RESISTANCE AGAINST BLACK WOMEN’S OPPRESSION SEEN THROUGH THE MAIN CHARACTER IN APRIL SINCLAIR’S COFFEE WILL MAKE YOU BLACK AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
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RESISTANCE AGAINST BLACK WOMEN’S OPPRESSION SEEN THROUGH THE MAIN CHARACTER IN APRIL SINCLAIR’S COFFEE WILL MAKE YOU BLACK AN UNDERGRADUATE THESISPresented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Letters
By
HENRICA ANGELIA INDRIAWATI SUMARNO
Student Number: 074214041
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
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RESISTANCE AGAINST BLACK WOMEN’S OPPRESSION SEEN THROUGH THE MAIN CHARACTER IN APRIL SINCLAIR’S COFFEE WILL MAKE YOU BLACK AN UNDERGRADUATE THESISPresented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Letters
By
HENRICA ANGELIA INDRIAWATI SUMARNO
Student Number: 074214041
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2011
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PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMISYang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Henrica Angelia Indriawati Sumarno
NIM : 074214041 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
Resistance against Black Women’s Oppression Seen through the Main
Character in April Sinclair’s Coffee Will Make You Blackbeserta perangkat yang diperlukan. Dengan demikian, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media yang lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta Pada tanggal 12 Oktober 2011 Yang menyatakan, Henrica Angelia Indriawati Sumarno
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Y Y É Ü ` ` ç c c t Ü x Ç à àá á Y Y É Ü ` ` ç c c t Ü x Ç à à á
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My deepest gratitude goes to Ni Luh Putu Rosiandani, S.S., M. Hum. for her patience to guide me during thesis writing. I am also grateful to Maria Ananta Tri Suryandari S.S., M.Ed. for her kindness to read and examine the thesis. I could not get any single word to express my gratitude to all of my lecturers in English Letters Department of Sanata Dharma University who had shared their knowledge in classes.
I am also thankful to Miss Dewi for her kindness to lend me “books of truth” in which I got useful sources. I probably could not continue this thesis without her “home library”. Thank you to Tata for helping me in the beginning of my research and Adi Prasatya for his precious time and thought he shared for this thesis. I am also grateful to Irene Ossi for her time and patience to edit my “master piece”. Thank you so much for your precious advices guys!
Thank you for endless support from my dad and mama, my friends: Iyin, Sylvia Puput, Nciez Driastiwi, Pungky Widyastuti, Denty, Sri Ruth, Helen Larasati, Vina Bieber, Stefani Dhea, Mustika, Azizah Nurul, and my little sister Valentina.
Yogyakarta, October 2011 Henrica Angelia Indriawati Sumarno
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TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………......... i
APPROVAL PAGE ……………………………………………………....... ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE …………………………………………………..... iii
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ……………………….... ivDEDICATION PAGE …………………………………………………....... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………...... viTABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………...... vii
ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………........ ix
ABSTRAK ………………………………………………………………....... xCHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……………………………………......... 1 A. Background of the Study ……………………………….................
1 B. Problem Formulation …………………………………….................
4 C. Objectives of the Study …………………………………...............
4 D. Definitions of Terms ……………………………………................
4 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW …………………………......
7 A. Review of Related Studies ………………………………..............
7 B. Review of Related Theories ……………………………...............
10 C. Review on the Historical Background …………………................
17 D. Theoretical Framework ……………………………......................
20 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ………………………………...........
22 A. Object of the Study ……………………………………..................
22 B. Approach of the Study ……………………………………...........
23 C. Method of the Study ……………………………………................
24 CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS …………………………………………......... 26 A. The Description of Jane Stevenson ……………………….............
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1. Critical ………………………………………………...................... 30 2. Sympathetic ………………………………………….....................
33 3. Brave …………………………………………………....................
34 B. The Forms of Oppression Revealed through the Experience of Jane Stevenson …………………………….............
36 1. Smiling Aunt Jemima ……...…………………………...................
36 2. Welfare Mother ………………………………………...................
37 3. Jezebel …………………..……………………………...................
39 4. Too Big Negro Girls with Nappy Hair ………………...................
42 C. Jean Stevenson’s Resistance Against Black Woman’s Oppression ………………………………............
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CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ………………………………………...... 51
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………..... 53viii
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ABSTRACT
HENRICA ANGELIA INDRIAWATI SUMARNO. Resistance against Black
Women Oppression Seen through the Main Character in April Sinclair’s
Coffee Will Make You Black. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters,
Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2011.Oppression against black women in America existed since the period of slavery. Black women were seen as slaves who could be exploited anytime. They were forced to work in plantation and in their master’s house, and they were also forced to fulfill their masters’ sexual desire. After slavery the oppression continues to trap black women in a more systematic way. Black women were treated based on the controlling images existed in American society. These images keep black women in a subordinated place. This thesis tries to see black woman’s resistance against the oppression through Stevie as the main character in Coffee
Will Make You Black .
There are three problems which are discussed in this thesis. The first point is how Stevie is characterized, the second is what forms of oppression that Stevie experiences, and the last point is how Stevie resists against the oppression.
Feminist approach is used in this study. It has a goal to see women’s experience in the past and the struggle for their future so that it will increase our appreciation toward women’s value in the world. This thesis is a library research. The writer finds the data from the books and other supported references from the articles.
From the analysis it can be concluded that Stevie is characterized as an African-American woman who is critical, sympathetic, and also brave especially when she faces the problems of controlling images against black women. In the story Stevie experienced sexual harassment and unfair treatment as the cause of the images. Aunt Jemima image shows her as a white nurse’s servant when Stevie once helped a white nurse cleaning her office. Welfare Mother image causes Stevie to get charity from a white teacher who treated her like a poor black woman. Jezebel image that shows black woman as sexually permissive made Stevie sexually harassed and raped. The standard of white woman’s beauty had forced Stevie to use bleaching cream and straighten her hair. Stevie resists the oppression through her thought and action. When she reaches her consciousness of being oppressed she assures herself to have self-respect. This self-respect is built when she can define herself as a respected black woman. Stevie changed her appearance into natural African-American look and speaks up her voice about freedom through her poem entitled “What Good”.
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ABSTRAK
HENRICA ANGELIA INDRIAWATI SUMARNO. Resistance against Black
Women Oppression Seen through the Main Character in April Sinclair’s
Coffee Will Make You Black. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas
Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2011.Tekanan terhadap wanita kulit hitam di Amerika terjadi sejak masa perbudakan. Pada masa ini wanita kulit hitam dianggap sebagai budak yang bisa diekploitasi dengan mudah. Mereka dipaksa bekerja di perkebunan dan rumah para majikan. Mereka juga dipaksa untuk memenuhi kebutuhan seksual para majikan. Setelah masa perbudakan berakhir, tekanan yang dialami oleh wanita kulit hitam berlanjut. Tekanan ini lebih sistematis dari sebelumnya. Tekanan ini berupa perlakuan masyarakat terhadap wanita kulit hitam. Perlakuan yang didapat berdasarkan pada citra negatif wanita kulit hitam di dalam pola pikir masyarakat. Citra ini menempatkan wanita kulit hitam pada posisi terendah di dalam strata masyarakat Amerika. Melalui tokoh utama di dalam novel Coffee Will Make You
Black, skripsi ini melihat perlawanan wanita kulit hitam terhadap tekanan yang
mereka alami.Skripsi ini mempunyai tiga rumusan masalah. Yang pertama adalah bagaimana Stevie dideskripsikan, kemudian apa saja bentuk-bentuk tekanan yang dialami oleh Stevie, dan bagaimana Stevie melawan tekanan yang dia alami.
Skripsi ini menggunakan pendekatan feminis yang bertujuan untuk melihat pengalaman para perempuan dan perjuangan mereka untuk membangun masa depan. Pendekatan ini dapat meningkatkan apresiasi kita terhadap peran kaum perempuan. Skripsi ini menggunakan studi pustaka. Penulis mengumpulkan data yang berasal dari buku, referensi tertulis, dan artikel.
Dari hasil analisis penulis menyimpulkan bahwa Stevie dideskripsikan sebagai wanita Afrika Amerika yang kritis, simpatik, dan berani menghadapi tekanan sebagai wanita kulit hitam. Di dalam cerita Stevie mengalami pelecehan seksual dan ketidakailan sebagai akibat dari citra negatif wanita kulit hitam. Citra “Aunt Jemima” memandang Stevie sebagai pelayan wanita kulit putih di sekolahnya. Citra “Welfare Image” membuat Stevie diperlakukan sebagai orang miskin. Citra “Jezebel” yang memandang wanita kulit hitam sebagai wanita murahan membuat Stevie dilecehkan secara seksual dan diperkosa. Standar kecantikan yang mengidolakan wanita kulit putih memaksa Stevie untuk memakai krim pemutih dan meluruskan rambutnya. Perlawanan Stevie terhadap tekanan ini dapat dilihat melalui pemikiran dan tindakannya. Ia membuat dirinya menghargai diri sendiri setelah ia sadar bahwa ia ditindas. Ia menghargai diri sendiri dengan berpenampilan seperti wanita kulit hitam dan menyuarakan kebebasan dirinya melalui puisi berjudul “What Good”. x PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study Women in Western European countries have struggled to get their voice to
be heard since the Age of Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment emerged in
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the early 18 century was an intellectual movement period when human beings started to use their ability to reason as a solution when they encountered social problems. It was noted by Margaret L. Anderson in her book, Thinking About
Women: Sociological and Feminist Perspectives , that feminist historians argued
“the Age of Reason is a reference only to the reason of certain men” and at the same era “women’s work was idealized as belonging in the emotional work of the home” (1983: 241). Although women had been left out from the intellectual movement because they were considered irrational and emotional, there was a notable exception of women thinkers such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Abigail Adam, or Margaret Fuller who produced earlier essays that became the roots of thought
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about women emancipation in 19 and 20 century. During the same period, when Mary Wollstonecraft published her essay A Vindication of the Rights of
Women in 1792 in London and other white women started their movement to gain
equal rights with white men, black women and men in America were still in the bounds of slavery.
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The idea of feminism that was revealed by some white women thinkers was considered irrelevant to black women’s lives. For black women, their past experiences in slavery brought extra burden in defining their struggles. Black women suffered from both sexist and racist treatments. Beverly Guy-Sheftall in her essay in An African-American Reader: Essays on African-American History,
Culture, and Society called these burdens as “the double jeopardy” which meant
that “the problems, concerns, and needs of black women are different in many ways and distinct from those of white women and black men” (2005: 294). Their thoughts would concern about the struggle for gender equality and black people liberation.
The double jeopardy as being black and being woman still bound black women, even long after the abolition of slavery. It was claimed by some feminist scholars as oppressive situation of black women. This oppression can be found in African-American women’s writings, for example Maya Angelou’s autobiography entitled I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. In her autobiography, the young Angelou realized that the standard of beauty accepted by her society was the feature of white woman. Her appearance as an African woman made her upset and at the same time had caused her to admire the feature of white woman,
Wouldn’t they be surprised when one day I woke out of my black ugly dream, and my real hair, which was long and blond, would take the place of the kinky mass that Momma wouldn’t let me straighten? … Because I was really white and because a cruel fairy stepmother, who was understandably jealous of my beauty, had turned me into a too-big Negro girl, with nappy black hair, broad feet and a space between het teeth would hold a number-two pencil (1962: 2).
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The above passage shows that the natural black woman appearance is considered ugly by American society.
Angelou also suffered sexual abuse from Mr. Freeman, her mother’s boyfriend. She was raped in her early age and got unpleasant threat that affected her mental,
“If you scream, I’m gonna kill you. And if you tell, I’m gonna kill Bailey.” I could tell he meant what he said. I couldn’t understand why he wanted to kill my brother. Neither of us had done anything to him. And then.
Then there was the pain. A breaking and entering when even the senses are torn apart. The act of rape on an eight-year-old body is a matter of the needle giving because the camel can’t. The child gives, because the body can, and the main of the violator cannot (1962: 65).
These kinds of oppression also happened to the main character in Coffee
Will Make You Black that was written by April Sinclair. This novel becomes the
object of the study in this thesis which has topic on African-American women literature. Sinclair’s work is chosen as the object of this study because it supports the idea of black feminism that gives empowerment to black women to end any racist and sexist treatments toward all women (Hooks, 1981: 194-195). Since sexual exploitation against any women has not been banished and racism is still a powerful weapon to separate ethnic groups in this world, the existence of black women oppression is considered a relevant topic to be discussed. Through the main character’s form of resistance toward the oppression, it will teach broader society to encounter this kind of social problem.
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B. Problem Formulation
1. How is Jane Stevenson characterized?
2. What forms of oppression are revealed through the experience of Jane Stevenson in the story?
3. How does Jane Stevenson resist against the oppression?
C. Objectives of the Study The aim of this study is to reveal the characterization of Jane Stevenson as the main character, and then to see the forms of oppression she experienced in the story, and lastly to identify her resistance against the oppression.
D. Definition of Terms 1. Black Women’s Oppression Women’s oppression is defined by Maggie Humm in The Dictionary of
Feminist Theory as “the experience of sexism as a system of domination” (1995:
194). For black women in America who had double burdens; as woman and African-American, the experience of sexism was influenced by historical facts of slavery. The long standing system of slavery constituted black women’s oppression which differ from other women, for example white women.
A black feminist, Patricia Hill Collins, argues that oppression for black women is based on the existence of controlling images against black women in American society (2000: 5). According to Collins the controlling images function
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as “a highly effective system of social control designed to keep African-American women in an assigned, subordinated place” (2000: 5).
There are four kinds of controlling images that become a foundation of sexist treatment against black women:
a. Smiling Aunt Jemima
This image appeared from the continuation of domestic service job for black women which is similar to slavery. Black women who work in domestic service job work very hard but get low payment (2000: 74). They are seen as “faithful, obedient domestic servant” (2000: 72) who devote their time and energy to take care of white people’s house.
b. Welfare Mother
This image appeared when there were some working class black women depended on state allowance for their income money. They are seen as lazy mothers and the cause of poverty in black family (Collins, 2000: 80),
c. Jezebel
Jezebel is an old term of whore. This image sees black women as “sexually aggressive women” (2000: 81). Jezebel rooted in slavery when most enslaved black women were abused sexually by their slave owners and slave traders. The sexual abuse against enslaved black women were not seen as the owners’ fault but, according to Bell Hooks in Ain’t I a Woman, “the women invited sexual abuse by their lack of morals” (1981: 56).
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d. Too Big Negro Girls with Nappy Hair
Prevailing standard of beauty claims that no matter how intelligent, educated, or “beautiful” a black woman may be, those black women whose features and skin color are mostly African must “git back” (2000: 89). The feature of natural African women, for example: dark skin and nappy hair (afro) is considered as ugly feature of woman. American society has prevailing standard of beauty of white woman’s feature which claims a beautiful woman supposes to has blue eyes, straight and blonde hair, white skin, etc.
2. Resistance
According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, resistance is fighting against someone or something that is attacking you (2001: 1537). In the context of black woman’s oppression resistance is considered by Collins as “Black women’s longstanding rejection of controlling images” (2000: 98). The awareness to reject controlling images appears when black women have a consciousness that there are negative sides of controlling images and they can find their self-definition as black women (2000: 97).
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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW A. Review of Related Studies Some researchers used Coffee Will Make You Black as their object of study
in their undergraduate theses and articles. The first researcher is Fransisca Emi Dian Kusumawati who wrote her thesis on “The Effects of the Political Events toward Jean’s Sexuality Development in April Sinclair’s Coffee Will Make You
”. In this thesis Kusumawati proved how political events in 1960s, that were
Black
black power movement and civil right movement, affected the sexuality development of the main character Jean Stevenson (1999: x).
Kusumawati analyzed the main character Stevie, as an adolescent, someone who experienced two stages of sexuality development. The first development was considered as physical. The physical development embraced the development of the body and the genital functioning. The second development was psychological development, influenced by three external factors; family, school, and society (1999: 71-72).
Based on the political events and sexuality development analysis mentioned before, Kusumawati concluded that the political events gave two sides of effects toward Stevie’s sexual development. The first is the good effect; as the movement had begun, Stevie began to realize that she had to struggle also for her race (black) by wearing her hair in afro style and refusing to use skin bleaching offered by her mother. She realized that she had to be who she was. And then the
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bad effect; Stevie got influenced by her friends in trying sexual intercourse with her ex-boyfriend, but then she realized that she had bigger attraction on Nurse horn, a white woman (1999: 73).
The next researcher is Hirmawan Wijanarka a lecturer of English Letters Department who wrote an article entitled “Where are you going Stevie? (A Note on Sinclair’s Coffee Will Make You Black)” that was printed in periodical article,
Phenomena Journal of Language and Literature . He claimed that Stevie’s
struggle to find and to express her own identity as a black young girl had an implied meaning (2001: 37).
First Wijanarka discussed the matter of “color line” through black people’s perception of their own society that even black people themselves do not feel satisfied with their own existence in white-oriented society. He gave an example from the character of Mrs. Stevenson who felt embarrassed and disappointed to see her daughter’s natural appearance as black person and her family members who did not speak English well. He discussed further that it was a pity, furthermore, to know that actually this embarrassment (or disappointment) is caused by their own people to a certain extent (2001: 41).
Wijanarka underlined that Black people’s ignorance toward education is also another embarrassment. Most people do not give enough attention to their children’s education which is one of the most important things in life. He gave quotation from the novel when Mrs. Stevenson sent all of her children to school, and this invited appreciation from one black mother, Mrs. Perkins. She says to Stevie,
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“I’ve done damn near everything but steal and sell tail to keep a roof over their heads. Stay in school, I tell them. Education is something that nobody can not take away from you. …Don’t end up like me. Look like the only rest I’m gonna get will be in my grave” (Sinclair, 1994: 68).
He concluded that many black people do not care about the importance of education. These three forms of disappointment made Mrs. Stevenson, as a black woman, tried to deny her own being as a black woman living with a black tradition. She tried to put away black people’s nature and characteristics, and tended to imitate white people’s tradition (2001: 41-42).
To understand the major character thoroughly, Wijanarka assumed the readers of his article to closely understand the black American people and the major character’s community. He pointed out some important social problems such as, a tragedy after the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., gender roles problem, and main character’s sexuality development (her tendency for being a lesbian). As a “blind” teenager Stevie had to break down these social problems to get her freedom and self-identity (2001: 40-41).
Wijanarka argued that Stevie tried “to fulfill her inner drive, to be true to herself, to be free to make choices in her own life regardless of how society may judge her” by, one of them, being a lesbian (2001: 46). Through the main character, Wijanarka assumed that Sinclair tended to suggest black people that it would not be necessary “to alter their identity by reducing, hiding, or changing their natural characteristics and physical appearance” and “be strong!” toward all discrimination’s existence (2001: 46).
It was concluded that Stevie’s struggle to find identity as a metaphor for black people in America represented both their sorrow and their dream,
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Sinclair’s Coffee Will Make You Black is the manifestation of the striving of black souls set against complicated social and adolescent problems. One thing, however, is essentially unchanged, i.e. the search for a peaceful way for blacks to live together with whites and the rest of the human race. The main character, Jean “Stevie” Stevenson, is an embodiment, or a metaphor, of Black American’s striving for freedom and self-identity, and at the same time she is the projection of their dream (Wijanarka, 2001: 47). This study also discusses the characteristic of Jane Stevenson as the protagonist in the story. It tries to see forms of oppression that Stevie had in the story which came from her family and society. Then it has an analysis on Stevie’s resistance toward oppression she had experienced. The study uses feminist approach in which woman’s struggle becomes the main concern of the analysis.
B. Review of Related Theories 1. Theory of Character and Characterization
Character is very important element in a story, especially when the writer wants to see forms of oppression happened to the main character and tries to reveal her resistance against it. According to Abrams in his book, A Glossary of
Literary Terms , character is a person presented in a dramatic or narrative work,
who is interpreted by the reader as being endowed with moral, dispositional, and emotional qualities that are expressed in what they say – the dialogue – and by what they do – the action (1993: 23). According to Gill in Mastering English
Literature Second Edition , a character is someone in literary work who has some
sort of identity, an identity which is made up by appearance, conversation, action, name, and thoughts going on in the head (1995: 127).
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From these two theories of character, it can be concluded that a character is someone in the novel who carries identity and thoughts which can be seen through her or his appearance, dialogue, and action. Interpretations among readers about a character are various because there is no exact standard of interpretation.
The way an author creates the character through her or his thought, dialogues, and actions is called characterization. Harmon defines characterization as “the creation of imaginary persons so that they seem lifelike.” He introduces three fundamental methods of characterization:
(1) the explicit presentation by the author of the character through direct EXPOSITION, either in an introductory block or more often piecemeal throughout the work, illustrated by action; (2) the presentation of the character in action, with little or no explicit comment by the author, in the expectation that the reader can deduce the attributes of the actor from the actions; and (3) the representation from within a CHARACTER, without comment by the author, of the impact of actions and emotions on the character’s inner self. (1996: 95)
These methods are relevant in analyzing the major character in this thesis which is identified as dynamic character. The major character has complex personality in temperament and motivation. Abram said, “such a character therefore is as difficult to describe with any adequacy as a person in real life, and like real persons, is capable of surprising us (1993: 24)”.
Abrams gives alternative methods of characterizing. In order to establish the distinctive characteristics of the persons in a narrative, there are two methods: showing and telling. In showing (also called “the dramatic method”), the author presents the characters talking and acting and leaves the readers to infer what motives and dispositions lie behind what they say and do. In telling, the author
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intervenes authoritatively in order to describe, and often to evaluate, the motives and dispositional qualities of the characters (1993: 24).
2. Theory of Black Woman’s Oppression
According to Maggie Humm in The Dictionary of Feminist Theory, women’s oppression is “the experience of sexism as a system of domination” (1995: 194). The terms ‘sexism’ and ‘system’ in Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English are defined as “the belief that women are weaker, less
intelligent, and less important than men” (2001: 1651) and “a group of related parts that work together as a whole for a particular purpose” (2001: 1848).
The experience of sexism for black women in America differs from other women because their historical background as slaves. They are not seen only as weaker sex than men but they are controlled by the images that were formed by the slave owners and slave traders. The existence of controlling images was constructed by slave owners and slave traders through a long period of time. The images emerged the earliest sexism toward black women. After the abolition of slavery sexist treatment against black women continues and it is based on the controlling images accepted by American society. There are four forms of controlling images that oppress black women:
a. Smiling Aunt Jemima
This image appeared from the continuation of domestic service job for black women which is similar to slavery. After slavery black people could not afford better job rather than do the domestic service job because most of them
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were unskilled and uneducated. Black women who work in domestic service job work very hard but get low payment (2000: 74). They are seen as “faithful, obedient domestic servant” (2000: 72) who devote their time and energy to take care of white people’s house.
After the abolition of slavery many black families lived in poverty. Few skilled jobs were available for black men but there were domestic service jobs such as; maids, housekeepers, and washerwomen, available for black women. Bell Hooks gives review toward this situation, “While white men could feel threatened by competition from black males for sound wage-earning jobs and use racism to exclude black men, white women were eager to surrender household chores to black female servants” (1981: 91). Since the domestic service jobs were not seen as “real work or meaningful labor” (1981:91) by white people and black men, black women were compelled to do such works in order to fulfill their family’s needs. The long standing of the profession of black women had created the smiling aunt Jemima image which supported “the racial superiority of White employers” (2000:73).
b. Welfare Mother
This image appeared when there were some working class black women depended on state allowance for their income money. They are seen as lazy mothers and the cause of poverty in black family (Collins, 2000: 80). After the World War II black women turned into jobless and poorer than before. It is known as The Great Depression. Hine and Thompson illustrate the condition on black women in this era,
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Black families were often desperate. Black women met the challenge by giving up some of what they had worked so hard for. They took lower pay and accepted worse conditions. Some returned to the despised live-in work. In some northern cities, they participated in “slave-markets” on street corner in white neighborhoods. On these corners, black women gathered each morning, and white housewives came to offer a day’s work at an absurdly low wage. Sometimes domestic workers were paid in nothing more than food and cast-off clothing (1998: 243).
However, Collins argues that black women successfully acquired basic political and economic protections from a greatly expanded social welfare state (2000: 78).
The welfare controlling image is labeled black woman as a bad mother because she is portrayed as “being content to sit around and collect welfare, shunning work and passing on her bad values to her offspring” (2000: 79). This image represents black women as failed mothers who were lazy for working and “passing on her bad values to her offspring” (2000: 79). This image sees black women are the cause of their own families’ poverty.
Jezebel is an old term of whore. This image sees black women as “sexually aggressive women” (2000: 81). Jezebel rooted in slavery when most enslaved black women were abused sexually by their slave owners. The sexual abuse against enslaved black women were not seen as the owners’ fault but, according to Bell Hooks in Ain’t I a Woman, “the women invited sexual abuse by their lack of morals” (1981: 56).
This image appeared, according to Hooks, because “black women have always been seen by the white public as sexually permissive, as available and eager for the sexual assault of any man, black or white” (1981: 52) that rooted since Middle Passage and Slavery. This idea established a social hierarchy
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c. Jezebel
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accepted by American society (whites and blacks) that is formulated by Hooks as, “ranked white men first, white women second, though sometimes equal to black men, who are ranked third, and black women last” (1981:52-53). Toward this social hierarchy Hooks explains in the term of sexual politics of rape that “if one white woman is raped by a black man, it is seen as more important, more significant than if thousands of black women are raped by one white man” (1981: 53). On the other hand, black women can be raped by both black and white men.
d. Too Big Negro Girls with Nappy Hair
Prevailing standard of beauty claims that no matter how intelligent, educated, or “beautiful” a black woman may be, those black women whose features and skin color are mostly African must “git back” (2000: 89). The feature of natural African women, for example: dark skin and nappy hair (afro) is considered as ugly feature of woman. American society has prevailing standard of beauty of white woman’s feature which claims a beautiful woman supposes to have blue eyes, straight and blonde hair, white skin, etc.
3. Theory of Resistance
The word “resistance” based on Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English is fighting against someone or something that is attacking you (2001:
1537). In the context of black woman’s oppression resistance is considered by Collins as “Black women’s longstanding rejection of controlling images” (2000: 98). As black women’s reaction toward oppression, Collins argues that some black women prefer to internalize the controlling images. They were forced by the situation to escape from the pain and violence of the controlling images (2000:
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93). Collins gives example from Toni Morrison’s novel The Bluest Eye. A character in that novel,11-year-old Pecola Breedlove, characterizes as an unloved and “ugly” Black girl. Collins says,
“Pecola internalizes the negative images of African-American women and believes that the absence of blue eyes is central to her ‘ugliness.’ Pecola cannot value her Blackness-she longs to be White so that she can escape the pain of being Black, female, poor, and a child” (2000: 93).
Pecola is considered a victim of oppression because her life was limited by the images and she was failed to fight for her racial identity (2000: 94). Another reaction is through black women’s resistance toward the controlling images. Collins argues that other black women prefer to reject the controlling images by replacing it with “the process of personal growth toward positive self-definition” (2000: 94). These black women are more aware on their own condition and other women’s condition of being oppressed by the images.
Collins quoted Audre Lorde’s statement, a black feminist poet, that to be a survivor means to be a watcher. Survivors generate a dual consciousness through the “watching” activity. These are the mask behavior to accept the controlling images and the behavior to “maintain independent self-definitions” (2000:97).
Collins argued that by insisting on self-definition, survivors can critically question about the credibility of those possessing the power to define (the oppressor) and reject their assumption to interpret the oppressed reality (2000: 114). Through the experiences of daily life, as it is formulated by Collins, black women can “challenge to the externally defined, controlling images of African-American women and replace the negative images with the positive ones” (2000: 114).
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Collins gives example through the same Toni Morison’s novel, The Bluest Eye, but with different character. It is Claudia, “a 10-year-old Black girl who, to the chagrin of grown-ups, destroys White dolls by tearing off their heads and who refuses to share her classmates’ admiration of light-skinned, long-haired Maureen Peal” (2000: 95). Through this action, Claudia has growing awareness about the images that made Maureen Peal as a beautiful woman and herself as an ugly woman (2000: 95).