THE FEASIBLE STRUCTURES OF NOUN PHRASES OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN USING X-BAR THEORY AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

THE FEASIBLE STRUCTURES OF NOUN PHRASES OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN USING X-BAR THEORY AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Sarjana Sastra In English Letters

  By

SIMON ARSA MANGGALA

  Student Number: 074214044

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS

THE FEASIBLE STRUCTURES OF NOUN PHRASES OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN USING X-BAR THEORY AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

  Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Sarjana Sastra In English Letters

  By

SIMON ARSA MANGGALA

  Student Number: 074214044

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS

  A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

THE FEASIBLE STRUCTURES OF NOUN PHRASES OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN USING X-BAR THEORY

  By

SIMON ARSA MANGGALA

  Student Number: 074214044 Approved by

  Dr. Fr. B Alip, M. Pd., M. A. Yogyakarta, August 11, 2011 Advisor Yogyakarta, August 11, 2011 Anna Fitriati, S. Pd., M. Hum.

  Co-advisor

  

A Sarjana Sastra Undergraduate Thesis

THE FEASIBLE STRUCTURES OF NOUN PHRASES

OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN USING X-BAR THEORY

  

By

SIMON ARSA MANGGALA

  

Student Number: 074214044

Defended before The Board of Examiners

on August 26, 2011

and declared acceptable

BOARD OF EXAMINERS

  Yogyakarta, August 26, 2011 Faculty of Letters Sanata Dharma University Dean

  Dr. I. Praptomo Baryadi, M.Hum.

  

Lembar Pernyatan Persetujuan

Publikasi Karya Ilmiah untuk Kepentingan Akademis

Yang bertandatangan dibawah ini, saya mahasiswa Sanata Dharma: Nama : Simon Arsa Manggala Nomor Mahasiswa : 074214044

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul: ―The Feasible

Structures of Noun Phrases of English and Indonesian using X-bar Theory

  ‖, beserta perangkat yang diperlukan.

Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada perpustakaan Universitas Sanata

Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain,

mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan

mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis

tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya atau memberikan royalty kepada saya selama

tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

  Yogyakarta, 26 Agustus 2011 Yang menyatakan, Simon Arsa Manggala

  Where there is a will, there is a way…. .

  

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Jesus Christ for the never ending love. I thank Jesus also for the beautiful life and the guidance in finishing this writing.

  I also would like to extend my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip,

M.Pd., M.A., and to my co-advisor, Anna Fitriati, S. Pd, M. Hum. for the

advice and support. I thank my examiner Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M. S. for the

question and appreciation for my thesis. I would also thank to my academic

advisor, Elisa Dwi Wardhani, S.S., M. Hum. for encouraging me to study hard

in each semester. I thank all the lecturers of English Letters department that give

me a good education, knowledge and experiences and to all the staff, Mbak

Ninik, Mbak Rus, and Mas Tri, for being very helpful to me. I send my best

regard to all Sanata Dharma University administration staffs and librarians for

their help.

  My deep grateful thanks go to my beloved parents: Yohanes Bambang

Sutejo, S. Pdand Lidwina Ririn Tri Antari, S. Pd. SD.,for supporting me

morally and financially, for their everlasting love and care, prayer, guidance, and

attention. And for giving their best effort for my future and to my brother Thomas

Cakra Baskara, who has been my roommate since he enters Senior High School

in Yogyakarta, for the refreshing time.

  I send my gratitude to all my friends in Language Institute Sanata Dharma

  

BangYosua, Mas Risang, Mbak Sita, Mbak Dian, Mbak Ira, and Mas

Ariebowo and Mas Siddha forthe suggestions and kindness to me. I thank Kasey

for lending me the books that support me and give me more ideas for my thesis. I

give special thank to Mbak Yohana, Mas Sandi and Mas Kuntoyo for the

support and prayer for me in writing this thesis.

  My special thanks go to Sanctifico Kantabile Choir members for the

unforgettable moments in praising The Lord. For Mas Lukas, the pianist, Bu

Endang, the conductor, Pakdhe Alex, the manager and the soprans: Wida,

Wahyu, Nita, PritaSuli, mbak Chintya, Nova, Via Lottalova, and Laras, the

altos: Mbak Antik, Mbak Lucy, Prina, and Mona, the tenors: Chris Bendot,

Mas Tori, Om Yiyik, and Chaesar, the basses: Adi Panda, Candra Pindi,

andOm Baskoro and especially to Patricia Asrivi Judiciany for the

accompaniment, motivation and support.

  Thanks to all classical musicians, especially W.A. Mozart for burning up

my spirit through the best music, arrangements, and compositions that accompany

me in writing this thesis.

  Simon Arsa Manggala

  TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................. i

APPROVAL PAGE ...................................................................................... ii

ACCEPTANCE PAGE ................................................................................. iii

Lembar Pernyatan Persetujuan Publikasi Karya ...................................... iv

MOTTO PAGE ............................................................................................. v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................... viii

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................... xi

ABSTRAK ...................................................................................................... xii

LISTS OF TABLES ....................................................................................... xiii

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................... xiv

LISTS OF APPENDICES ............................................................................. xv

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................ 1 A. The Background of the Study ......................................... 1 B. Problems Formulation .................................................... 4 C. Objectives of the Study ................................................... 4 D. Definitions of Terms ....................................................... 4

CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW .............................................. 7

A. Review of Related Studies .............................................. 7 B. Review of Related Theories ............................................ 9

  1. Theory of Phrase ........................................................... 9

  2. Theory of Noun Phrase .................................................. 10

  3. X-bar Theory ................................................................. 13

  C. Theoretical Framework ................................................... 19

  

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ............................................................ 20

A. Object of the Study ........................................................ 20 B. Approach of the Study ................................................... 21 C. Population and Sample ................................................... 21 D. Method of the Study ...................................................... 23

  1. Data Collection ............................................................. 24

  2. Data Analysis ................................................................ 24

  

CHAPTER IV. DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................. 25

A. English Noun Phrase Structures ..................................... 25

  1. Noun Phrases with the Head only ................................ 25

  d. Complement-Head .................................................... 29

  e. Head-Complement .................................................... 29

  f. Head-Adjunct ............................................................ 30

  g. Head-Adjunct-Adjunct ............................................. 31

  3. Noun Phrases with the Head and two other elements ...... 32

  a. Specifier-Head-Complement ................................... 32

  b. Specifier-Complement-Head .................................... 33

  c. Specifier-Attribute-Head .......................................... 34

  d. Specifier-Attribute-Attribute-Head........................... 35

  e. Attribute-Complement-Head .................................... 36

  f. Attribute-Head-Complement ..................................... 37

  g. Specifier-Head-Adjunct ............................................ 38

  h. Specifier-Head-Adjunct-Adjunct .............................. 39 i. Attribute-Head-Adjunct ............................................. 40 j. Attribute-Attribute-Head-Adjunct ............................. 41 k. Complement-Head-Adjunct ...................................... 42

  4. Noun Phrases with the Head and three other elements . 43

  a. Specifier-Head-Complement-Adjunct ...................... 43

  b. Specifier- Attribute-Head-Complement ................... 44

  c. Specifier-Complement-Head-Adjunct ...................... 45

  d. Specifier-Attribute-Head-Adjunct ............................ 46

  e. Specifier-Attribute-Complement-Head..................... 47

  f. Specifier-Attribute-Head-Adjunct-Adjunct............... 48

  g. Specifier-Attribute-Attribute-Head-Adjunct ............ 49

  h. Specifier-Attribute-Attribute-Head-Complement..... 50

  5. Noun Phrases with the Head and four other elements ... 51

  a. Specifier-Attribute-Head-Complement-Adjunct ...... 51

  b. Specifier-Attribute-Complement-Head-Adjunct ...... 52

  B. Indonesian Noun Phrases Structures ............................... 53

  1. Noun Phrases with the Head only ................................ 53

  2. Noun Phrases with the Head and another element ........ 54

  a. Head-Complement .................................................... 54

  b. Head-Specifier ......................................................... 55

  c. Head-Specifier-Specifier........................................... 56

  d. Specifier-Head .......................................................... 57

  e. Specifier-Head-Specifier........................................... 58

  f. Head-Adjunct ............................................................ 59

  g. Head-Adjunct-Adjunct ............................................. 60

  3. Noun Phrases with the Head and two other elements ... 61

  a. Head-Adjunct-Specifier ............................................ 61

  b. Head-Complement-Specifier .................................... 62

  c. Head-Complement-Adjunct ...................................... 63

  h. Head-Specifier-Adjunct ............................................ 68 i. Head-Adjunct-Adjunct-Specifier............................... 69 j. Head-Adjunct-Specifier-Adjunct............................... 70 k. Specifier-Head-Adjunct-Adjunct .............................. 71 l. Head-Complement-Adjunct-Adjunct ........................ 72 m. Specifier-Head-Specifier-Adjunct ........................... 73

  4. Noun Phrases with the Head and three other elements . 74

  a. Specifier-Head-Complement-Adjunct ...................... 74

  C. The Elements of Noun Phrases ..................................... 75

  1. The Elements of English Noun Phrases ........................ 75

  a. Specifier .................................................................... 75

  b. Attribute .................................................................... 75

  c. Adjunct ...................................................................... 79

  d. Complement .............................................................. 80

  2. The Elements of Indonesian Noun Phrases ................... 81

  a. Specifier .................................................................... 81

  b. Adjunct ..................................................................... 82

  c. Complement ............................................................. 88

  

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 91

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... 95

  

ABSTRACT

SIMON ARSA MANGGALA. The Feasible Structures of Noun Phrases of

English and Indonesian using X-bar Theory. Yogyakarta:Department of

English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University,2011.

  This study observes the noun phrase structures of both English and Indonesian

using X-bar theory. X-bar theory is the appropriate theory to observe the noun phrase

structures since it belongs to Transformational-Generative Grammar and Universal

Grammar that claim that all human languages share some principles in common. By using

X-bar theory the writer can observe the structures of the noun phrase not only as the

sequence of words but also the relation of the noun phrase elements. The writer can

observe the movements of the elements if there is any.

  This study has three objectives. The first is to identify the elements of noun

phrases of English and Indonesian by using X-bar theory. The second is to see the

feasible structures of both languages. After identifying the elements and the structures,

this study will find out the similarities and differences between them.

  The writer conducted Contrastive Analysis in which the writer described both

languages first and then compared both languages. First, the writer collected the noun

phrases of both languages from The Jakarta Post Editorials and Kompas Tajuk Rencana

and then analyzed the noun phrases using X-bar theory. Secondly, the writer compared

the structures of both languages to see the similarities and differences that they share.

  The findings show that both languages noun phrase structures fall within X-bar

theory. They share the similarities that the head is a noun and it can be modified by

modifiers. They also share some differences in their head modifiers. An English noun

phrase may have modifiers as the complement, adjunct, attribute and specifier and does

not need any movement of the element. In contrast, aIndonesian noun phrase cannot take

attribute as the modifier and need some movements to meet the grammatical structures.

  Keywords: Noun Phrase, X-bar theory, Transformational-Generative Grammar, Universal Grammar.

  

ABSTRAK

SIMON ARSA MANGGALA. The Feasible Structures of Noun Phrases of

English and Indonesian using X-bar Theory. Yogyakarta:Department of

English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University,2011.

  Penelitian ini mengamati struktur frasa nomina bahasa Inggris dan bahasa

Indonesia menggunakan teori X-bar. Teori X-bar adalah teori yang sesuai untuk

mengamati struktur frasa nomina karena teori ini termasuk dalam Tata Bahasa

Transformasional-Generatif dan Tata Bahasa Universal yang menyatakan bahwa semua

bahasa manusia memiliki beberapa prinsip yang sama. Dengan menggunakan teori X-bar

penulis dapat mengamati struktur frasa nomina tidak hanya sebagai urutan kata-kata

tetapi juga dapat mengamati hubungan antar kata.Penulis juga dapat mengamati

perpindahan unsur-unsur frasa nomina.

  Penelitian ini mempunyai tiga tujuan.Tujuan pertama adalah mengetahui unsur-

unsur frasa nomina Bahasa Inggris dan Bahasa Indonesia menggunakan teori X-

bar.Tujuan kedua adalah melihat kemungkinan struktur frasa nomina kedua

bahasa.Setelah mengetahui unsur-unsur dan strukturnya, penelitian ini mencari tahu

persamaan dan perbedaan di antara struktur frasa nomina kedua bahasa tersebut.

  Penulis menggunakan metode AnalisisKontrastif yang artinya penulis

mengamati kedua bahasa terlebih dahulu kemudian membandingkan keduanya. Pertama-

tama, penulis mengumpulkan frasa nomina kedua bahasa dari kolom editorial The

Jakarta Post dan kolom Tajuk Rencana Kompasdan kemudian penulis menganalisis frasa

nomina yang telah terkumpul itu menggunakan teori X-bar. Kedua, penulis

membandingkan struktur frasa nomina kedua bahasa untuk mengetahui persamaan dan

perbedaan struktur kedua bahasa.

  Hasil penemuan menunjukan bahwa kedua bahasa dapat dianalisis menggunakan

teori X-bar. Persamaan struktur frasa nomina kedua bahasa tersebut adalah bahwa

mereka mempunyai kata benda sebagai inti dan inti tersebut dapat dijelaskan dengan

banyak penjelas. Perbedaan diantara kedua struktur frasa nomina kedua bahasa tersebut

terletak pada penjelas inti frasa benda mereka. Frasa benda bahasa Inggris dapat

diperjelas dengan Complement, Adjunct, Attribute dan Specifier dan tidak diperlukan

perpindahan unsur. Frasa benda bahasa Indonesia tidak diperjelas dengan Attribute serta

beberapa unsur harus berpindah tempat untuk membentuk struktur yang gramatikal.

  Kata kunci: Frasa Nomina, teori X-bar, Tata Bahasa Transformational- Generatif, Tata Bahasa Universal

  LISTS OF TABLES Tabel 1. List of editorials taken from The Jakarta Post Tabel 2. List of Tajuk Rencana taken from Kompas

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS

  a. N = Noun

  b. A = Adjective

  c. P = Preposition

  d. Adv = Adverb

  e. NP = Noun Phrase

  f. AP = Adjective Phrase

  g. PP = Preposition Phrase

  h. AdvP = Adverb Phrase i. DP = Determiner Phrase j. VP = Verb Phrase k. H = Head l. Adjc = Adjunct m. Att = Attribute n. Sp = Specifier o. C = Complement p. CP = Clausal Phrase.

LISTS OF APPENDICES APPENDIX I.

  

Lists of Noun Phrases from The Jakarta Post Editorials (based on their structures)

APPENDIX II

  Lists of Noun Phrases from Kompas Tajuk Rencana (based on their structures)

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. The Background of Study Human beings and language are inseparable. Human beings use language to

  

communicate each other and to express their thoughts, emotions, or feelings. In

everyday life human beings use language in their activities. Finocchiaro, in her

book English as A Second Language: from Theory to Practice, mentioned: Language is universal. All normal human beings in community understand and speak well enough to carry out every activity of human life. However, many of these same people cannot read and write (1974: 2). Since a language has an interpersonal function, it is used to maintain good

social relations with individuals and groups (1974: 5). In this globalization era, it

is a must that people should master other language beside their own language

because people may have social relations with other people all over the world. On

that, Crystal mentioned: Similarly, there is great variation in the reasons for choosing a particular language as a favoured foreign language: they include historical tradition, political expediency, and the desirefor commercial, cultural or technological contact (1997: 5) Because of the same reason of social contacts, people also need a language

that can be used as means of communication to the world community beside the

mother tongue and the foreign language. Therefore a global language is needed.

  

Later on, Crystal also mentioned that the need of a global language is caused by

  The need for a global language is particularly appreciated by the International academic and business communities, and it is here that the adoption of a single lingua franca is most in evidence, both in lecture- rooms and board-rooms, as well as in individual contacts being made daily all over the globe (1997 : 13). Considering those conditions, English has the role asthe international

language. People and nations all around the world start to use it in international

communication. Since English becomes international language, non - English

speaking people and nations start to learn it, including in it, Indonesia.

  In other hand, English speaking people also make contacts with Indonesian

people. They make contacts for many purposes such as education, tourism or

politics. In order to maintain the good communication, they also learnIndonesian

and they meet difficulties. An observable problem in learning second language is

that the learners have insufficient abilities in understanding the target language.

One possible cause of this inability is the different structure or pattern of the

mother tongue from the second language. Mitchell said:

  If we turn to the problem of SLL, learners are faced with the same logical problem of having to construct grammar of the second language on the basis of more or less fragmentary input, and having to construct abstract representations on the basis of the limited samples of the language they actually encounter (2004: 55).

  The example that supports that condition that makes the writer

eager to do this study is that the writer found the difficulty faced by language

learner to study the language which is not his/her language. The writer gave a set

of English Noun Phrases to a student from Australia who came to Indonesia to

  

yesterday‘ into Sangat panas dan pedas sup jagung yang dimasak oleh ibu saya

kemaren. The Noun Phrase should be translated into sup jagung yang sangat

pedas yang dimasak oleh ibu saya kemaren. The inability of the student to

translate the Noun Phrase is caused by the limited knowledge about the second

language that the student has.

  Regarding the conditions above, the writer wants to identify the structures

of noun phrase of both English and Indonesiansince they have different systems.

  

The differences would bring the language learners into confusion if it is

misunderstood or misinterpreted therefore it is important to study those languages.

  

The writer focuses on identifying the modifying elements of noun phrases of

English and Indonesian.

  Each language has its own characteristics and this becomes the objects of

Contrastive Analysis to see the similarities and the differences between two

languages.By considering those facts, the writer needs a tool to identify the

languages. Therefore the writer used X-bar theory to study the similarities and the

differences between English and Indonesian. X-bar theory belongs to Universal

Grammar that claims all human languages shared some principles in common

(Cook, 1988: 1). By identifying the structure of noun phrases of both languages,

the writer will find out the similarities and differences between them.

  

The output of this research hopefully may give the learners ofEnglish and

Indonesiandeeper understanding about the noun phrase structures of both

B. Problems Formulation

  In this study, the writer tries to answer the following questions: 1.

  What are the elements of noun phrases of English and Indonesian? 2. What are the feasible structures of noun phrases of both languages according to X-bar theory?

3. What similarities and differences do they share? C.

   Objectives of the Study Based on the problem formulation above, this study has three objectives.

  

The first is to identify the elements of noun phrases of English and Indonesian by

using X-bar theory. The second is to see the feasible structures of both languages.

  

After identifying the elements and the structures, this study will find out the

similarities and differences between them.

D. Definition of Terms 1. Noun Phrase

  According to Wardhaugh, a noun phrase is a grammatical construction that

usually contains a noun as its central constituent (1977: 247). Based on that

definition, it can be concluded that a noun phrase may also function as a noun.

Quirk and Greenbaum mentioned that a noun phrase can function as subject,

object, complement of a sentence, and as a complement in a prepositional phrase

(1973: 59).

  Later Quirk and Greenbaum also discussed about complex noun phrases.

  

elements of complex noun phrases. The elements are the Head, Premodification,

and Postmodification (1973: 375 - 376).

  However, those traditional definitions should be accompanied with the

theory of phrase that Radford mentioned. Radford mentioned that a Phrase means

a set of elements which form a constituent, with no restriction on the number of

elements that the set may or must contain (Radford, 1988: 85). Further, he gives

example that a Noun Phrase can be taken as an expression containing a head

Noun. Another justification is that a single Noun can have the same distribution

as a Noun Phrase (1988:86). In his book, Radford givesgave this example:

  very fast cars

  cars

  I really enjoy .

  The example shows that the single unmodified Noun can have the same distribution as a Noun Phrase.

2. X-Bar Theory

  Cook stated that X-bar theory is the theory that captures properties of all

phrases, not just those of certain type, and it bases the syntax on lexical categories

that link with entries in the lexicon (Cook, 1988: 94). A phrase should have at

least a head according to this theory (1988: 103). Based on this theory a phrase

might have elements as the followings.

  a.

  Complement Complement is one element of a noun phrase that has a close relationship with the head. It is needed to complete the meaning of the head. b.

  Adjunct An adjunct is the element of a noun phrase that gives the characteristic of the head and occurs after the head.

  c.

  Attribute An attribute is the element of a noun phrase that gives the characteristics of the head and occurs before the head.

  d.

  Specifier A specifier is the element of a noun phrase that specifies the head.

CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies There are some studies that also focus on noun phrases. Sutejo (1980), in his Skripsi entitled Analisa Mengenai Gatra Benda Bahasa Ingris Ditinjau Dari Sistematika Penyusunannya tried to find out the types of modifiers that can

  

modify a noun phrase and then to see the relation between the head and its

modifiers.

  In his analysis, he collected data of noun phrases and then put them into

categories. He found out that the varieties of noun phrases depend on its

modifiers. He also concluded that modifiers in the form of word are expected to

occur in the left of the head or before the head, then, modifiers in the form of

phrases are in the right of the head of after the head. Noun phrases may be simple

or complex, it depends on the number of its modifiers.

  Another study on noun phrase was done by Kusuma (2007) in her

undergraduate thesis entitled A Study of English Noun Phrases in Football News

in the Jakarta Post Published during the FIFA World Cup 2006. In this

undergraduate thesis, she tried to find out what types of noun phrases that were

mostly used in The Jakarta Post and how long the average noun phrases were. She

collected data from the articles in The Jakarta Post published during the FIFA

  In her analysis, she collected and identified noun phrases in the selected

articles. After the noun phrases were collected, she defined them into categories

and then counted them. By using table, the categories and the noun phrases

belonged to each category can be seen easily.

  From the analysis, she concluded that the most frequent noun phrases

were noun phrases that only consisted of its head. In other word, the most frequent

noun phrases were simple noun phrases. By having that conclusion, the average

length of noun phrases used was one-word length. She found out that this was

because the news writing is basically concise and simple. It is also a reason that

simple noun phrase would make the readers who are mostly Indonesian

understand the article.

  There is a study conducted by Dwijatmoko (1992) that observes

Indonesian noun phrases. In his study, he applied X-bar theory to Indonesian noun

phrases. In the study he tried to prove that Indonesian noun phrase structure falls

within the X-bar theory and that movement of the elements is conditioned by

government and conditioned by c-command.

  In his analysis, he studied the noun phrase structure and he found that

Indonesian has four elements which are the Specifiers, the Head, Adjuncts, and

Complements. He also discussed each element and its possible word class

members. By applying the X-bar theory on Indonesian, he also explained the

movements of the elements.

  From the analysis, he concluded that Indonesian noun phrase structure

falls within X-bar theory and have some elements movements in it. The

movements of the elements are upward movements.

  This study is different from the previously mentioned studies as in this

study the writer will see the elements of noun phrases of English and Indonesian

that can be found in daily life by using X-bar theory. It will be different from what

Dwijatmoko (1992) had done before as this study has the objective to see the

similarities and the differences of the noun phrase structures by using X-bar

theory since X-bar theory enables us to see the closeness of the elements of a

phrase with the Head (Radford, 1988: 192). By doing that, the writer will find out

the similarities and differences between them.

B. Review of Related Theories 1. Theory of Phrase

  Warriner, in his book, English Grammar and Composition, defines a phrase

as a group of words used as a single part of speech and not containing a verb and

its subject (1958). However, that traditional definition should be accompanied

with the theory of phrase that Radford mentioned. Radford mentioned that a

Phrase means a set of elements which form a constituent, with no restriction on

the number of elements that the set may or must contain (Radford, 1988: 85).

  

Further, he gives example that a Noun Phrase can be taken as meaning something

  

Noun can have the same distribution as a Noun Phrase (1988:86). In his book,

Radford gives this example:

  very fast cars

  cars

  I really enjoy .

  

The example shows that the single unmodified Noun can have the same

distribution as a Noun Phrase.

2. Theory of Noun Phrase

  

According to Wardhaugh, a noun phrase is a grammatical construction that

usually contains a noun as its central constituent (1977: 247). That concept of

noun phrase definition is also agreed by Leech and Svartvik that mention:A noun

phrase is called a noun phrase because the word which is its main partis a noun

(1994:315). Based on that definition, then it can be concluded that a noun phrase

may also function as a noun. Quirk and Greenbaum mention that a noun phrase

can function as a subject, an object, a complement of a sentence, and as

complement in prepositional phrase (1973: 59). In his book, Book of English

Grammar and Composition , Warriner defines a phrase as a group of words used

as a single part of speech and not containing a verb and its subject (1958).

  Another theory called a noun phrase as a noun cluster as it consists of a

noun as the head with other words or group of words clustering around it and

modifying it in various ways (Roberts, 1956: 77). Later, Roberts also mentions

some patterns of noun phrases depending on the possible position of the

modifiers.

  

128). However, Indonesian has its own system in defining the rules of word

combination in forming a noun phrase. Alwi (2003: 244) mentions some

conditions that a noun phrase of Indonesian may have. A head may have

premodifiers in a form of numbers and quantifiers only, for example dua buah

buku . Noun phrases of Indonesian may have several post modification as follows.

  a.

  

A head can be followed by one or more other nouns, the ending can be a

pronoun and the demonstrative ini or itu. However, a noun will only modify the previous noun.

  Suatu inti dapat diikuti oleh satu nomina lain atau lebih. Rangkaian itu kemudian ditutup dengan salah satu pronomina persona dan oleh ‘itu’ atau ‘ini’. Namun, setiap nomina hanya menerangkan nomina sebelumnya (2003: 244-245) b.

  

A head can be followed by adjectives, pronouns, or possessive pronouns and

ended by demonstrative ini or itu.

  Suatu inti dapat diikuti dengan adjektiva, pronomina atau frasa kepemili kan, dan kemudian ditutup dengan pronomina penunjuk ‘ini’ atau ‘itu’(2003: 245).

  c.

  

If a head is followed by an adjective without any other modifier, the word

yang can be inserted. However, the phrase that contains yang should be moved backward if in the phrase there is a pronoun.

  Jika suatu nomina diikuti oleh adjektiva dan tidak ada pewatas lain yang mengikutinya, yang yang dapat disisipkan…Akan tetapi, frasa ‘yang’ itu harus dipindahkan ke belakang jika dalam frasa yang bersangkutan ada pronomina

  (2003: 246) d.

A head may be followed by particular verbs that actually other elements such

  Suatu inti dapat diikuti verba tertentu yang pada hakikatnya dapat

dipisahkan dengan ‘yang’, ‘untuk’, atau unsur lain(2003: 247).

e.g: 1. ban berjalan = ban yang berjalan the rolling wheel = the wheel which is rolling

  2. jam bicara = jam untuk bicara Talking time = time for talking

  3. kewajiban bekerja = kewajiban untuk bekerja Working responsibility = responsibility to work However, not all verbs can be applied this way, e.g.:

  ≠ *lomba untuk berlari (race for running) ≠ *lomba yangberlari (race which is running) e.

1. Lomba lari

  A head may be modified by an apposition. (2003: 247, translated).

  Suatu inti dapat pula diluaskan dengan aposisi, yakni frasa nominal yang mempunyai acuan yang sama dengan nomina yang diterangkannya (2003: 247).

  f.

  A head can be modified by a prepositional phrase

Suatu inti dapat diperluas oleh frasa berpreposisi (2003: 247)

g.

  

A head may be modified by post-modifiers in relative clause form preceded

by the word yang.

  Suatu inti dapat diperluas dengan pewatas belakang, yakni klausa yang dimulai dengan ‘yang’(2003: 247).

3. X-bar Theory

  Cook states that X-bar theory captures properties of all phrases, not just

those of certain type, and it bases the syntax on lexical categories that link with

entries in the lexicon (Cook, 1988: 94). A phrase should have at least a head

according to this theory. However, according to Radford, this theory studies the

constituents larger than the word level but smaller than a full phrase: We are going to argue in favour of positing that there are nominal constituents larger than a Noun but smaller than a full Noun Phrase, verbal constituents larger than a Verb but smaller than a full Verb Phrase, adjectival constituents larger than an Adjective but smaller than a full Adjective Phrase…and soon (1988: 167). In the X-bar syntax, one essential element of a phrase is the head. A

phrase should have one head of its category. In other words, a phrase is

endocentric (Haegeman, 1992: 95). Therefore a noun phrase should have a noun

as the head and a verb phrase should have a verb as the head. In this theory, the

name of the phrase depends on the lexical category of its head. There are four

lexical categories which are Noun (N), Verb (V), Adjective (A), and Preposition

(P). Based on those lexical categories, therefore, there are four phrases; Noun

Phrase (NP), Verb Phrase (VP), Adjective Phrase (AP), and Prepositional Phrase

(PP). There is also a subclass of word that is called Determiner (D) which includes

articles, demonstratives, possesives, wh-words and quantifiers (Brinton, 2010:

136). The formula of this rule can be illustrated as follows: