Analysis on the adjective exciting and its nominal pairs - USD Repository

  ANALYSIS ON THE ADJECTIVE EXCITING AND ITS NOMINAL PAIRS A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfillments of the Requirements to obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) Degree in English Language Studies by

PURWANTO

Student Number: 056332010

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011

  !! "

  

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

  Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : PURWANTO Nomor Mahasiswa : 056332010

  Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

  ANALYSIS ON THE ADJECTIVE EXCITING AND ITS NOMINAL PAIRS beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal: 26 Agustus 2011

  Yang menyatakan: Purwanto

  

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  I realized that the process of writing this thesis cannot be independently free from the role of certain individuals who help me in the form technical guidance, moral support, and useful advice. Firstly, thanks to Allah, who has enabled me to accomplish the writing of this thesis.

  My deep gratitude goes to my advisor, FX. Mukarto, Ph.D., his understanding and consideration has rekindled the motivation within me, moreover, his wise advice and technical direction in the process of my research. Alongside I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo for his valuable inputs, his time and his support.

  I would like to thank to all lectures in the Graduate Program of English Language Studies: Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., Dr.

  J. Bismoko, Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A.(Hons), who have given me useful suggestions during their lectures and the thesis writing.

  I dedicate this thesis to my late parents who had raised me with unconditional love.

  I would direct my thankfulness to all my colleagues at FISE department for their implied attentiveness and encouragement regarding my thesis writing.

  Thanks to GB crew for their friendship through the nights we occasionally spent by eating out somewhere. Lastly, I thank all my classmates in the English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University for their friendship and solidarity.

  Yogyakarta, 22 August 2011 Purwanto

  

“If I waited for perfection, I would never write a word.”

  ― Margaret Atwood

  

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ………………………………………………………………….. .i

APPROVAL PAGE ……………………………………………………………. ii

BOARD OF EXAMINERS …………………………………………………... iii

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY …………………………………………. . iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………… vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………………...viii

LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………..xiii

ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………….xiv

ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………………….xv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................... 1

  1.1 Background ....................................................................................................... 1

  1.2 Problem Formulation ........................................................................................ 5

  1.3 Problem Limitation ........................................................................................... 5

  1.4 Research Goals .................................................................................................. 6

  1.5 Research Benefits .............................................................................................. 6

  

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................. 8

  2.1 Theoretical Review ........................................................................................... 8

  2.1.1 Adjective .................................................................................................. 8

  2.1.2 Noun ....................................................................................................... 10

  2.1.3 Componential Analysis .......................................................................... 11

  2.1.4 Semantic Domain ................................................................................... 12

  2.1.5 Collocative Meaning .............................................................................. 13

  2.1.6 Collocability ........................................................................................... 14

  4.1 Semantic domain and features of the adjective exciting ................................. 23

  4.3.6 Synonyms of discovery .......................................................................... 35

  4.3.5 Synonyms of development ..................................................................... 35

  4.3.4 Synonyms of contest .............................................................................. 35

  4.3.3 Synonyms of climax ............................................................................... 34

  4.3.2 Synonyms of challenge .......................................................................... 34

  4.3.1 Synonyms of adventure ......................................................................... 33

  4.3 Lexical synonymy and the features of the nominal pairs of the adjective exciting ........................................................................................................... 33

  

exciting .......................................................................................................... ..27

  4.2 Semantic domain and features of the nominal pairs of the adjective

  ................................................................................... 23

  2.1.7 Semantic features ................................................................................... 14

  CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS

  3.3 Research Procedure ......................................................................................... 20

  3.2 Data Collection................................................................................................ 20

  3.1 Research Data.................................................................................................. 19

  

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................... 19

  2.2 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................... 17

  2.1.10 Sense relations………………………………………………………...17

  2.1.9 The adjective exciting ............................................................................ 16

  2.1.8 Words and Concepts .............................................................................. 15

  4.3.7 Synonyms of film ................................................................................... 36

  4.3.8 Synonyms of life .................................................................................... 36

  4.3.9 Synonyms of news ................................................................................. 36

  4.3.10 Synonyms of programme ..................................................................... 37

  4.3.11 Synonyms of story ............................................................................... 37

  4.3.12 Synonyms of game ............................................................................... 37

  4.3.13 Synonyms of time ................................................................................ 38

  4.3.14 Synonyms of performance ................................................................... 38

  4.3.15 Synonyms of experience ...................................................................... 38

  4.3.16 Synonyms of competition .................................................................... 39

  4.3.17 Synonyms of project ............................................................................ 39

  4.4 The application of context in relation to the nominal pairs………………......39

  4.4.1 The noun adventure in context with other lexical items ........................ 40

  4.4.2 The noun challenge in context with other lexical items ........................ 42

  4.4.3 The noun climax in context with other lexical items ............................. 44

  4.4.4 The noun contest in context with other lexical items ............................ 44

  4.4.5 The noun development in context with other lexical items ................... 45

  4.4.6 The noun discovery in context with other lexical items ........................ 46

  4.4.7 The noun film in context with other lexical items.................................. 47

  4.4.8 The noun life in context with other lexical items ................................... 48

  4.4.9 The noun news in context with other lexical items ................................ 49

  4.4.10 The noun programme in context with other lexical items ................... 50

  4.4.11 The noun story in context with other lexical items .............................. 51

  4.4.12 The noun game in context with other lexical items ............................. 52

  4.4.13 The noun time in context with other lexical items ............................... 53

  4.4.14 The noun performance in context with other lexical items ................. 53

  4.4.15 The noun experience in context with other lexical items .................... 54

  4.4.16 The noun competition in context with other lexical items ................... 55

  4.4.17 The noun project in context with other lexical items .......................... 56

  

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS .................................. 58

  5.1 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 58

  5.2 Suggestions ..................................................................................................... 60

  

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................... 62

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………….......65

  Appendix 1 exciting + adventure. ......................................................................... 66 Appendix 2 exciting + challenge. ......................................................................... 67 Appendix 3 exciting + climax. .............................................................................. 68 Appendix 4 exciting + contest. ............................................................................. 69 Appendix 5 exciting + development. .................................................................... 69 Appendix 6 exciting + discovery. ......................................................................... 71 Appendix 7 exciting + film. .................................................................................. 71 Appendix 8 exciting + life. ................................................................................... 72 Appendix 9 exciting + news. ................................................................................. 73 Appendix 10 exciting + programme. .................................................................... 74 Appendix 11 exciting + story. ............................................................................... 75 Appendix 12 exciting + game. .............................................................................. 76 Appendix 13 exciting + time. ................................................................................ 77 Appendix 14 exciting + performance ................................................................... 78

  Appendix 15 exciting + experience. ..................................................................... 79 Appendix 16 exciting + competition. .................................................................... 80 Appendix 17 exciting + project. ........................................................................... 81

  

LIST OF TABLES

  Table 1 Common and diagnostic features of exciting and other lexemes Table 2 Common and diagnostic features of the nominal pairs of exciting

  

ABSTRACT

  Purwanto. 2011. Analysis on the Adjective Exciting and its Nominal Pairs Yogyakarta: English Language Studies, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University

  In addition to grammar, lexical knowledge is important in language learning. The understanding of words and vocabulary cannot be viewed as something that merely completing the understanding of grammatical structure of language. The lexical aspect is like the other side of the coin of which the other one is the grammatical. One of the lexical problems frequently faced by English language learners is word pairs. This study attempted to investigate the semantic aspects of the adjective exciting and the number of particular nouns which are commonly paired and collocate with the adjective exciting. The pairing of

  

exciting and the particular nouns was in the attributive pattern. The research

  focused on finding the answer concerning the semantic features possessed by the adjective exciting and the semantic features possessed by the nouns which collocate with the adjective exciting.

  This research was a descriptive qualitative one. The data of this study was collected from British National Corpus in 2008. The theories used to analyze the collected data among others were semantic domain, semantic features, word association, and componential analysis.

  Based on the analysis, this research found particular features or characteristics of the adjective exciting and its nominal pairs. The adjective

  

exciting contains emotive and sensory aspects. The emotive aspect involves the

  feeling of enthusiasm, eagerness, and curiosity while the sensory aspect involves experiential activity, visual, and mental perception. The nouns that commonly co- occur and collocate with the adjective exciting are those that contain the aspects of event, activity, physical mobility, activating enthusiasm, eagerness, and curiosity.

  

ABSTRAK

  Purwanto. 2011. Analisis atas Kata Sifat Exciting dan Pasangan Nominanya Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Magister, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

  Selain tata bahasa, pemahaman tentang leksikal adalah salah satu faktor penting dalam mempelajari bahasa Inggris. Pemahaman tentang kata dan kosa kata tidak dapat dipandang sebagai sesuatu yang remeh atau hanya sebagai bagian periferal dari struktur gramatika sebuah bahasa. Aspek leksikal seperti sisi lain dari koin mata uang dimana sisi yang lainnya adalah tata bahasa. Salah satu masalah leksikal sering dihadapi oleh pembelajar bahasa Inggris adalah pasangan kata. Penelitian ini berusaha menyelidiki aspek-aspek semantik dari kata sifat

  

exciting dan sejumlah kata benda tertentu yang biasanya dipasangkan dan

  berkolokasi dengan kata sifat tersebut. Pola pasangan kata sifat dan kata benda yang diteliti merupakan pola atributif. Penelitian ini difokuskan untuk mencari jawaban mengenai fitur semantik yang dimiliki oleh kata sifat exciting dan fitur semantik yang dimiliki oleh nomina yang berkolokasi dengan kata sifat tersebut.

  Penelitian ini bersifat kualitatif deskriptif. Data yang dijadikan obyek pada penelitian ini diperoleh dan dikumpulkan dari British National Corpus pada tahun 2008. Teori-teori yang digunakan untuk menganalisis data yang dikumpulkan antara lain teori domain semantik, fitur semantik, asosiasi kata, dan analisis komponensial.

  Berdasarkan analisis yang dilakukan, penelitian ini menemukan fitur atau karakteristik tertentu kata sifat exciting dan pasangan nominanya. Kata sifat

  

exciting mengandung aspek emotif dan sensorik. Aspek emotif yang ada dalam

  kata sifat exciting melibatkan rasa antusiasme, semangat, dan rasa ingin tahu sementara aspek sensorik melibatkan aktifitas empirik, persepsi visual dan mental. Kata benda yang umumnya berkolokasi dengan kata sifat exciting adalah kata benda yang mengandung aspek aktifitas fisik, peristiwa atau event, mobilitas, memicu antusiasme, semangat, dan rasa keingintahuan.

  

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

  Jeffries (1998: 121) mentions, “…part of the knowledge that speakers have about English words is their possible combination with other words.” Thus, combining words is a process we do in speaking. However, a knowledgeable speaker would do more than just putting words together. He or she would take into account the notion of selectional restrictions. Jeffries (ibid: 122) states:

  Selectional restrictions tend to be defined as restrictions on verbs, or sometimes on adjectives … They usually restrict a word, or group of words, to occurring with another semantically defined group of words. For example, there are verbs that occur only with animate subjects”. Furthermore, a language speaker should consider whether one word is suitable to the other word or not. For instance, in combining an adjective with a noun we should consider whether the adjective collocates with the noun and vice versa. Accordingly, that leads to the notion of collocability or the ability of particular words to collocate with other words.

  Collocability knowledge is important since English word combination can pose a special problem particularly to non-native learners. According to Martin cited in Carter (1998: 73-74), the common problem is a collocational mismatch. Martin, (as cited by Carter) notes:

  Collocational mismatches are frequent in the language production of second-language learners since learners never encounter a word or combinations of words with sufficient frequency to demarcate its range or narrow the item down to its more fixed partnerships… Thus, explaining amicable as a synonym of friendly does not explain why amicable divorce is collocationally acceptable but

• friendly divorce is not, nor why fat paycheque cannot be substituted by *obese paycheque without producing comic results.

  The understanding of word combinations will avoid the occurrence of inapropriate combination as exemplified by Chomsky through the famous sentence “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”, which shows that a grammatically correct sentence can be nonsensical semantically. The same applies to combinations of words or word pairings such as; *large mistake*, *large deal*,

• *large issue* , etc. These combinations are grammatically correct in that the

  adjectives are placed before a noun as part of a noun phrase and function as attributive adjectives. However, from the semantic sense point of view these adjectives are unlikely appropriate since the suitable adjective should be big.

  Hence, the notions of collocation harmony and collocational mismatch should be noted when combining or pairing particular adjectives with other words.

  Adjectives like big and large, for instance, though at first glance have the same meaning but they actually differ in the choice of words that can be used as a proper pair of each.

  Adjectives with similar meaning may ‘choose’ their own partners. The adjective large having similar meaning with big cannot be simply paired with any word since each has its own preferences in choosing a ‘partner’. For example, the combination of a big mistake would be more familiar and avoid collocational mismatch than a large mistake.

  The examples above show that learning a language is not that simple when it comes to picking and choosing the right word. Choosing the right word to pair with another word is not just a matter of grammaticality since language deals with sense of meaning as well as structure. When an English learner lacks the knowledge of lexical collocability, he/she will be prone to all sorts of combination mismatches and collocational errors, which can cause disruption in communication.

  According to Schmitt (2005: VII): “Learning a word entails more than knowing its meaning, spelling, and pronunciation. There are a number of other types of word knowledge, including a word's collocations, grammatical characteristics, register, frequency, and associations. In order to use a word with confidence, a learner must have some mastery of all of these types of word knowledge.”

  This suggests that diction or word choice plays a crucial role since the use of appropriate diction is closely related to one’s level of mastery of the language concerned. Choosing the correct word to be paired with a particular word is an important part of knowing how to use the language. In line with Schmitt’s proposition is Snaith’s as cited in Stott and Avery (2001: 35): Another useful term when talking about word choice is collocation.

  Words collocate when they commonly appear next to or near one another in texts. They can be two words which are commonly and predictably found together,…Collocation means that some words will sound right together while others will sound unfamiliar.

  There might be particular factors concerning the familiarity and unfamiliarity of the lexical partnership. A phrase or word combination which grammatically correct will sound strange or odd if it violates the collocation rule. The phrase a large problem though grammatically correct, may sound awkward. It also explains about a collocational preference or collocability that operates within certain words. According to Carter (1998: 38):

  Collocability describes the company a word keeps; that is, single words operate in a lexical environment of other words. We often know a word like lean because it collocates with meat. And some words can only be differentiated by citing their normal collocability range; for example, strong tea… In other words, certain words ‘prefer’ other certain words to be their pairs or partners. The ability of words to combine or co-occur and the suitability of their ‘partnership’ so that they will ‘get along in harmony’ apparently require particular kinds of semantic features. Taking into account semantic features of certain words that would suit or collocate with other words is important in observing lexical collocability.

  A word that inappropriately paires with another word would cause what is called as a semantic clash, as Cruse (2000: 222) notes, “If a collocational preference is contravened, we may say that inappropriateness results: inappropriateness is then the lowest degree of clash”.

  Without considering the notion of collocability, local English learners can make odd combination of words, which sound funny as in the following examples where the bracketed pairs are the appropriate version: large mouth (big mouth),

  

large deal (big deal), tall price (high price), wide smile (broad smile), course

followers (course attendants/participants) , etc.

  These odd word pairs are in accordance to what is hinted at by Cruse (2000: 221) as creating a semantic clash. Elementary level learners who try to translate Indonesian texts into English often face common problems or difficulties in finding the right word in order to avoid the semantic clash.

  The adjectives like big and large are just the examples. Many other English adjectives dealing with the problem of collocability are interesting to observe. One of these adjectives is exciting. One reason to choose exciting as the research topic in this thesis is that the word exciting is used in a tagline of a local radio station in Yogyakarta. The tagline reads ‘Exciting Radio’, which is uncommon. There is an impression that the word exciting on the tagline might refer to the programs on the radio. If so then the tagline should be written ‘exciting programs’ and be put under the name of the radio station. Another reason for choosing the word exciting is that it has a sort of resonance with the public sphere as the word is uncommonly used on the radio tagline More importantly is that Collins (1954: 146-147) includes exciting as one of the vogue- words. Collins explains:

  Vogue-words is the term invented by Fowler for a class of words that spring into popularity and later become overused and sometimes misused. ….”

  1.2 Problem Formulation

  Based on the previous discussion this thesis attempts to answer the following questions:

  1. What features does the adjective exciting have?

  2. What features do the noun pairs of exciting have?

  1.3 Problem Limitation

  There are, in fact, many linguistic aspects surrounding the issue of collocability. These aspects are indeed interesting to explore from many and different views of linguistics. Theoretically, word combination classifies itself into grammatical and lexical types. However, this study focuses only on lexical combination and specifies in the word exciting functions as attributive adjective modifying its nominal collocates or nominal pairs. This study focuses on the nouns or the nominal pairs that collocate with the adjective exciting.

  This study explores some semantic theories related to word meaning and applies lexical decomposition as a tool to dissect the collected data. In discussing the issue, another theory such as word association is also referred in order to explore corresponding concepts contained in the nouns which may collocate and may not collocate with the adjective exciting.

  1.4 Research Goals

  The aim of this research is to explore the theories of word meaning and the theories of collocation in particular to find theoretical grounds for the collocability of the English adjective exciting and the nouns that goes with it. The theories referred in this research are semantics and componential analysis. Understanding the notion of semantic characteristics of words is like having the knowledge about the unique characteristics or traits that are contained in words. This research explores the correlation of semantic traits and collocability that occurs in the adjective exciting and its nominal pairs.

  1.5 Research Benefits

  Theoretically, the research in this study should contribute more to the study of English semantics dealing with word meaning, lexical compositionality, and the like. Practically, the research in this research should contribute more to the understanding of English dealing with word combination, collocation, word choice used in conversations, reading and writing composition, or even in translation practice.

  In addition, this research will help EFL learners particularly in Indonesia in minimizing errors in combining adjectival and nominal words. Schmitt (2005) states:

  “An understanding of collocations is equally important for the natural use of words. These word partnerships are difficult to teach, but collocations are so important to the appropriate use of vocabulary that we have included a section on collocations in each chapter.” Hopefully, for English teachers in particular, this research should enrich their insights and contribute to the teaching and learning of English word combination and collocation. By knowing appropriate acquisition of word combining, teachers could do more to make English learners competent socially at the level of personal and technical communications.

  In addition, this research would be useful for students who study English linguistics especially those who concentrate on the field of semantics. The findings in this research may be used as a reference or may be criticized in the hope that other enhancing researches concerning the same issue would be conducted.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Related theories used as theoretical base for this research are discussed in

  this chapter. Two major sections namely theoretical review and theoretical framework are covered in the discussion. The theories discussed in the first section of this chapter among other are adjective theories, noun theories, and componential analysis theories. There are other theoretical propositions covered in this section.

2.1 Theoretical Review

2.1.1 Adjective

  Propositions concerning this word class are given, among others, by Finch (2000: 82) who writes a definition of adjective as follows: Adjectives are words which specify the attributes of NOUNS.

  Typically, they give information about the size, colour, shape and appearance of entities. In formal terms adjectives are usually defined by their distribution, that is, where they can occur in word strings. We characteristically find them in two places: first, in an attributive position within a noun PHRASE , as in the lovely book; and secondly, in a post-verbal, or predicative position, as in The

  book is lovely .

  Finch suggests that there are four aspects which an adjective can modify. These four aspects are size, color, shape, and appearance. These aspects are contained within an object to be described by the adjective either in attributive or predicative position. In his proposition above, Finch did not touch on the issue of classification concerning the objects that contain the four aspects, but apparently these four aspects belong to the concrete rather than abstract nouns. In addition to the four aspects actually there are others that can be perceived and described through the use of adjectives, such as sound, speed, and sensation.

  Another definition of adjective proposed by Murcia (1999: 17): The semantic definition of an adjective is that it describes or denotes the qualities of something. Adjectives commonly occur between a determiner and a noun, or after be or other linking verbs, although they can also follow a noun… The function of adjectives is to modify or complement nouns. There are two adjective types:

  

attributive , which precede nouns, and predicative, which follow

linking verbs.

  Both definitions concerning the nature of adjectives generally consider adjectives from the functional aspect either in attributive or predicative position.

  In terms of functionality, then the words which do not naturally belong to the class of adjectives could become adjectives that serve to qualify or modify other words. The word excite for instance, is a verb but when the verb is used to modify a noun as in exciting game, the verb functions as an adjective.

  One thing that should be noted when using attributive adjective is the potential oddness of meaning that can occur on certain derivative adjectives, for example, a phrase such as the writing book, cannot be rewritten in a predicative form as *the book is writing* . The oddness in terms of meaning could arise since the adjective writing derives from the verb write and the noun is inanimate. Therefore, before rewriting an attributive form in a predicative form one should check whether the adjective used is simple or verb derivative and whether the noun is animate or inanimate.

2.1.2 Noun

  Downing and Locke (1992: 406) use the word ‘nominal’ as another term to refer to noun. As stated by them, noun class or nominal groups refer semantically to those aspects of our experience which we perceive as ‘thing’ or ‘entities’. Downing and Locke elaborate:

  The term ‘thing’ refers here not only to concrete entities such as persons, objects, places, institutions and other ‘collectives’, but also the names of actions (reading, laughter), abstractions (thought, experience) relationships (friendship, obedience), qualities (beauty, speed ), emotions (anger, excitement ), phenomena (thunder, success) and many classes of entities.

  Thus, instead of referring to concrete objects, nouns also refer to ideas or concepts that have no physical existence or abstract nouns. Most of the nominal pairs of the adjective exciting discussed in this research refer to things and ideas which are also classified as abstract nouns.

  As compiled by Loos (2004), a noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people, places, things, ideas, or concepts. Dixon (2005: 82) states that are there five major types associated with the grammatical class of noun in English. Three of these types include abstract reference, states, and activities. Murcia (1999: 15) mentions that “…a noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. Some linguists add “idea” to account for abstract nouns such as

  

democracy , environment, and life.” According to Leech and Svartvik (2002: 29):

  Abstract nouns are nouns which refer to states, events, feelings, etc. Just like concrete nouns, they combine with part nouns, unit nouns, species nouns, and measure nouns, and can be either count or mass.

  Leech adds that generally abstract nouns can more easily be both 'count' and ‘mass' than concrete nouns, as in I had a talk with Jim, the noun talk is countable but in I dislike idle talk, the noun talk is a mass noun. Similarly, the abstract noun such as experience can be uncountable and countable. In I have no experience in

  

medical operation, the noun experience is uncountable and refers to the

  knowledge or skill, but in I had an exciting experience last week, the noun

  

experience is countable and refers to an event or activity. Abstract nouns are

  intangible and conceptual since they cannot be physically perceived. The intangibility also applies to their plural form which is mentally perceived.

2.1.3 Componential Analysis

  Aitchison (1999: 92) mentions that componential analysis is the attempt to divide lexical items into component parts since word meanings were assumed to be made up out of a stock of basic components. The basic components are also termed as semantic features as stated by Jeffries (1998: 87):

  One model of word meaning that has been proposed is known as 'componential analysis'. This approach to word meaning relies on an assumption that the meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a set of semantic features, many of which will form part of the description of other words in the same language.

  Jeffries’ statement conforms to the notion about componential analysis proposed earlier by Simpson (1997: 81): One of the first attempts by linguists to explain semantic compatibility (and by imputation, semantic incompatibility) between lexemes is known as componential analysis. This type of analysis involves the sifting out of the subcomponents of meaning that make up the overall sense of a lexical item. What is interesting here is that Simpson also note the aspect of sense made up by the subcomponents of meaning, which leads to the next notion namely sense relations. In other words, the sense of a word is correlated with other words that have a relationship both in terms of ‘coalition’ and ‘opposition’.

  According to Nida (1975: 32) in conducting the componential analysis two important kinds of components or features should be identified. These components are common component and diagnostic or distinctive component. The common component, as mentioned by Nida, is the central component shared by all the lexical items in the same semantic domain. The diagnostic or distinctive components or features serve to distinguish the meaning of certain lexical items from others within the same domain. Accordingly, the componential analysis can be carried out to identify distinctive features of a lexical item.

2.1.4 Semantic Domain

  Semantic domain is another term for semantic field. Semantic field as suggested by Crystal (2008: 429) is an area or field where particular words are organized, interrelated and defined each other in various ways. Hence, each of the words which belong to the same semantic domain is studied in relation to other words. The term semantic field is referred by Lehrer (1985: 397) as “a set of lexemes which cover a certain conceptual domain and which bear certain specifiable relations to one another.”

  According to Nida (1975: 174) semantic domain consists essentially of a group of meanings which share certain semantic components. Nida elaborates that there are four principal semantic domains. These four domains are entities, events, abstracts, and relationals. Nida points out that in terms of English parts of speech, the domain of entities corresponds with nouns, events with verbs, abstracts with adjectives, and relationals with prepositions.

  Thus, each of these four domains is like a big division where certain members are organized. The organization of words through semantic domains is systematic and useful for the purpose of analysis especially in relation to lexical aspects. Accordingly, the classification of lexical units based on their semantic domains can be carried out initially before stepping into further analysis related to the identification of semantic features to find out distinctive features of each lexical unit.

2.1.5 Collocative Meaning

  Leech (1981: 17) mentions, “ COLLOCATIVE MEANING consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.” Following is the exemplification given by Leech concerning the notion of collocative meaning:

  

Pretty and handsome share common ground in the meaning 'good-

  looking', but may be distinguished by the range of nouns with which they are likely to co-occur or (to use the linguist's term) collocate: girl boy boy man woman car pretty flower handsome vessel garden overcoat colour airliner village typewriter

  Leech adds, “…handsome woman and pretty woman are both acceptable, although they suggest a different kind of attractiveness because of the collocative associations of the two adjectives.” The examples and illustration above suggest that word sense and features contained in particular words belonging to the same semantic domain are crucial in determining their lexical partners to which they collocate.

  2.1.6 Collocability

  Carter (1998: 38) states: ”Collocability describes the company a word keeps; that is, single words operate in a lexical environment of other words. We often know a word like lean because it collocates with meat. And some words can only be differentiated by citing their normal collocability range; for example, strong tea-- *powerful tea”

  In the examples above, Carter suggests that the collocability of certain words with their pairs, though apparently already established by frequent occurrences, seems to be determined by the degree of lexical coreness, as he adds that, “..the more core a lexical item is, the more partnerships it will contract with other lexical items.” (1998: 38). In the examples above the word lean is more core or essential than thin, and the word strong is more core than powerful. However, it seems that Carter simply points out lexical coreness as the factor in relation to lexical collocability. Carter barely discusses another factor such as the role of semantic features in lexical collocability.

  2.1.7 Semantic features