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DESIGNING A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL

SPEAKING MATERIALS FOR ANDONG DRIVERS

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

  

By

Birgitta Anggre Hapsari

Student number: 981214168

  

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

  TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE OF TITLE......................................................................................................i PAGE OF APPROVAL...........................................................................................ii PAGE OF the STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY................................iv PAGE OF DEDICATION........................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................vi TABLE OF CONTENTS......................................................................................viii LIST OF FIGURES...............................................................................................xii LIST OF TABLES................................................................................................xiii LIST OF APPENDICES.......................................................................................xiv ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................xv ABSTRAK............................................................................................................xvi

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................1 A. Background of the Study.................................................................1 B. Problem Identification.....................................................................2 C. Problem Formulation.......................................................................2 D. Objectives of the Study...................................................................3 E. Benefits of The Study......................................................................3 F. Definition of Terms.........................................................................3 CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW........................…..................................5

  B. Theoretical Description...................................................................5

  1. English for Specific Purposes...................................................5

  a. The Origins..........................................................................6

  b. The Characteristic of ESP Program....................................7

  c. Designing ESP..................................................................11

  2. Communicative Language Teaching.......................................12

  a. Background.......................................................................12

  b. Theory of Learning...........................................................14

  c. Type of Teaching Learning Activities..............................14

  d. Learner Roles....................................................................14

  e. Teacher Roles....................................................................15

  3. Communicative Syllabus Design............................................16

  4. Speaking Skill.........................................................................19

  a. The nature of Speaking.....................................................20

  b. Teaching Techniques........................................................21

  5. Instructional Program Development.......................................22

  a. Banathy’s Model...............................................................22

  b. Yalden’s Model.................................................................24

  C. Theoretical Framework.................................................................25

  CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY.......................................................................27 A. Introduction..............................................................................27

  1. Library Study.....................................................................27

  3. Selection/development of Syllabus Type...........................41

  2. Result of Evaluation of the Designed Materials................49

  a. Description of the Andong Drivers.................................43

  1. Result of Need Analysis.....................................................43

  C. The Result of the Survey Study...............................................43

  5. Design and Conduct the Evaluation...................................43

  4. Designing the Instructional Materials................................41

  2. Formulating Objectives......................................................36

  2. Survey Study......................................................................28

  1. Need Survey.......................................................................34

  CHAPTER IV. RESULT ANALYSIS..................................................................33 A. Introduction.........................................…….............................33 B. The Result of Library Study.....................................................33

  F. Data Analysis...........................................................................31

  1. Questionnaire.....................................................................31

  E. Instrument................................................................................31

  D. Procedures................................................................................29

  C. Respondent...............................................................................28

  a. Description of the data...................................................50

  CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS......................................58 A. Conclusions..............................................................................58 B. Suggestions..............................................................................60 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................................................................................62 APPENDICES........................................................................................................64

  

LIST OF FIGURES

  Figure 1: The Process of the Communication System...........................................20 Figure 2: Banathy’s Model.....................................................................................23 Figure3: Yalden’s Model.......................................................................................24 Figure 4: The Stages of the Theoretical Framework..............................................26 Figure5: The Graph of the Data Presentation of the Andong Drivers’ Educational

  Background..............................................................................................44 Figure 6: The Graph of the Data Presentation of the Importance of English

  Language..................................................................................................46

  LIST OF TABLES

  Table 1: Three Levels of Communicative Competence in Second Language Education...............................................................................................18

  Table 2: The form of the Table of Need Survey..............................……..............32 Table 3: The Table of the General Instructional Objectives..................................36 Table 4: The Table of the Specific Instructional Objectives..................................38 Table 5: The Table of the Data Description of the Andong Drivers......................44 Table 6: The Result of the Target Needs...............................................................47 Table 7: The Table of the Language Functions.....................................................49 Table 8: The Table of Data Description of the Lecturers and Trainers.................50 Table 9: The Table of the Measurement Points.....................................................50 Table 10: The Table of the Description of the Respondents’ Opinion..................51

  LIST OF APPENDICES

  Appendix 1: Questionnaires of Need Analysis......................................................64 Appendix 2: Surat Permohonan Pengisian Kuesioner..........................................67 Appendix 3: Gambaran Umum..............................................................................68 Appendix 4: Questionnaires for Evaluation...........................................................70 Appendix 5: Syllabus.............................................................................................73 Appendix 6: Lesson Plan.......................................................................................75 Appendix 7: The Presentation of A Set of English Instructional Speaking

  Materials for Andong Drivers.....................................................(1-55)

  

ABSTRACT

  Birgitta Anggre Hapsari (2003) Designing a Set of English Instructional Speaking

  Materials for Andong Drivers . Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University

  This study was conducted in order to design a set of instructional materials that could be used to help the andong drivers improve their speaking ability in English. There were two problems discussed in this study. They were: 1) How is a set of English instructional materials for andong drivers designed? 2) What do the designed materials look like.

  To solve both problems, the designer used both library and survey study. This study was constructed on the combination of Banathy’s and Yalden’s model, and also enriched by Hutchinson’s model. The reason why the designer decided to combine the models from Banathy and Yalden was because they were simple and applicable. They consist of five stages. 1) A needs’ survey (Yalden’s and Hutchinson’s), 2) Formulating objectives (Yalden’s and Banathy’s), 3) Selection/development of syllabus type (Yalden’s), 4) Design the instructional materials (Banathy’s and Yalden’s), 5) Design and conduct evaluation (Yalden’s).

  The survey study was conducted in order to solve the second problem namely what do the designed materials look like, by compiling data from the respondents. The respondents were the English lecturers of the English education study program and trainers of several courses in Yogyakarta. The English lecturers of the English education study program of Sanata Dharma University and the trainers of several courses were involved because they had experience in English instructional materials and also the teaching/learning activities.

  In this study, the writer used questionnaires to gather the data from both the andong drivers and also the lecturers. Questionnaires were chosen since they were the most effective way to obtain the data from the andong drivers and from the lecturers also trainers.

  From the andong drivers, the writer obtained information about their interest in English also about the kind of English needed by them. From the English lecturers of the English education study program of Sanata Dharma University and the trainers, the writer obtained their opinions, criticisms and suggestions on the designed materials.

  The data gathered form the survey study was used to make revisions and improvements on the designed materials. Based on the survey study also, a set of English instructional speaking materials for andong drivers was finally designed. This was presented in Appendix 7 page 1 to 55.

  

ABSTRAK

  Birgitta Anggre Hapsari (2003) Designing a Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for Andong Drivers . Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

  Dilaksanakannya studi ini bertujuan untuk membuat seperangkat materi pengajaran bahasa Inggris untuk para pengemudi andong untuk dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara dalam bahasa Inggris.Dalam studi ini terdapat dua permasalahan yang perlu dibahas. Permasalahan tersebut adalah: 1) Bagaimana seperangkat materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang menekanken pada kemampuan berbicara didesain. 2) Seperti apakah desain seperangkat materi pembelajaran tersebut.

  Untuk menjawab dua permasalahan tersebut penulis meggunakan metode studi pustaka dan studi survey. Dalam studi ini, penulis menggunakan kombinasi dari dua model yaitu Yalden dan Banathy yang diperkaya oleh Hutchinson untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama yaitu bagaimana seperangkat materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang menekankan pada kemampuan berbicara didesain. Alasan dipilihnya kombinasi dari ketiga model yang tersebut diatas adalah bahwa model tersebut sederhana dan dapat diterapkan. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah: 1) Melakukan survey kebutuhan siswa (Yalden and Hutchinson) 2) Memformulasikan tujuan pembelajaran 3) Menyusun silabus (Yalden) 4) Mendesain sistem (Banathy) 5) Mengadakan perbaikan (Banathy).

  Metode kedua yaitu studi survey dilakukan untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua yaitu seperti apakah desain seperangkat materi pembelajaran tersebut. Dalam rangka menjawab permasalahan tersebut studi ini dilakukan untuk memperoleh data dari para responden. Responden-responden tersebut adalah para dosen dari prodi PBI dan beberapa instruktur bahasa Inggris dari beberapa tempat kursus di Yogyakarta. Para dosen bahasa Inggris dari PBI USD dan dan para instruktur bahasa Inggris dilibatkan dalam studi ini karena mereka telah memiliki pengalaman yang cukup dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris.

  Dalam studi ini penulis mengguanakan kuesioner untuk mendapatkan data yang diperlukan baik dari para pengemudi andong maupun dari para dosen dan instruktur bahasa Inggris. Kuesioner dipilih karena kuesioner adalah cara yang paling efektif untuk memperoleh informasi yang diperlukan mengingat kondisi dan situasi.

  Dari para pengemudi andong sendiri penulis mendapatkan informasi tentang minat siswa dan topik-topik yang perlu dikuasai oleh para pengemudi andong. Dari para dosen PBI Universitas Sanata Dharma dan para instruktur bahasa Inggris penulis mendapatkan pendapat, kritik dan usulan untuk materi

  Dan pada akhirnya dengan menggunakan data yang telah diperoleh dari studi survey, seperangkat materi pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang menekankan pada kemampuan berbicara untuk para pengemudi andong didesain. Desain materi pembelajaran tersebut disajikan dalam lampiran 7 halaman 1 sampai dengan 55.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study Tourism in Indonesia especially in Yogyakarta grows rapidly. There are a lot

  of tourists coming to visit this city. The impact of those phenomena is that a lot of people work at tourism field. Hotels, motels and guesthouses are built in many places. The transportation facilities also grow fast along the improvement on tourism area. Consequently, the growth of services in many areas of tourism must be improved. The improvement includes the improvement of human resources in the area of tourism, especially in the transportation services, and of course the ability to speak in English is also required.

  All tourists who come in this city tend to find the uniqueness that they will never meet in their country. The uniqueness also includes the uniqueness of the vehicles, which are available in this city. Besides pedicab, the unique vehicles are

  

andong which become one of alternatives preferred by tourists. They like andong

  because while they ride on the andong they can also feel the original atmosphere of the city.

  In doing their jobs, andong drivers often make contacts with tourists although they do not master English properly. In order to be able to give good

  The fact that lies on the society is that most andong drivers in Yogyakarta do not have the ability to communicate in English appropriately, while English in their daily work is very crucial. This is because most of them have low motivation since they think that doing their job is the most important thing for them. By seeing this phenomenon, the study is meant to provide material and facility to help them to learn English.

  B. Problem Identification

  The designer knows that providing English materials for them is difficult since most of them are primary graduates, and they do not master English. For its difficulty of finding a ready to use materials for andong drivers, thus in this study the designer tries to design materials which are easy and applicable in their daily job

  By providing materials which are easy and applicable, the designer hopes that

  

andong drivers will be able to communicate with foreign tourists easily and

  appropriately, so that if they can speak English communicatively they might find foreign visitors easily. Therefore they might increase their income.

  C. Problem Formulation

  From the discussion above the designer formulates the problems as follows.

  D. Objective of the Study

  The objective of this study is to answer the first question on how a set of English instructional materials for andong drivers is designed. To answer this question the designer will present the kinds of method and approach that are going to be used in designing the materials. The second objective of this study is to answer the second question on what the design materials will look like. To answer this question, the designer will present the designed materials for andong drivers which will be design based on the needs of the andong drivers and the theories presented in chapter two.

  E. Benefit of the Study

  For the andong drivers, this design material will help them to improve their knowledge of English, so that it will be useful in the andong drivers’ job.

  For the designer and those who are interested in designing English instructional materials, they can get the picture of stages in developing the materials. This set of English instructional materials can be an alternative that can avoid the learners from boredom of the existing materials.

  F. Definition of Terms

  In this section, the definition of terms used in designing the program is given to avoid the ambiguous interpretation.

  According to Gagne and Briggs (1979: 18), instruction is defined as the means employed by teachers, designer of materials, curriculum specialists, and others whose purpose is to develop an organized plan to promote learning. The instructional design can be intended for using in any field such as in public or private schools, in industry, or in public service training installations.

  2. Instructional Materials Banathy (1976: 16) states that instructional system means a system itself which seen its purpose to the extent, that enables the entire possible interaction between the learners and the environment to attain the design performance.

3. Andong

  According to Ecchols and Shadily (1994: 19) andong is defined as vehicle four-wheeled carriage drawn by two horses common in Central Java. The term

  andong drivers in this study refer to persons who ride the vehicle called andong, and use it to earn money.

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Introduction This chapter will be divided into two parts: the theoretical description and

  theoretical framework. The theoretical description consists of several theories related to the development of the designed set of materials. They are theory of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), theory of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), theory of Communicative Syllabus Design, theory of Speaking Skill, and theory of Instructional Design Model.

  The theoretical framework will consist of the framework, which is based on the theoretical description that has been discussed in the first part of this chapter.

B. Theoretical Description

1. English for Specific Purposes

  It is important to discuss English for Specific Purposes since English for

  

andong drivers is part of it. In this part the writer presents the history of ESP

  development, the characteristic and the classification of ESP, in order to give an overall view of how English for andong drivers becomes part of ESP.

a. The Origins

  ESP is not a planned and coherent movement, but rather a phenomenon that grows out of a number of converging trends. These trends have operated in variety of ways around the world, but we can identify three main reasons common to the emergence of all ESP (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 6).

1. The demand for the instrumental use of English

  The demand for the instrumental use of English starts from the historical review of the masses of a brave new world which turned out to be dominated by two powerful forces, namely technology and commerce. Having a solid economic basis, the USA played a primary role in those two fields.

  English therefore gained access for international scale of use. In addition to that, people of the New World came to realize that being involved in two dominating waves would inevitably require English communication ability. Thus, these people wished to learn English for ‘a predominance of practical command’ or for ‘instrumental use’ (Strevens, 1980: 6).

  2. The new concern about linguistics At about the same time as the demand for courses aiming at fulfilling the specific needs of the learners grow, new ideas emerged (Hutchinson and waters, 1987: 7). However in this new idea, the language was concerned from a different point of view, between the study of language usage towards language use (Widdowson, as cited in Dardjowidjojo, 1992: 3). Nevertheless

  The new concern about language use brings the fact that language varies from one context to another.

  3. Focus on the learner There is no doubt that people want to learn English not for pleasure only, but also for communication. Stevick (1971: 5) points out that ‘what matters in communication is the dimension of depth or personal significance of what is being communicated’. This means that learning to communicate in the target language should be related to the learners’ personal significance of their needs.

  Thus, as much as language learning is to gain communicative ability, the language program should be relevant to the learners’ needs. Since ‘with the relevance of the English courses to the learners needs would then improve their motivation and thereby make the learning better and faster’ (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 8).

a. The Characteristic of ESP Program

  With the learner-centered program, the program designer should start from the learners in term of communication needs in their job situations. Once people understand that syllabus and materials are characterized from learners’ needs, they begin to concern the methodology aspect. Certainly as agreed by Strevens (1980: 120) that ‘ESP is not itself a methodology’. On the other hand the term ‘learner- classroom procedures. So much as it is, Strevens (1980: 120) further adds, ‘the matching of teaching to learners’ needs also extent to innovate in methodological terms. This conception will certainly give a new meaning and challenge towards the ESP program development. This way, the program designer will be able to make a new way of teaching instead of being constraint to the particular method.

  There are features, which are considered as the ESP criteria suggested by Robinson (1991: 2) as follows: 1. ESP is ordinarily goal directed.

  It means that people intentionally learn English because they want to achieve a certain goal. They need English for their study or their work purposes and not merely because they are interested in General English. Consequently, the materials and activities must be appropriate with their study or work purpose.

  2. The design of ESP course .

  Need analysis as the direction of teaching learning process should be obtained first. Moreover, need analysis is used to clarify what people have to do in learning English. It emphasizes target or end course requirements.

  3. People who study ESP are usually adult rather than children .

  Normally people who learn English are not beginners, but they have already studied General English. In other words, they need ESP to continue their learning English in a more specific way related to their study or work.

  4. People who learn ESP in class should be identical.

  Generally people who study in the same class must have the same kind of work or specialty. It is not usual for an ESP class to have people who have more that one field of study or work.

  In addition to need analysis, which is stated on the second characteristics, Hutchinson and Waters offer an important way to conduct needs analysis. By determining target needs of the andong drivers, the sufficient data can be obtained.

  The target needs consist of 3 terms (Hutchinson and waters, 1987: 55) which can be seen as follows.

  a) Necessities

  Necessities are the types of needs, which are determined by the demands in the target situation. It concerns on what the learners have to know in order to function effectively in the target situation.

  b) Lacks

  Besides knowing the learners’ necessities, it is important to recognize what learners are already knows in order to see the learners’ lacks.

  c) Wants

  After the designer identifies the learners’ lacks and necessities, it is important to support the target needs with the learners’ view of their needs. The learners are giving a chance to tell their wants about the subject. Further Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 55) present a framework for target situational analysis:

  What is the language need?

• For study
• For work
• For training

  For combination of these -

  How will the language be used?

  Medium: speaking, reading , writing, etc - Channel: e.g. telephone, face to face -

• Types of text or discourse: e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversation, and technical manuals.

  What will the content areas be?

  Subject: e.g. medicine, biology, commerce, tourism - Level: technician, craft man, postgraduate, secondary school. -

  Whom will the learners use the language with?

  Native speaker or non-native speaker - Level of knowledge or receiver: e.g. expert, layman, and students - Relationship: e.g. colleagues, teachers, customers, superior subordinate -

  Where will the language be used?

  Physical settings: e.g. office, lecture, theatre, hotel, workshop, library - Human context: e.g. alone, meetings, demonstration, or telephone - Linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad. -

  When will the language be used?

• Concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently - Frequently, seldom, in large a scope.

  To gather information for need analysis, there are numbers of ways, which are frequently used. There are questionnaires, interviews, observation, data collection, and informal consultation with sponsors (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 58).

c. Designing ESP

1. Stages In organizing the ESP course, it is important to design what should be done.

  Strevens (1980: 109) gives some principal stages, which are important to follow, and those are, a) A detailed analysis of the learners needs.

  Because ESP is not general English, it is very important to get the data of the learners’ need, want, purpose, etc for which English is required.

  b) Determination of the scientist or technical content .

  English is widely used in science and technology. Consequently, teachers in ESP class should recognize the importance of theoretical, discourse, and communicative feature in scientific English.

  c) Determination of whether needs are ‘educational or ‘occupational .

  ESP is required for purpose either for study or work. So the people who need

  Students of a particular subject who need English for the ability to understand lectures given in English, to read the book written in English, to do their essay in English, etc. People who are already in occupation that need English for their work purpose.

  d) Determination of whether instruction in English precedes educational or occupational training follows it, or concurrent with it.

  e) Preparation of suitable syllabus and teaching materials.

  Actually, every ESP group has its own identified syllabus, its own range of teaching materials, and its own appropriate methodology.

2. Communicative Language Teaching

  Discussing the CLT method is important since the designer wants to base the course on the method. The designer chooses CLT as the basic of material development because CLT method is considered to be the most appropriate method according to the demand of the market. Some items to be discussed here are the theory of learning, the types of teaching and learning activities, the learner roles, and the teacher roles.

a. Background

  Communicative Language Teaching derived from the previous approach practicing basic structures in meaningful situation based activities (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 64). The communicative language teaching firstly proposed by Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson. The CLT method saw the need to focus on the language teaching a communicative proficiency rather than on mere mastery of structure (Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 64).

  The CLT itself aims to:

  a. Make communicative competence the goal of language teaching, and

  b. Develop procedures for the teaching of the four skills that acknowledge and interdepence of language and communication.

  From this we can conclude that in CLT there is no single text or authority on it, nor any single model that is universally accepted as authoritative. Littlewood (1981: 1) as cited by Hutchinson and waters states that “one of the most characteristic features of CLT is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of language”.

  Howatt as quoted by Hutchinson and Waters (1986: 67) distinguishes between a “strong” and “weak” version of CLT. Strong version advances the claims that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language. Weak version stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes.

  c. Theory of Learning

  There are three elements underlying the learning concept of CLT method, which can be seen below.

  1. Communication principle activities: activities that involve real communication to promote learning.

  2. Task principle: activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks to promote learning.

  3. Meaningfulness principle: language that is meaningful to the learners, to support the learning process. (Johnson: 1982).

  Seeing that we can learn that CLT method not only inquire the learners to understand the language but also how to use the language actively in their daily activity.

  d. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities The range of exercise types and activities based on communicative approach

  is unlimited, as long as such exercises enable learners to engage in communication and require the use of such communicative process as information sharing and interaction.

  e. Learner Roles

  Learner roles in Communicative Language Teaching are different from those language classroom emphasize on the grammar, the emphasis of Communicative Language Teaching is on the processes of communication, rather than the mastery of language form. Breen and Candlin as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 76-77) describe the learner roles within CLT in the following terms:

  The role of the learners as negotiator-between the self, the learning process, and the object of the learning-emerges from and interacts with the roles of joint negotiator within the group and within the classroom procedures and activities which the group undertakes. The implication of the learners is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and there by learning in an independent way.

  There are several things, which are need to be observed concerning the learner’s roles in CLT method. There is thus an acknowledgement, in some account of CLT that there is no text, grammar rules are not presented, classroom arrangement are not standard, students are expected to interact to each other rather than with the teacher, and the correction of errors may be absent or infrequent. CLT methodology consequently recommended that learners learn to see that failed communication is a joint responsibility and not the fault of the speaker or listener. Thus, successful communication is an accomplishment jointly achieved and acknowledged.

f. Teacher Roles

  There are several roles, which are assumed for teachers in CLT. Breen and Candlin as quoted by Richards and Rodgers (1986: 77-78) describe teacher roles in the following terms:

  The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent within the learning-teaching group. These roles imply a set of secondary roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself, second as a guide within the classroom procedure and activities. Other roles assumed for teachers are need analysts, counselors, and group process managers.

3. Communicative Syllabus Design

  In this study the writer bases her designed set of material on Communicative Language Teaching Method, thus the most appropriate syllabus is communicative syllabus, which is not easy to be designed.

  Yalden (1987: 86) states that the communicative syllabus should consider a number of extra-linguistic factors, the educational settings, the characteristics of the learners, the circumstances in which educational institution operates, and the society. The other important factors are that the syllabus should fulfill the learners’ need to communicate in a more appropriate and efficient way. Yalden (1987: 86) provides the components of communicative syllabus as follows:

  1. As detailed consideration as possible of the purposes for which the learners wish to acquire the target language.

  2. Some idea of the setting in which they will want to use the target language (Physical aspect as well as social settings need to be considered).

  3. The socially defined the role of the learners will assume in the target language, as well as the roles of their partner in communication.

  4. The communicative event in which the learners will participate could be in everyday situations, vocational and professional situations, academic situations, and so on.

  5. The language functions involved in these events, or what the learners will need to be able to do with or through the language.

  6. The notions involved, or what the learners will need to be able to talk about.

  7. The skills involved in the “knitting together” or getting in touch of discourse: discourse and rhetorical skills.

  8. The variety or varieties of the target language that will be needed, and the levels in the spoken and written language which the learners will need to reach.

  9. The grammatical content that will be needed.

  10. The lexical content that will be needed.

  There are many types of syllabuses. Yalden proposes several types of syllabuses, which are considered to be forms of communicative syllabus (1987: 110).

  1. Communicative Syllabus Type 1: Structural – Functional The structural – functional syllabus gives emphasis on two components, namely form and communicative function.

2. Communicative Syllabus Type2: Structures and Functions

  The syllabus type 2 represents a structural progression in a communicative

3. Communicative Syllabus Type 3: Variables focus

  The emphasis of the third syllabus type is on the level in progression from the basic to advanced. Structural progression will dominate at the first level and the next emphasis will change to communicative function and finally to situation or subject matter. Allen as quoted by Yalden (1987: 114) explains the concepts as follows:

  .................. Thus at level 1, the main emphasis is on structural practice, and functional and instrumental practice will be relatively speaking ‘out of focus’. Similarly level 2 emphasizes functional practices, and level 3 instrumental practices, but at both levels the other types of practice remain in the background ready to be utilized as the need arises.

  Levels of Communicative Competence Level Level 2 Level 3

  Structural Functional Instrumental Focus on language Focus on language Focus on the use of (formal features) (discourse features) language (a) Structural control (a) Discourse control (a) Situational or topical control (b) Materials simplified (b) Materials simplified (b) Authentic language structurally functionally (c) Mainly structural (c) Mainly discourse (c) Free practice practice practice Table 1: Three Levels of Communicative Competence in Second Language Education by Yalden (1987: 114).

  4. Communicative Syllabus Types 4: Functional This fourth syllabus type considers objectives to be stated primarily.

  Objectives will determine the functions, which are needed. Then the functions themselves will determine the selections and sequencing or grammatical materials.

  5. Communicative Syllabus Type 5: Fully Notional

  This syllabus type is suitable for the learners whose ability in the second language has to be specified for very particular and narrow purposes.

  6. Communicative Syllabus Type 6: Fully Communicative This fully communicative syllabus is also called learners –generative syllabus.

  In designing the syllabus, the learners’ needs become the main considerations. In this syllabus, language, which is considered as a means of communications, becomes the primary objectives.

  4. Speaking Skill

  Since language is a means of communication, it is not enough if the learners only learn words, phrases, and grammatical features, but they also need to learn how to produce the language in such a way that makes their utterances comprehensible to a native speaker.

  In this section the designer will discuss the nature of speaking and the teaching technique since these are the basic consideration in designing a set of

a. The Nature of Speaking

  Brown and Yule as cited by Nunan (1986: 26-27) say that spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. In spoken language, we can not ignore that speaking and listening processes are involved. Therefore, it is important to understand the communicative system in spoken language. The figure below shows the process of communicative system, taken from Shannon and Weaver.

  Figure 1: The process of communicative system (Rivers, 1970: 158). Info Source Transmitter Receiver Destination

  Noise Source From the diagram we can see that the information source emits a message, which is encoded for transmission as a signal. The signal passes through a channel to a receiver, which decodes the message for use at its destination.

  According to Rivers (1986), “to teach speaking skill the teacher should persuade themselves to speak foreign language all the time in the classroom, and the students will, at the same time begin to speak it fluently”. Referring to this quotation, the designer tries to develop the kind of materials that will force the students and the teacher to speak English in the classroom.

b. Teaching Technique

  In teaching speaking in this study, the designer adopting two types of techniques namely conversation and role-play.

  1. Conversation Technique According to Rivers (1968: 168) a conversation in the informal language is learned in immediately useful form, a form which the students can practice by turning to his neighbor, or apply in contact outside the classroom. In this study conversation is meant to provide the first introduction of structured to be drilled. Thus in designing the conversation the designer tries to make it relevant to the andong drivers’ everyday situation. In the conversation practice the learners learn to speak to their friends directly. They learn to ask and answer the question.

  2. Role-play techniques There are three techniques proposed by Littlewood (1983: 50) in conducting role- play technique. First, learners are asked to imagine themselves in a situation which could occur in their daily activities. Second, they are asked to adopt a specific role, and third they are asked as if the situation really existed. In role-play technique the learners’ focus will be on the communication activities, this means that they are asked to practice the language function that they have already known.

  Rivers (1968: 165) says, most learners respond to the activities that challenge them to apply what they have learned because they are given the opportunity. That is why in applying the techniques the designer provide kinds of exercises that are

5. Instructional Design Model

a. Banathy’s Model

  Several steps of Banathy’s model can be seen as follows:

  1. The formulation of objectives

  This step is seen as the description of the expected performance of the learners. These objectives specify learners’ competence, level of achievement and circumstances.

  2. The test development

  This step is meant to find out the learners’ performance at the output point. This test is also used as a means for controlling the quality of the system

  3.The learning tasks analysis

  This step is meant to decide what the learners have to learn in order to be able to perform the target language appropriately. Therefore the analysis of learning task is needed.

  4.The design of the system

  The system is defined as a deliberately designed synthetic organism, composed of interrelated and interacting components, which are employed to function in an integrated fashion to attain predetermined purposes (Banathy 1976:1). The design of the system is presented below. The design consists of four major steps: a. Function analysis

  This is to identify everything that has to be done by the system in order to b. Component analysis Identifying what and who is to be employed to carry out the specific function identified, as the outcome of functional analysis, is the purpose of this analysis.

  c. Distribution of function among components.

  d. Scheduling

  5. System implementation

  6. Quality control

  After developing the system, the next step is to put the system into operation. The evaluation and quality control are conducted in order to find out whether the objectives of the system are being met. The instructional model by Banathy can be clearly seen in figure 2 as follows:

  Analyze Design Formulate Learning Task System Objectives

  Develop Test Implement and test Output

  Change to Improve

b. Yalden’s Model

  Yalden (1987: 88) proposes the stages in language program development as follows:

  1. Holding needs survey to find out the learners’ need.

  2. Describing the purpose of the program.

  3. Selecting and developing the syllabus type to be used.

  4. Producing a proto syllabus. The syllabus concerns with general objectives, specific topics, the language function, and the vocabulary being used.

  5. Producing a pedagogical syllabus. In this stage there will be a development of the teaching material.

  6. Developing classroom procedure that includes the exercises, teaching techniques, lesson plan, weekly schedule, etc.

  7. Evaluating the learners, the program, and the teaching.

  8. Evaluating the whole components of the program. The stages are presented as follows:

  Selection/ develop & Production of Product of a Needs Description development implement of a Proto pedagogical Evaluation Survey of Purpose of syllabus classroom syllabus syllabus type procedures Figure 3 Yalden’s Language Program Development (Yalden, 1987: 88).