15 Ideology in the Social Science

SUPLEMEN

IDEOLOGY IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
(Ideologi dalam Ilmu-ilmu Sosial)

1

Gunawan Wiradi

2

Pengantar
Tulisan ini merupakan makalah dalam suatu seminar yang telah lama lampau,
namun temanya dianggap masih tetap relevan. Yang dibahas adalah suatu isu
yang seringkali diperdebatkan, yaitu apakah kegiatan ilmiah dalam ilmu-ilmu
sosial itu dapat “bebas nilai” ataukah tidak.
Agar tidak berpeluang untuk menyimpang, maka tulisan tersebut dimuat di sini
sesuai aslinya, yaitu dalam bahasa Inggris. Istilah “hands-off policy” adalah istilah untuk mengacu kepada sikap untuk menolak samasekali pengaruh nilai
atau pengaruh ideologi dalam kegiatan keilmuan. Sedangkan “hands-in policy”
mengacu kepada sikap yang menerima kenyataan bahwa dalam praktiknya,
ilmu-ilmu sosial tidak mungkin secara mutlak “bebas nilai”. Perdebatan mengenai perbedaan dua pandangan ini sebenarnya sampai sekarang belum pernah

selesai.
Wacana mengenai makna “ideologi” itu sendiri serta perkembangannya, bukanlah hal yang sederhana karena menyangkut teoresasi pada tataran abstraksi
tinggi ataupun filosofis. Tulisan pendek dalam bahasa Inggris berikut ini memang amat sederhana dan mungkin terkesan “sempit”, karena hanya menggunakan sejumlah literatur terbatas. Bagi mereka yang ingin memperluas wawasan tentu diperlukan perluasan kepustakaan. Sementara itu, barangkali, sejumlah makalah dan “hand out” dari para narasumber dalam suatu pelatihan
yang diselenggarakan oleh USC-SATUNAMA pada akhir tahun 2005 di Yogyakarta akan sangat berguna untuk dipelajari. Diharapkan, para pemula dapat
mengembangkan sendiri pemahamannya melalui perluasan bacaan.

1 Naskah asli berupa makalah seminar di USM, Malaysia, tahun 1978 dengan tema: “Ideology and
Scientific Objectivity”.
2 Anggota Badan Pengurus Yayasan AKATIGA.

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IDEOLOGY IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

It is not my intention here to discuss

Karl Mannheim in his book Ideology

“theorizing”, but rather, it is just a

and Utopia 4 draw an antithesis be-

simple explanation for taking position

tween the bourgeois “ideology” that

with regard to the “hands-off” or

guards the capitalist status quo and

“hands-in” policy on ideology in social

the Marxist “utopianism” that projects

research. Since the term “ideology”

a new social order. In other words, for

has been used in so many different

complexes of ideas which direct acti-

senses that one might despair of using

vities towards maintaining the exist-

it in any precise manner at all, how-

ing social order, Mannheim called:

ever, I should begin, in brief, with the

Ideology; whereas for complexes of

concept and theory.

ideas which tend to generate activities
toward changing the prevailing social

The concept of ideology was coined by

order, he called: Utopia. But this may

the French philosopher Destutt de

invite criticism, because the word Uto-

Tracy, and then, the contemptuous

pia generally refers to any visionary

use of the epithet “ideologue” by

scheme of something ideal which will

French writers of the revolutionary

never come true. For the Marxist, if

periods, and notably by Napoleon,

society was made by men, it can also

was taken up by Marx and Engels and

be changed by men. It will come true

given a new significance. Engels

if the conditions were met and men

spoke of “false consciousness”, ani-

did want to act. For the non-Marxist,

mating those whose ideas, shaped by

on the other hand, the use of the word

class interests and class position,

Utopia by Mannheim may be consi-

were not in conformity with the eco-

dered as only an effort to avoid the

nomic reality. Marx and Engels applied

wrong image of the word “ideology”

the term “ideology” to what they con-

since it was used contemptuously be-

ceived as the “bourgeois” way of

fore, saving the Marxist against the

thinking. “It is a protective web of be-

charge that their own doctrine was no

liefs that held no intrinsic validity but

less ideological as being also the ex-

were the rationalization of their strug-

pression of class consciousness.

gle to gain or maintain place and power”. 3

More important than that, I think, is
that Mannheim had succeeded in

3 Robert M. MacIver. 1965. The Web of Government. New York: Free Press. p.41.
4 Karl Mannheim. 1936. Ideology and Utopia. Translated by Louis Wirth and Edward Shils. London.

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SUPLEMEN

reducing (or compounding?) confu-

object is society, men cannot act to

sion (of the usage of the term), by

implement their goals, i.e. to maintain

distinguishing between the so called

or to change society, without having

“particular ideology” and “total ideo-

political power. So the first step is to

logy”. Total ideology which is dis-

struggle for gaining political power.

tinguished further into “ideology” and

Hence, as stated by Geertz, “… it is

“Utopia”, is action oriented. It is a con-

through the construction of ideolo-

version of social ideas into social ac-

gies, schematic images of social order,

tion. These ideas may be shared by

that man makes himself for better or

class, by culture, by age, in short by a

worse, a political animal”. 6 But Geertz

group of people. “At present time the

himself criticized the “interest theory”

term ideology has become current to

approach (which I have no wish to dis-

mean any scheme of thinking charac-

cuss here). In the interest theory,

teristic of a group or class. 5 Particular

ideology is viewed as being only a

ideology is a set of ideas which is not

mask or weapon used by men to pur-

very much organized, held by indivi-

sue power. It is this notion that lead to

duals. It may be also beliefs which are

the general usage of the term in daily

loosely connected (half stated notions

life that ideology refers to ideas held

about the world). But once the parti-

by political groups. Perhaps, it is

cular beliefs are adopted by a group

ideology in this sense that is being

and become action oriented, it be-

afraid of that it might prostitute scien-

comes the ideology of the group. Es-

tific research. In this sense, I think,

pecially when it comes to be attached

“hands-off” policy can be tried. It is

to power interest then it becomes to-

not easy to do, but it is not impossible

tal ideology.

as long as we keep the principle of
universalism for objectivity, that is,

Total ideology is a theory of men and

we only talk about the existent facts.

society, directed toward maintaining

If we say that water is fluid, it is the

the existing social order or toward

same water and the same meaning of

projecting a new one. In order to

fluidity that we talk about in anywhere

maintain the old or to establish the

else.

new, men should act. But action is
closely related to power. Since the

5 Robert M. MacIver. Op. cit. p. 339.
6 Clifford Geertz. 1964. “Ideology as a Cultural System”, in D.E. Apter. Ideology and Discontent. New
York: The Free Press. p.63.

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IDEOLOGY IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

But the problem is, in social sciences

pend on economic condition or mate-

existent inquiries arise because of,

rial property. Consequently, he will do

and are concerned with, specific pro-

his research in this direction.

blems. In formulating problem and in
giving the significance of observable

The object of social science in general

phenomena, the researcher is led by

is men and society. Science itself is

certain ideas. As Mills stated: “Social

part of culture. The world we lived in,

research of any kind is advanced by

includes all activities of scientific re-

facts”.n7

search. It means that scientific re-

Facts without values are meaningless.

search activities are part of the object

Values without facts are mere abs-

of social science. If (particular) ideo-

tractions. But then, we come to ano-

logy is a set of ideas about the world,

ther territory of ideology. It is not

then, does not it mean that the idea

anymore ideology in the sense that it

that science must get away from ideo-

is a weapon to pursue power, but

logy is in itself an ideology? Hence,

rather, it is ideology in the sense of

“hands-off” policy is impossible.

ideas; it is only disciplined by

Mannheim's particular ideology. In
this sense, “hands-off” policy is im-

Now I want to come back to the con-

possible! Suppose we talk about rural

cept. Literally speaking, ideology is

people suffering in Java, and suppose

the “logic” of “ideas”. Following this,

we observe the fact that most of the

regardless of the initial usage and

rural people still depend heavily on

connotation, may not we define that

subsistent

their

ideology is a set of ideas which is

livelihood. The problem is how to do

constructed logically into a concept

away with people suffering. In an-

used by men in their effort to answer

swering this question, values will in-

questions of life? In this sense, reli-

volve. If one said that the first step to

gion is an ideology. If one said that the

do is to change the farmers' mental

term ideology cannot be applied to

attitudes from subsistent-minded to

religion at all time, it is because the

become commercial-minded whereby

term is used not in that sense, but in

they can improve their economic con-

the sense that it always refers to a

ditions, it is because he believes that

particular definition of reality which is

happiness and suffering primarily de-

attached to power interest and held

agriculture

for

7 Fred H. Blum. 1964. “C. Wright Mills: Social Conscience and Social Values”, in I. Horowitz. The New
Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press. p.164.

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by two polar groups, the lord and the

how they work, what gives rise to

serf, the oppresser and the op-

them—and second to force them to

pressed,

come to terms with (but not neces-

the

governer

and

the

governed. As stated by Peter Berger,

sarily to surrender to) reality. 9

“It makes little sense, for example, to
speak of Christianity as an ideology in

If my research work was considered

the Middle Age—even though it had

as being “not value free” and hence

obvious political uses for the ruling

“not scientific”, I firmly reject this opi-

groups—for the simple reason that

nion! Because from the discussion a-

the Christian Universe was 'inhabited'

bove it is clear that being scientific

by everyone in the Medieval Society,

does not necessarily means value

by the serfs just as much as by their

free, and being value free does not al-

lords. 8

ways mean scientific. The opinion that
social science should be value free is

In the effort to answer questions of

justifiable only to some extent. Of

life, different men or groups inter-

course it is necessary for researchers

preted the same overall universe in

to take all the available precaution to

different ways. The distinctiveness of

prevent their personal value judge-

interpretation is due to culture. When

ments from distorting their methods

we see fact as being something, that it

and their data, but it will be mislead-

is being something is already deter-

ing and shortsighted if we claim that

mined by our culture. Science and

being scientific (in science) it neces-

ideology are of course different busi-

sarily means completely free from va-

ness. But, “they are not unrelated

lues. Because it means that we as-

ones. Ideology do make empirical

sume that a given social reality does

claims abut the condition and direc-

not ever reflect a particular set of so-

tion of society, which, it is the busi-

cial values. And this is absurd for it

ness of science (and, where scientific

denies the relevance of individual and

knowledge is lacking, common sense)

collective will. So the extreme position

to assess. The social function of

on the scientific quality of social scien-

science vis-à-vis ideology is first to

ce must be rejected. A more reason-

understand them—what they are,

8 Peter Berger. 1967. “The Social Construction of Reality”. A Treatise in The Sociology of Knowledge.
New York: Anchor Books. p.141.
9 Clifford Geertz. Op. cit. p.72.

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IDEOLOGY IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

able view is that “social science can

tem without jeopardizing its scientific

and actually does operate within the

nature”.10

framework of a particular value sys-

References/Bibliography
Miller, D.C. 1970. Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement. 2nd ed.
(An Outline Guide for the Design of Social Research Problem). New York:
David McKay.
MacIver, Robert M. 1965. The Web of Government. New York: Free Press.
Mannheim, Karl. 1936. Ideology and Utopia. Translated by Louis Wirth and Edward Shills. London: Routledge & Paul Kegan.
Geertz, Clifford. 1964. “Ideology as a Cultural System”, in D.E. Apter. Ideology
and Discontent. New York: The Free Press.
Blum, Fred H. 1964. “C. Wright Mills: Social Conscience and Social Values”, in I.
Horowitz. The New Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press.
Berger, Peter L. 1967. “The Social Construction of Reality” A Treatise in The Sociology of Knowledge. New York: Anchor Books.
Nawawi, Mohd. A. 1976. Ideology and Development. Discussion Paper No. 1. Penang: USM.

10 Mohd. A. Nawawi. 1976. Ideology and Development. Discussion Paper No. 1. Penang: USM. p.6.

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