r e t a n i a Cilicia ANTIOCH is P a ariens Caria am i ph y l aes Sicily

  C CARTHAGE Lycia R Proconsularis

  . Eup Sitifensis Numidia hra

  Byzacena Cyprus tes

  Crete T r i p o ALEXANDRIA ic a a n re y l i t a C n i a

  R. Nile Thebaid

  Red Sea xvii Map 2. The Roman empire in 400. Négrine GAFSA SFAX BARARUS

  (Rougga) KAIROUAN Raqqada SULLECTHUM (Salakta)

  Ain Ksar TIMGAD TEBÉSSA TEBÉSSA Tuletianos KASSERINE

  Sabra al-Mansuriyya kilometres 50 100

  (Souk Ahras) _{N u m i d i a} S a h a r a ^Jerba

  (Dougga)

UCHI

MAIUS

UZAPPA

MACTAR

CONSTANTINE CALAMA THAGASTE

  Burunitanus (Souk el-Khmis) BULLA REGIA THUBURBO MAIUS THUGGA

  Sidi Marzouk Tounsi BELALIS MAIOR (Henchir el-Faouar)

  

SUFETULA

(Sbeïtla)

SUFETULA

(Sbeïtla)

  AMMAEDARA (Haïdra) AMMAEDARA (Haïdra)

  (Souk Ahras) _{N u m i d i a} SÉTIF SÉTIF Belezma _Mountains

  LEPTI MINUS RUSPE ^Pantelleria BÉJA SOUSSE PHERADI MAIUS (Sidi Khalifa)

  THUGGA (Dougga)

UCHI

MAIUS

UZAPPA

MACTAR

CONSTANTINE CALAMA THAGASTE

  MAIUS Mappalia Siga (Henchir Mettich) Mappalia Siga (Henchir Mettich)

  (Souk el-Khmis) BULLA REGIA THUBURBO

  Tounsi BELALIS MAIOR (Henchir el-Faouar) Burunitanus

  Ain Ksar TIMGAD _{Aurès Mountains Aurès Mountains} Tuletianos KASSERINE Sidi Marzouk

  (Annaba) Belezma _Moun ^{ta ins}

  CARTHAGE TUNIS UTHINA (Oudhna) ^Sicily El Mahrine ^{R. Medjerda} HIPPO

  SEGERMES PUPPUT (Hammamet) NEAPOLIS (Nabeul) MATEUR Aufidianus

  N land above 500 metres Map 3. Africa. xviii Maps Deir al-Bala’iza ALEXANDRIA Marea BOUTO

  Abu Mina BUSIRIS (Abu Sir Bana) CAIRO

  FUSTAT Karanis ARSINOË (Madinat al-Fayyum)

  TEBTYNIS HERAKLEOPOLIS (Ehnasiyya) OXYRHYNCHOS

  (Bahnasa) KYNOPOLIS THEODOSIOUPOLIS HERMOPOLIS

  (Ashmunayn) ANTINOUPOLIS (Shaykh ‘Ibada) PANOPOLIS (Akhmim)

  KOPTOS (Qift)

QUS

THEBES (al-Uqsur) HERMONTHIS

  (Armant) ^{Red Sea} H i j a z

  PETRA AYLA (‘Aqaba) Humayma _{S i n a i} KLYSMA

  (Suez) PELOUSION (Tell al-Farama) GAZA

  JERUSALEM TINNIS DAMIETTA ^{Dead Sea} LYKOPOLIS (Asyut) Aphrodito (Kom Ishqaw)

  Jeme LATOPOLIS (Esna) SYENE (Aswan) ELEPHANTINE Tod

  APOLLONOPOLIS ANO (Edfu) ANTAIOPOLIS (‘Irmaniyya)

  Saqqara N land above 1000 metres kilometres

  100 200 Map 4. Egypt.

  Maps xix

  ANTIOCH R. Orontes

  TYRE Horvat Din‘ila ‘AKKO Capernaum _{Lake Galilee}

GADARA (Umm Qays)

_{Hawran D e c} apol _is

  Upper Zohar GAZA Khirbet Faris

  ASKALON (Ashqelon) MADABA Hesban

  PHILADELPHIA (‘Amman) _{Dead Sea Dead Sea} RAMLA JERICHO JERUSALEM PETRA

  Mampsis (Mamshit) Duyuk PETRA Mampsis (Mamshit)

  Duyuk APOLLONIA (Arshaf) CAESAREA

  Tel Jezreel _{Samaria R. Jordan} ^{Jezreel valley} Sumaqa GERASA (Jerash) SCYTHOPOLIS (Bet She’an)

  PELLA (Tabaqat Fahl) Chorazin

ABILA (Umm al-‘Amad)

  N e g e v Kerak Sobata (Shivta)

  

CAPITOLIAS (Bayt Ras)

BOSTRA (Busra)

Umm al-Jimal

  PELLA _{(Tabaqat Fahl)} Chorazin

ABILA (Umm al-‘Amad)

CAPITOLIAS (Bayt Ras)

  

BOSTRA (Busra)

Umm al-Jimal TRIPOLIS (Tarabulus)

  EPIPHANIA

(Hama)

LAODIKEIA (Ladhiqiya)

  Nessana (Nizzana) N land above 1000 metres kilometres 50 100

  Map 5. Syria and Palestine.

  En Boqeq Rehovot ELOUSA (Haluza)

  ‘Anjar ‘Anjar DAMASCUS

  Limestone _Massif CHALKIS (Qinnasrin)

  500 metres kilometres

  APAMEA _{EPIPHANIA (Hama)} ‘Amudiye Brad

  Kaft Nabo Qa‘lat Sim‘an

  Turin Turin Kaper Koraon Serjilla

  Brad Kafr Nabo Qa‘lat

  Sim‘an Kaper Koraon Serjilla Behyo

  Bara Bara Dehes land above

  25 ^{C i l i c i a} ANTIOCH CYRRHUS

  EDESSA (Urfa) ZEUGMA Be ^{qa’a Beqa’a}

  Cyprus _{R . Oront} ^es _{R. Orontes L i} ^{m e s t o}

ⁿ

^e

^{M a}

^s

^s

ⁱ

^f

BEROIA (Aleppo)

  CHALKIS (Qinnasrin) APAMEA Andarin

  PALMYRA (Tadmor) BEIRUT

EMESA

  

(Hims)

^{S y r i a n} _{D e s e r t} SERGIOPOLIS (Rusafa) BALIS CALLINICUM

  (Raqqa) _{R .}

  Euph r ates ^{R . B a l} ik _h

  xx Maps

  R. Da n _{u b e} land above 300 metres NICOPOLIS NICOPOLIS kilometres _{T h r a c e Bosporos Black Sea} 100 200

  M a k e d o n i a M a k e d o n i a PHILIPPI PHILIPPI CONSTANTINOPLE PELLA PELLA PELLA PELLA AMPHIPOLIS AMPHIPOLIS

  EUCHAITA EUCHAITA _{Sea of} NIKOMEDEIA (Izmit) NIKOMEDEIA (Izmit) THESSALONIKI THESSALONIKI THESSALONIKI THESSALONIKI _{Marmara h y h h y n y n n i a i a i a} BUTRINT BUTRINT BUTRINT BUTRINT _{i t i t i t B B B} NICAEA (Iznik) NICAEA (Iznik) _{i a i a} ABYDOS ABYDOS _{E Epiros E E G a l a t G a l a t} ANKARA ANKARA _{pi pi pi}

  PROUSA (Bursa) PROUSA (Bursa) Sykeon Sykeon

ANASTASIOUPOLIS ANASTASIOUPOLIS

  ros ros ros Dardanelles _{Thessaly Thessaly Thessaly A e Lesbos} Maps _{g AMORION AMORION} PERGAMON PERGAMON PERGAMON PERGAMON C a p p a d o c i a C a p p a d o c i a

  MYTILINI _{Bo Boiotia e} CAESAREA CAESAREA PHOCAEA (Eski Foça) PHOCAEA (Eski Foça) PHOCAEA (Eski Foça) PHOCAEA (Eski Foça)

DELPHI DELPHI

  (Kayseri) (Kayseri) iotia a _{n Chios}

SARDIS SARDIS SARDIS SARDIS

  SMYRNA (Izmir) SMYRNA (Izmir) SMYRNA (Izmir) SMYRNA (Izmir) _{n s n s} EPHESOS EPHESOS EPHESOS EPHESOS CORINTH CORINTH Emporio _{S r d e a i a i}

  ATHENS n HIERAPOLIS (Pamukkale) HIERAPOLIS (Pamukkale) _{R . M aia t t n n} OLYMPIA ARGOS ARGOS _{e LAODIKEIA LAODIKEIA u u} Sipha Sipha SAGALASSOS SAGALASSOS o o _{Aigina a Samos APHRODISIAS APHRODISIAS} (Çemkale) (Çemkale) _{Peloponnesos Peloponnesos Porto Cheli} MILETOS MILETOS _{s s Cilicia M M} TELMISSOS TELMISSOS

ATTALEIA ATTALEIA

  

SPARTA SPARTA BODRUM BODRUM u u

(Fethiye) (Fethiye) r r

  (Antalya) (Antalya) _{u u} SIDE SIDE _{a a}

  Alahan Alahan _Melos KYANEAI KYANEAI _{T T} KORYKOS Karakabakli Karakabakli

  

XANTHOS

Karkabo Karkabo ANTIOCH ANTIOCH _L

  

XANTHOS

  (Alakilise) (Alakilise) _y MYRA _{Rhodes c i a APAMEA APAMEA} ANEMOURION _Crete (Anamur) Pseira N GORTYN _Cyprus xxi Map 6. The Byzantine heartland. COMO MILAN TURIN LODI PAVIA CREMONA

  VERONAPADUA TREVISO CIVIDALE AQUILEIA GRADO _Istria CIVIDALE AQUILEIA GRADO

  Prato Poggibonsi Alteserra ^{R . A r} n o

  Farfa Trita Casauria S. Vincenzo al Volturno Montecassino

  Pratola Serra Altavilla Silentina S. Giovanni di Ruoti

  Calle di Tricarico Calle di Tricarico

  Tropea Patti Marina Piazza

  Armerina Marettimo Contrada Saraceno

  Pantelleria FLORENCE SIENA RIETI ROME OSTIA PISTOIA

  VITERBO ^{Chianti Garfagnana S} _{a b i n a} ^Elba Campori Asulari Guamo

  Castelnuovo Berardenga Montarrenti Monteverdi

  Casauria S. Vincenzo al Volturno Montecassino

  Cornino Scarlino Gello Monte

  Amiata _{R. Tiber} Mola di Monte Gelato Ponte Nepesino

  Mazzano S. Giacinto

_Casale

_{S. Donato}

Farfa ^{R . E l} sa

  LUCCA Rosignano S. Gimignano AREZZO

  Musciano PISA N land above 500 metres kilometres

  100 200 kilometres 50 100

  Vigevano Map 7. Italy.

  Pratola Serra Altavilla Silentina S. Giovanni di Ruoti

  Amalfi Trinitapoli Farfa Trita

  VENICE PIACENZA PARMA GENOA GENOA LUCCA LUNI PISA BOLOGNA RAVENNA RIMINI SENIGALLIA PESCARA AREZZO SPOLETO RIETI AREZZO SPOLETO RIETI OSTIA NAPLES ROME ROME BENEVENTO CASERTA NOLA SALERNO BENEVENTO CASERTA NOLA SALERNO BARI OTRANTO SQUILLACE TAUREANA REGGIO REGGIO PALERMO AGRIGENTO SYRACUSE CARTHAGE BRESCIA

  

R. Tiber

Sirmione Torcello

  VICENZA

  VITERBO ^{Croatia Istria Friuli Romagna Abruzzo} _{L a z}

_i

_o

_P u g l i _a

  C ^{C a l a b r i a a l a b r i a} _{Sicily Sicily} ^{T u s c a n y T u s c a n y Molise Lucania Lucania Lucania Molise Lucania Molise} Agrate

  CHUR TRENTO AOSTA SUSA BERGAMO ^Non Sagogn Campione Belmonte

  Novalesa Novalesa Limonta Monte Barro

  CHUR TRENTO AOSTA SUSA BERGAMO ^Non Sagogn Campione Belmonte

  Limonta Monte Barro Desenzano Sabbioneta

  

Invillino Invillino

Flexum S. Antonino di Perti Fidenza

  Crecchio ^{R. Po R. Arno} Gaeta Miseno Ischia

  Nonantola Comacchio REGGIO SAVONA MODENA FLORENCE SIENA PISTOIA

  IMOLA Bobbio Veleia Varsi

  Persiceta Filattiera S. Gimignano

  REGGIO SAVONA MODENA FLORENCE SIENA PISTOIA

  IMOLA Bobbio Veleia Varsi

  Persiceta Filattiera S. Gimignano Cornino

  Monte Amiata Monte Amiata

  xxii Maps

  Asturias ^Asturias Basque Country Basque Country _{B i e r z o B i e r z o Basque Country}

  Calahorra Tudela Roses Vilaclara

  ZARAGOZA Map 8. Spain and Mauretania.

  N land above 1000 metres kilometres 100 200

  Gormaz Diego Álvaro Gijón

  Albarracín Albarracín Monte Cildá La Yecla

  La Yecla Gormaz Diego Álvaro

  ~ ^{R . G ua d alq uivi r R . G u ad ia na R. T ajo R. Duero} Compludo Compludo Monte Cildá

  Basra Fès Nador Salobrena

  Strait of _Gibraltar Tanger Rabat

  ~ Penaflor CÁSTULO

  Bobastro Ronda El Castillón Loja

  Pisoes ~ Torre Águila La Cocosa

  Melque Melque S. Lucia del Trampal

  El Bovalar

Catalayud

^{R. Ebro}

Gózquez

Pla de Nadal

  Calahorra Tudela Roses Vilaclara

  El Castellar Vilauba Puig Rom

  Navarre N a v a r r e

Tudmir

_{Kabyl ie Kabylie} ^Galicia

  VALENCIA TOLEDO MÉRIDA ALICANTE

  G ui pú zc

  ^G oa _{ui p ú zc o} ^a C ^{M a e s a r i e n s i s e s e t a M e s e t a}

^P

^{y r e n e e s}

^P

^{y r e n e e s Pallars Urgell Pallars Urgell} _{T i n g i t a n a T i n g i t a n a} ^{B a l e a r i c I s l a n d s}

  LUGO LEÓN PALENCIA CLUNIA LLEIDA TOULOUSE NARBONNE

  EMPÚRIES BARCELONA TARRAGONA SALAMANCA OVIEDO DUMIO BRAGA

PAMPLONA

TARAZONA ZARAGOZA COMPLUTUM

  RECÓPOLIS OVIEDO DUMIO BRAGA

PAMPLONA

TARAZONA COMPLUTUM

  RECÓPOLIS

  CÓRDOBA JAÉN MURCIA CARTAGENA PECHINA

  SEVILLE GIRONA HUESCA GIRONA HUESCA CAESAREA (Cherchel) Nakur

  ALMERÍA EL TOLMO DE MINATEDA BEGASTRI

  (Cehegín) GRANADA EL TOLMO DE MINATEDA BEGASTRI

  (Cehegín) GRANADA MÁLAGA SEPTEM

  (Ceuta)

  VOLUBILIS POMARIA (Tlemcen)

  POMARIA (Tlemcen) ALTAVA SÉTIF

  Maps xxiii

50 Secqueval

  Espaly Espaly Lombren Lombren Fos St.-Blaise

  Mondeville Sannerville Corbon Marboué

  Tresson Redon Brossay Les Carriès

  Étampes Fleury Compiègne Larrey ^{R. Da nub e} St.

  Gallen Grandval ^{R. Danube} St.

  Gallen Grandval Dijon Saulieu Dijon Flavigny

  Saulieu Pissevieille Cormery Manthelan Antoigné

  St.-Rémy- la-Varenne Ardin Chaptelat

  Plassac Bourg Chabrignac Astaillac

  Riom Aydat Riom Aydat

  Lunel

Lezoux

Roc de

  . M _{a r n e} R ^{. S a ô n e} _{R . R h ô n} ^{R .} e ^{Do r d ogne} R.

  Pampelune

Vaunage

Lezoux

Roc de

  Pampelune

Vaunage

Aurillac La Graufesenque Aurillac La Graufesenque

  Montmaurin Séviac Chiragan Fontenay

  Bobigny Frankfurt Frankfurt

  Mitry Juvincourt- et-Damary N land above 500 metres kilometres

  50 100 kilometres

  AIX-EN- PROVENCE MARSEILLE CLERMONT

  CHALON- SUR-SAÔNE St.-Germain-lès-Corbeil La-Celle-

  St.-Cloud Map 9. Central and southern Gaul.

  xxiv Maps

  Garo nn _e

  V e x i n P i n c e r a i s

_{B r i e}

P o i t o u _{M a s s} i ^M _{f C e n t}

_r

_a

_l

^{a s s i} _{f C e n t}

_r

_a

_l

^{N o r m a n d y Champagne}

  P ^P _{y r e n e e s y r e n e e s L a} ^{n g u e d}

^o

^c

^{A u v e r g n e A u v e r g n e}

^{A l p s} P r o v e n c e P r o v e n c e

  Arthies Pontoise Précy-sur-Oise _Neauphlette Arnouville

  PARIS MEAUX REIMS SOISSONS SENLIS ROUEN PARIS ORLÉANS LE MANS

  

AUXERRE

TOURS NANTES POITIERS LAON REIMS

  VERDUN COLOGNE MAINZ TRIER STRASBOURG TRIER METZ STRASBOURG BESANÇON CHALON-

  SUR-SAÔNE BESANÇON LANGRES

  

SENS

AUTUN AUTUN

  VIENNE GENEVA AOSTA SUSA MAURIENNE GENEVA AOSTA SUSA MAURIENNE LYON ORANGE ORANGE ARLES MÂCON BOURGES

  SAINTES LIMOGES CLERMONT BORDEAUX ÉAUZE TOULOUSE

  ST.-BERTRAND- DE-COMMINGES ST.-BERTRAND- DE-COMMINGES

  

NARBONNE

BÉZIERS ALBI CAHORS RODEZ

  UZÈS NÎMES ANGERS Chaussy

  Maule ^R.

  . M ain