LANGUAGE BELIEFS AMONG ADULT LEARNERS: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES | Johari | International Journal of Education 7648 16111 2 PB
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
LANGUAGE BELIEFS AMONG ADULT LEARNERS: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Aiza Johari*, Siti Huzaimah Sahari, Affidah Morni & Amelia Alfred Tom
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sarawak Branch, Malaysia
*aiza@sarawak.uitm.edu.my
First draft received: 31 July 2017
Final proof received: 27 August 2017
Abstract
To develop the quality of language learning and utilise learning opportunities in and out of a classroom, it
is vital to understand individual's beliefs in language learning. White (2008) affirmed that an individual’s
belief plays a key role in the learning process and language acquisition, especially the beliefs the learners
have about themselves, language and language learning, and about the settings in which they contribute
as language learners and users. This study identifies the English language learning beliefs of adult
learners (between 45-50 years of age) in a local university in Sarawak. Questionnaire was the instrument
to collect the data, and the data were analysed using SPSS Version 21. The study showed that these adult
learners have various levels of language beliefs. The results obtained can be used to enhance the
teaching and learning of English language where language instructors can learn more about their learners
and the learners’ language beliefs can further enhance learning process in the classroom.
Keywords: Language beliefs; individual differences; adult learners.
To cite this paper (in APA style):
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A. (2017). Language beliefs among adult learners:
Individual
differences. International
Journal
of Education,
10
(1),
20-25.
doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
INTRODUCTION
Many people may find learning a foreign or second
language to be challenging and daunting, and this
scenario exists among Malaysian learners of English
language. In Malaysia, English plays a role as the
second language in which English language is taught in
school education system because English is significant
in the students’ daily lives and future career. Smith and
Strong (2009) mentioned that at present, World English
being an international language is of increasing
importance in international communication, business,
media and pop culture as well as in research journals
and in such field like the civil aviation. Many Malaysians
often speak English in business, government offices,
workplace, higher learning institutions and public places
such as the banks, billing counters and even markets.
As a result, though English is not the official language, it
has become crucial for Malaysians to be able to
communicate in English, whether at an average or
mastery level.
However, Hariati and Lee (2011) affirmed that
many educators grumble on the declining levels of
English performance and proficiency among students in
schools and
universities. To add, Zuraidah (2007)
observed that many English learners tend to exhibit
reluctance and seem hesitant to speak out unless it is
absolutely necessary. Consequently, many English
learners in Malaysia perceive English learning as
challenging, even before they step into the classroom.
Due to such belief, they struggle to master the
language. To make the matter worse, some lack
motivation, thus affecting their efforts to commit.
Moreover, Chew and Chui (2012) pointed out that
taking into account of the learner’s role in the learning
process might be uncommon in Malaysia, unlike the
western countries which place more importance on the
significant roles of the learners in the learning process.
In order to achieve their goals in learning
languages, learners need to have positive beliefs,
motivation and self-confidence. Fazilatfar et al. (2015)
considered beliefs as cognitive entities that guide
humans to behave in a community. They are crucial
factors that lead most human behavior. Hence,
Woolfolk (2006) affirmed that the learners’ beliefs and
attributions do give a significant impact to the learners’
drive to learn any language. In addition, Kalaja and
Barcelos (2003) defined language belief as a particular
area of an individual’s learner difference which may
influence the acquisition of foreign or second language
learning, mainly their learning experiences. Notably,
White (2008) affirmed that beliefs play a significant role
in the learning process and “in terms of language
learning, the domains of beliefs which are
acknowledged as relevant are the beliefs learners hold
about themselves, about language and language
learning, and about the contexts in which they
20
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A.
Language beliefs among adult learners: Individual differences levels
In addressing individual differences in adults’
English learning, adult second language learning
traditionally involves individual differences such as
aptitude, motivation, learning strategies, learning styles,
meta-linguistic awareness, and personality traits (e.g.,
extraversion), as well as a range of other social and
affective variables (Ehrman, Leaver & Oxford, 2003).
Consequently, adult learners generally embrace a wide
range of variables: age, gender, intelligence,
personality, learning style and previous learning
experience, in which also include their own individual
beliefs, attitudes, expectations, motivations and
strategies (Hurd, 2006). As a result, educators need to
be aware of these variables and provide authentic
language activities that can cater to these variables, in
which a learner is likely to react, respond and reflect
differently to the learning materials.
participate as language learners and language users”
(p.121). Horwitz (1988), the first researcher who
conducted a detailed research into beliefs in language
learning, has developed the Beliefs about Language
Learning Inventory (BALLI) to access language
learners’ beliefs about language learning. She
perceived that such beliefs are influencing language
learners’ expectations, motivation, and commitment to
language learning.
Ellis (2008) further asserted that learners’ beliefs
are present when they have recognised several
attributes of language learning and language learning
ability such as knowledge of the target language,
strategies, goals and cultural influences. Therefore, it is
significant for educators to understand their learners’
beliefs as what the learners bring into the classroom
may influence their actions and affect how they learn in
the classroom. If language educators acknowledge
these various beliefs, the teaching techniques can be
improved to suit the existing learners’ beliefs. Hence,
they provide more effective teaching and learning
process. Moreover, Talebinejad and Nekauei (2013)
observed that over the last three decades, there has
been a change in second language acquisition from
teaching methods to learner characteristics, in which
much of the responsibility for success in language
learning depends highly on the effort of individual
learners.
Accordingly, English language education has also
been emphasised of greater importance in adult
education (Smith and Strong, 2009). Adult language
learners may devise various language learning
perspectives and objectives. Merritt (2013) mentioned
that many adults, in fits of frustration, will claim that
adults are simply poor at languages as children have
more porous minds, better memories, and adaptability.
Nevertheless, Merritt further reported that linguistic
researchers have found that this claim to be a myth
where under controlled conditions, adults can be better
at language learning. To add, Smith and Strong (2009)
affirmed that most adult learners are goal -oriented and
often direct their learning to fulfil particular needs (to
advance their studies, progress their career ladder,
follow business opportunities, assist children with
homework, or simply to be successful users of the
language) in which adults can usually communicate
effectively in their first language and may code switch
between several other languages. Robinson (2005) also
discovered that adult learners have greater cognitive
and linguistic capabilities, and conceptual complexity
than younger learners. As a consequence, it is
interesting to investigate whether adult learners have
different language beliefs that may influence the way
they learn and master English language or other foreign
languages. As recommended by Smith and Strong
(2013) innovative teaching in an adult classroom can
integrate stimulating and enjoyable tasks in providing
elements of engagement, collaboration, investigation,
and critical analysis of content, context, culture, and
structures.
RESEARCH
PURPOSE
AND
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
The purpose of this study is to investigate language
learners’ beliefs specifically on English or foreign
language learning among a group of adult learners in
one of the local universities in Sarawak. To investigate
the learners’ beliefs, the items in the questionnaires
have been categorised into five major scopes: Foreign
Language Aptitude (items 1 to 9), Difficulty of Language
Learning (items 10 to 15), Nature of Language Learning
(items 16 to 22), Learning and Communication
Strategies (items 23 to 31), and Motivations and
Expectations (items 32 to 39). The research questions
are:
1. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
foreign language aptitude?
2. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
the level of difficulty in ESL learning?
3. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
the nature of ESL learning?
4. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
the learning and communication strategies?
5. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
motivations and expectations in ESL learning?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The respondents of this study comprised sixteen adult
ESL learners (aged 45-50 years old) who did their part
time studies in the respective university. They are
working adults who represented the urban and rural
areas in Sarawak. This was a quantitative study and the
questionnaire was adapted from Horwitz’s BALLI (1988)
and Vilbulphol (2004). Notably, slight changes were
made to suit the context of the present study. There are
39 items in the survey form and the items are to be
answered on a five-point Likert-type scale, with options
from strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree to
strongly disagree. The data collected were then
analysed using SPSS 21 and presented in tabular
forms, in accordance to mean scores and highest
frequencies (percentages).
21
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
three females among the sixteen respondents) and
many of them are in the early fifties. In terms of ethnic
population, majority are Malays (56%) while the rests
are Iban, Bidayuh, Kedayan and Melanau. Their SPM
English Paper Grades are on the average level in which
many of them scored between Grade 3 to Grade 6.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Firstly, the demographic data of the respondents are
presented. Most of the respondents are males (only
Table 1: Language Beliefs (Foreign Language Learning/ Aptitude)
Items
Mean
Std.
Deviation
1.095
Highest
Frequencies
A 56% / S.A 31%
S.A 50% / A 44%
Std.
Deviation
.574
.544
Highest
Frequencies
A 69%
A 69%
A 56%
1. It is easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language
4.00
2. Some people have a special ability in learning foreign languages
4.44
.629
such as English
3. Malaysians are good at learning foreign languages.
3.88
.806
N / A 38%
4. It is easier for someone who already speaks a foreign language to
A 56%
3.56
.629
learn another one.
5. People who are good at Mathematics or Science are not good at
N 38% / S.D 25%
2.69
1.250
learning foreign languages.
6. I have a special ability in learning foreign languages.
3.56
.629
N 50% / A 44%
7. Women are better than men in learning foreign languages.
2.88
1.025
N 38% / A 31%
8. People who speak more than one language are intelligent.
3.88
.885
A 44%
9. Everybody can learn to speak a foreign language.
3.87
.619
A 63%
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
of the respondents also admitted that they possessed
special ability to learn foreign language (44% agreed).
Table 1.0 shows the issue of the learner’s potential to
This is a positive note as they seemed to be able to
be successful in learning a language with regards to
utilize their learning capabilities to master a language.
their beliefs to foreign language learning or aptitude.
Some of the noteworthy findings are 44% agreed that
Majority of the respondents agreed and strongly
people who are bilingual are considered as intelligent
agreed that age can affect a learner’s proficiency to
while more than half of the respondents
learn a language and this result is congruent to the
acknowledged that everyone can speak a foreign
common claim made by most adults in Merritt’s study
language if given the opportunity.
(2012) in which adults are believed to be simply poor
at language compared to children who seem to have
better language learning capabilities. Besides, some
Table 2: Language Beliefs (Level of Difficulty in ESL Learning)
Items
Mean
10. Some languages are easier to learn than others
3.94
11. I believe that I will learn to speak English well.
4.19
12. In learning English, it is easier to speak up than to understand
3.44
.964
what people say.
13. In learning English, reading is easier than speaking and listening.
3.63
.957
A 56%
14. In learning English, writing is easier than speaking and listening.
3.37
.957
A 50%
15. People whose first language use a different alphabet system than
A 56%
3.56
.892
English will find it difficult to learn English.
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
that beliefs could be useful for practical reasons in
All the items in Table 2 show the learner’s beliefs in
which educators can help to develop these beliefs to
relation to the level of difficulty in ESL learning. It is
enhance learning. On a lesser note, these admissions
interesting to note that most of the items reported the
of finding reading and writing skills less difficult than
mean scores of 3.5 and above (‘agreement’ with the
the other skills (speaking and listening) might also
indicate that some respondents lacked confidence
percentages between 50% to 70%). It is perceived
of speaking in English or any other foreign languages
that the respondents agreed that some languages are
and thus, they might feel shy or face difficulties in
easier to learn than the others. They seemed to be
communicating in other languages besides their own
positive about it as they believed that they can learn
mother tongue. The ability to obtain and master all
to speak English well. Such positive beliefs can affect
four language skills is a merit if one desires to be an
their motivation and confidence in learning process
effective English speaker. On another note, adult
and this is supported by Dornyei (2005) who stated
22
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A.
Language beliefs among adult learners: Individual differences levels
differences to adapt to the given language activities
and complete the tasks effectively. Educators on the
other hand, need to adjust their language lessons and
activities to suit the needs of their learners, both in
terms of the syllabus and learner differences.
learners usually have diverse variables when it comes
to learning English which include individual beliefs,
attitudes, expectations, motivations and strategies
(Hurd, 2006). Thus, if the respondents obtain certain
degree of positive beliefs in learning English
language, they are able to overcome their individual
Table 3: Language Beliefs (Nature of Language Learning)
Items
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Highest
Frequencies
16. It is necessary to know the customs, the cultures, and the
lifestyles of English speaking people (such as British, Americans or
3.31
1.014
Australians) in order to speak English correctly and appropriately in a
N / A 31%
particular context.
17. It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country such as
A 63%
3.88
.957
England, United States or Australia.
18. Learning vocabulary is an important part of learning English.
4.31
.479
A 69% / S.A. 31
19. Learning grammar is an important part of learning English.
4.31
.479
A 69% / S.A. 31
20. Learning how to translate directly from Bahasa Malaysia is an
A 56%
3.75
.775
important part of learning English.
21. Learning English is different from learning other academic
A 56%
3.56
.892
subjects.
22. Learning English involves a lot of memorization.
3.25
1.000
A 50%
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
frequently been exposed to memorization or drilling
teaching and learning kind of method when they were
The next set of beliefs in Table 3 is associated with
in school learning English. Memorization could
the nature of language learning. The first apparent
include sets of grammar rules and vocabularies which
finding is that 63% of the respondents believed that it
is better to learn English from the English-speaking
they had to memorize to be tested later. Furthermore,
natives in the English spoken countries. Moreover,
adult learners need to understand the nature and
more than half of the respondents optimistically
structure of the language; as they learn to use the
admitted that learning grammar and vocabulary is
language itself, where effective instruction will
fundamental in learning the English language, as well
incorporate direct instruction in the aspects of
as the idea of translating from Malaysia’s official
vocabulary, grammar, and syntax as these relate to
language, Bahasa Malaysia to English. To add, half of
specific topic areas and task types (Burt, Peyton, &
the respondents agreed that memorization is required
Schaetzel, 2008; Kruidenier, 2002; Larsen-Freeman,
in learning to speakEnglish. This belief stems from the
2003) in Centre of Applied Linguistics (2015).
fact that these respondents, who are also adult
learners, are probably ‘old-timers’ who might have
Table 4: Language Beliefs (Learning and Communication Strategies
Items
Mean
Std. Deviation
23. It is important to speak English with correct pronunciation.
3.69
.793
24. We shouldn’t say anything in English until we can say it correctly.
3.44
1.209
Highest
Frequencies
A 69%
A 44% / D
38%
A 56%
A 44%
A 56%
D 44%
N 50%
25. I enjoy practising English with the foreigners I meet.
3.81
.655
26. It is okay. to guess, if we don’t know a word in English.
3.27
1.062
27. In learning English, it is important to practise a lot.
4.31
.602
28. I feel timid (shy) speaking English with other people.
3.19
1.276
29. If beginner students are permitted to make errors in English, it will
2.75
.931
be difficult for them to speak correctly later.
30. In learning English, it is important to practise with audio materials
A 63%
3.94
.772
(CDs, MP3s and etc.)
31. In learning English, it is important to practise by listening to TV,
A 56%
4.06
.680
Internet or radio programmes in English frequently
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
strategies. The results for this section seem to
illustrate a mixture of positive and negative beliefs. A
Table 4 reveals the responses of language beliefs in
few of the positive outlooks are many of the
association to the learning and communication
23
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
disagreed. Generally, these results indicate that many
respondents agreed that appropriate communicative
activities are useful in enhancing their communication
strategies: learning correct pronunciation,
using
authentic materials (audio, printed or online) and
continuous practicing. Centre for Applied Linguistics
(2015) also suggested that adult learners prefer
authentic
communication
tasks
and
use
communication strategies because they can acquire
meaningful interaction and natural communication.
respondents agreed that correct pronunciation is vital.
They also acknowledged the significance of constant
practice and repetition, and recognized the
effectiveness of using a wide range of audio
materials, mass media and the Internet so that they
will become proficient English speakers. On the
contrary, though many agreed that it is important to
speak with excellent pronunciation, 44% still agreed
that they should not say anything in English until they
can say it correctly. Besides that, some respondents
exhibited shyness to speak English (36% of
agreement and strong agreement) while 44%
Table 5: Language Beliefs (Motivation and Expectations in ESL Learning)
Items
Mean
32. Malaysians feel that it is very important to learn English.
4.06
33. I would like to learn English so that I can get to know people who
3.75
speak English better (such as Americans, British or Australians).
34. If I can use English well, I will have better opportunities for a good
4.19
job.
35. I want to be able to speak English well.
4.06
36. I would like to have friends from other countries.
3.80
37. I want to learn English well because it can help me access
4.13
information from around the world.
38. English is important for higher education level, especially diploma
4.19
and graduate studies.
39. Learning English will help me communicate with people from
4.25
other countries because English is an international language.
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
The final set of items for language beliefs in relation to
motivation and expectations revealed more positive
responses as compared to the rests of the items. It is
believed that the respondents were sufficiently
motivated to acknowledge the significance of being
good users of English language (most of the
respondents agreed that English provides more
opportunities for better careers, great access to
information from all around the world, vital role for
tertiary education and good
communication with
foreigners). Many adult learners are motivated to learn
languages, especially if the activities involve
communicative tasks such as solving problems or
completing tasks that enables them to handle real-life
tasks successfully (Condelli, Wrigley, & Yoon, 2009;
Miller, 2010; Peyton, Moore, & Young, 2010; Wiggins &
McTighe, 2005). To add, they also agreed that
communicating in English will enable them to expand
their circle of friends and networking. Hence, with such
positive responses, the respondents can improve their
English proficiency and increase their confidence and
motivation to learn the language. These results are
parallel to the observations made by Smith and Strong
(2009) who pointed out that most adult learners are
goal-oriented and often direct their learning to fulfil
specific needs.
Std. Deviation
.854
.775
.750
.574
.833
.619
.544
.577
Highest
Frequencies
A / S.A 50%
A 56%
A 44% / S.A
38%
A 69%
A 44%
A 63%
A 69%
A 63%
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Learners’ language beliefs have been regularly studied
over the years in the area of education. These beliefs
can actually affect one’s drive and confidence to make
an effort in learning a foreign language. The findings
from the BALLI survey imply that these respondents
who are adult learners possess both positive and
negative beliefs, and the beliefs are at various levels.
Notably, the inclination towards positive beliefs is seen
to be stronger than the negative ones, especially the
beliefs regarding foreign language learning / aptitude
and, motivations and expectations in ESL learning.
Perhaps, most adult learners are more target-driven
and have obtained more experiences in which they are
able to distinguish what they want to achieve in lives, as
compared to the younger learners. Despite their
individual differences, most adult learners are likely to
be able to plan their own learning to suit their personal
needs and preferences. In general, to improve the
proficiency of the language learners, educators can
plan and set up strategies which support learners of all
age levels, who lack confidence and are weak in the
language, to change their beliefs into more positive
outcomes. Besides, to ensure a successful adult
teaching and learning process, educators should be
alert of what adult learners are expecting from their
language lessons and what learning behaviours that
they might bring into the classrooms. With such
24
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A.
Language beliefs among adult learners: Individual differences levels
Hariati, A., & Lee, Y.M. (2011). Top jobs only for those
who know the language well. Retrieved August
7, 2014 from http://www.thestar.com.my
Horwitz, E.K. (1988). The beliefs about language
learning of beginning university foreign language
students. The Modern Language Journal, 72(3),
283-294.
Kalaja, P., & Barcelos, A.M.F. (Eds.). (2003). Beliefs
about SLA: New research approaches.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based principles for
adult basic education reading instruction.
Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Retrieved
February
8,
2005,
from
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/
html/adult_ed/index.html
Merrit, A. (2013) Are children really better at foreign
language. The Telegraph. Retrieved: 10 May
2014
from
www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationopinio
n/10315238.
Miller, S. F. (2010). Promoting learner engagement
when working with adult English language
learners. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Retrieved
from
http://www.cal.org/adultesl/resources/digests/pro
moting-learner-engagement-whenworking-withadult-english-language-learners.php
Nikitina, L., & Furuoka, F. (2006) Re-examining
Horwitz’s Beliefs about Language Learning
Inventory (BALLI) in the Malaysian context.
Electronic Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching, 3(2), 209-219.
Peyton, J. K., Moore, S. K., & Young, S. (2010).
Evidence-based, student-centered instructional
practices. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Retrieved
from
http://www.cal.org/caelanetwork/resources/stude
ntcentered.html
Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs
in learning to teach. In J. Sikula, T.J. Butter & E.
Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher
education (pp.102–119). New York: Macmillan
Schleppegrell, M. (1987). The older language learner.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Language and
Linguistics Washington DC. Retrieved on: 11
June 2014 from www.ericdigests.org/pre927/older.htm
Smith, A.F.V., & Strong, G. (2009). Adult language
learners: An overview. Retrieved: 13 June 2014
from www.tesol.org/docs/bk_CP_AdultLL_615
Talebinejad, M. R., & Nekouei, R. (2013). The
relationship between foreign language anxiety
and belief towards FLL among children EFL
learners. Basic Research Journal of Education
Research and Review, 2(3), 49-54.
Vilbulphol, J. (2004). Beliefs about language learning
and teaching approaches of pre-service EFL
Teachers
in
Thailand
(Unpublished
Dissertation). Oklahoma State University, USA.
awareness, the educators can improve the way they
teach language as to avoid impeding the adult learners’
various learning beliefs, experiences and individualities.
Furthermore, in tackling adult learners, the educators
need to accept the reality that adult learners can learn a
new language. Schleppegrell (1987) stated that the
adult learners’ self directness, life experiences,
independence as learners, and motivations to learn
should provide them with the advantages to learn as the
ability to learn a language is not seen to decline with
age.
REFERENCES
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An
interactive approach to language pedagogy.
Second Edition. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Schaetzel, K. (2008). Working
with adult English language learners with limited
literacy: Research, practice, and professional
development. Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguistics. Retrieved from http://www.
cal.org/caelanetwork/resources/limitedliteracy.ht
ml
Center of Applied Linguistics. (2015). Fundamental
Principles of Effective Adult Language
Education.
Retrieved
from:
http://www.cal.org/adultesl/pdfs/fundamentalprinciples-of-effective-adult-languageeducation.pdf
Chew, F.P., & Chui, J.H. (2012). Beliefs about ESL
learning among secondary school students in
Terengganu, Malaysia. International Journal of
Research in Economics and Social Sciences,
2(2), 44-63.
Condelli, L., Wrigley, H., & Yoon, K. S. (2009). “What
works” for adult literacy students of English as a
second language. In S. Reder & J. Bynner
(Eds.), Tracking adult literacy and numeracy
skills: Findings from longitudinal research (pp.
132-159). New York and London: Routledge.
Dornyei, Z. (2005) The psychology of the language
learner: individual differences in second
language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum
Ellis, R.
(2008) Learner Beliefs and Language
Learning. Asian EFL Journal, 10(4), 7-25.
Ehrman, M. E., Leaver, B.L., & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A
brief overview of individual differences in second
language learning. System, 31, 313-330.
Fazilatfar, A. M., Damavandi, R. R., Sani, R. H., &
Heirati, J. K. (2015). Learners’ belief changes
about language learning. International Journal of
English Language Education, 3(1), 1-19.
Hurd, S. (2006) Individual learner differences and
distance language learning: An overview.
Retrieved
from:
http://oro.open.ac.uk/6002/1/IndLearnDiffsDLL100206.pdf
25
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
White, C. (2008). Beliefs and good language learners.
In Griffiths, C. (Ed.), Lessons from good
language learners (pp. 121-130). Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by
design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Woolfolk, A. E. (2006). Educational Psychology.
Michigan: Allyn and Bacon.
Zuraidah, A. (2007). Willing learners yet unwilling
speakers in ESL classrooms. Malaysian Journal
of University Education, 3, 57.
26
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
LANGUAGE BELIEFS AMONG ADULT LEARNERS: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Aiza Johari*, Siti Huzaimah Sahari, Affidah Morni & Amelia Alfred Tom
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Sarawak Branch, Malaysia
*aiza@sarawak.uitm.edu.my
First draft received: 31 July 2017
Final proof received: 27 August 2017
Abstract
To develop the quality of language learning and utilise learning opportunities in and out of a classroom, it
is vital to understand individual's beliefs in language learning. White (2008) affirmed that an individual’s
belief plays a key role in the learning process and language acquisition, especially the beliefs the learners
have about themselves, language and language learning, and about the settings in which they contribute
as language learners and users. This study identifies the English language learning beliefs of adult
learners (between 45-50 years of age) in a local university in Sarawak. Questionnaire was the instrument
to collect the data, and the data were analysed using SPSS Version 21. The study showed that these adult
learners have various levels of language beliefs. The results obtained can be used to enhance the
teaching and learning of English language where language instructors can learn more about their learners
and the learners’ language beliefs can further enhance learning process in the classroom.
Keywords: Language beliefs; individual differences; adult learners.
To cite this paper (in APA style):
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A. (2017). Language beliefs among adult learners:
Individual
differences. International
Journal
of Education,
10
(1),
20-25.
doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
INTRODUCTION
Many people may find learning a foreign or second
language to be challenging and daunting, and this
scenario exists among Malaysian learners of English
language. In Malaysia, English plays a role as the
second language in which English language is taught in
school education system because English is significant
in the students’ daily lives and future career. Smith and
Strong (2009) mentioned that at present, World English
being an international language is of increasing
importance in international communication, business,
media and pop culture as well as in research journals
and in such field like the civil aviation. Many Malaysians
often speak English in business, government offices,
workplace, higher learning institutions and public places
such as the banks, billing counters and even markets.
As a result, though English is not the official language, it
has become crucial for Malaysians to be able to
communicate in English, whether at an average or
mastery level.
However, Hariati and Lee (2011) affirmed that
many educators grumble on the declining levels of
English performance and proficiency among students in
schools and
universities. To add, Zuraidah (2007)
observed that many English learners tend to exhibit
reluctance and seem hesitant to speak out unless it is
absolutely necessary. Consequently, many English
learners in Malaysia perceive English learning as
challenging, even before they step into the classroom.
Due to such belief, they struggle to master the
language. To make the matter worse, some lack
motivation, thus affecting their efforts to commit.
Moreover, Chew and Chui (2012) pointed out that
taking into account of the learner’s role in the learning
process might be uncommon in Malaysia, unlike the
western countries which place more importance on the
significant roles of the learners in the learning process.
In order to achieve their goals in learning
languages, learners need to have positive beliefs,
motivation and self-confidence. Fazilatfar et al. (2015)
considered beliefs as cognitive entities that guide
humans to behave in a community. They are crucial
factors that lead most human behavior. Hence,
Woolfolk (2006) affirmed that the learners’ beliefs and
attributions do give a significant impact to the learners’
drive to learn any language. In addition, Kalaja and
Barcelos (2003) defined language belief as a particular
area of an individual’s learner difference which may
influence the acquisition of foreign or second language
learning, mainly their learning experiences. Notably,
White (2008) affirmed that beliefs play a significant role
in the learning process and “in terms of language
learning, the domains of beliefs which are
acknowledged as relevant are the beliefs learners hold
about themselves, about language and language
learning, and about the contexts in which they
20
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A.
Language beliefs among adult learners: Individual differences levels
In addressing individual differences in adults’
English learning, adult second language learning
traditionally involves individual differences such as
aptitude, motivation, learning strategies, learning styles,
meta-linguistic awareness, and personality traits (e.g.,
extraversion), as well as a range of other social and
affective variables (Ehrman, Leaver & Oxford, 2003).
Consequently, adult learners generally embrace a wide
range of variables: age, gender, intelligence,
personality, learning style and previous learning
experience, in which also include their own individual
beliefs, attitudes, expectations, motivations and
strategies (Hurd, 2006). As a result, educators need to
be aware of these variables and provide authentic
language activities that can cater to these variables, in
which a learner is likely to react, respond and reflect
differently to the learning materials.
participate as language learners and language users”
(p.121). Horwitz (1988), the first researcher who
conducted a detailed research into beliefs in language
learning, has developed the Beliefs about Language
Learning Inventory (BALLI) to access language
learners’ beliefs about language learning. She
perceived that such beliefs are influencing language
learners’ expectations, motivation, and commitment to
language learning.
Ellis (2008) further asserted that learners’ beliefs
are present when they have recognised several
attributes of language learning and language learning
ability such as knowledge of the target language,
strategies, goals and cultural influences. Therefore, it is
significant for educators to understand their learners’
beliefs as what the learners bring into the classroom
may influence their actions and affect how they learn in
the classroom. If language educators acknowledge
these various beliefs, the teaching techniques can be
improved to suit the existing learners’ beliefs. Hence,
they provide more effective teaching and learning
process. Moreover, Talebinejad and Nekauei (2013)
observed that over the last three decades, there has
been a change in second language acquisition from
teaching methods to learner characteristics, in which
much of the responsibility for success in language
learning depends highly on the effort of individual
learners.
Accordingly, English language education has also
been emphasised of greater importance in adult
education (Smith and Strong, 2009). Adult language
learners may devise various language learning
perspectives and objectives. Merritt (2013) mentioned
that many adults, in fits of frustration, will claim that
adults are simply poor at languages as children have
more porous minds, better memories, and adaptability.
Nevertheless, Merritt further reported that linguistic
researchers have found that this claim to be a myth
where under controlled conditions, adults can be better
at language learning. To add, Smith and Strong (2009)
affirmed that most adult learners are goal -oriented and
often direct their learning to fulfil particular needs (to
advance their studies, progress their career ladder,
follow business opportunities, assist children with
homework, or simply to be successful users of the
language) in which adults can usually communicate
effectively in their first language and may code switch
between several other languages. Robinson (2005) also
discovered that adult learners have greater cognitive
and linguistic capabilities, and conceptual complexity
than younger learners. As a consequence, it is
interesting to investigate whether adult learners have
different language beliefs that may influence the way
they learn and master English language or other foreign
languages. As recommended by Smith and Strong
(2013) innovative teaching in an adult classroom can
integrate stimulating and enjoyable tasks in providing
elements of engagement, collaboration, investigation,
and critical analysis of content, context, culture, and
structures.
RESEARCH
PURPOSE
AND
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
The purpose of this study is to investigate language
learners’ beliefs specifically on English or foreign
language learning among a group of adult learners in
one of the local universities in Sarawak. To investigate
the learners’ beliefs, the items in the questionnaires
have been categorised into five major scopes: Foreign
Language Aptitude (items 1 to 9), Difficulty of Language
Learning (items 10 to 15), Nature of Language Learning
(items 16 to 22), Learning and Communication
Strategies (items 23 to 31), and Motivations and
Expectations (items 32 to 39). The research questions
are:
1. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
foreign language aptitude?
2. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
the level of difficulty in ESL learning?
3. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
the nature of ESL learning?
4. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
the learning and communication strategies?
5. What are the beliefs of ESL adult learners on
motivations and expectations in ESL learning?
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The respondents of this study comprised sixteen adult
ESL learners (aged 45-50 years old) who did their part
time studies in the respective university. They are
working adults who represented the urban and rural
areas in Sarawak. This was a quantitative study and the
questionnaire was adapted from Horwitz’s BALLI (1988)
and Vilbulphol (2004). Notably, slight changes were
made to suit the context of the present study. There are
39 items in the survey form and the items are to be
answered on a five-point Likert-type scale, with options
from strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree to
strongly disagree. The data collected were then
analysed using SPSS 21 and presented in tabular
forms, in accordance to mean scores and highest
frequencies (percentages).
21
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
three females among the sixteen respondents) and
many of them are in the early fifties. In terms of ethnic
population, majority are Malays (56%) while the rests
are Iban, Bidayuh, Kedayan and Melanau. Their SPM
English Paper Grades are on the average level in which
many of them scored between Grade 3 to Grade 6.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Firstly, the demographic data of the respondents are
presented. Most of the respondents are males (only
Table 1: Language Beliefs (Foreign Language Learning/ Aptitude)
Items
Mean
Std.
Deviation
1.095
Highest
Frequencies
A 56% / S.A 31%
S.A 50% / A 44%
Std.
Deviation
.574
.544
Highest
Frequencies
A 69%
A 69%
A 56%
1. It is easier for children than adults to learn a foreign language
4.00
2. Some people have a special ability in learning foreign languages
4.44
.629
such as English
3. Malaysians are good at learning foreign languages.
3.88
.806
N / A 38%
4. It is easier for someone who already speaks a foreign language to
A 56%
3.56
.629
learn another one.
5. People who are good at Mathematics or Science are not good at
N 38% / S.D 25%
2.69
1.250
learning foreign languages.
6. I have a special ability in learning foreign languages.
3.56
.629
N 50% / A 44%
7. Women are better than men in learning foreign languages.
2.88
1.025
N 38% / A 31%
8. People who speak more than one language are intelligent.
3.88
.885
A 44%
9. Everybody can learn to speak a foreign language.
3.87
.619
A 63%
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
of the respondents also admitted that they possessed
special ability to learn foreign language (44% agreed).
Table 1.0 shows the issue of the learner’s potential to
This is a positive note as they seemed to be able to
be successful in learning a language with regards to
utilize their learning capabilities to master a language.
their beliefs to foreign language learning or aptitude.
Some of the noteworthy findings are 44% agreed that
Majority of the respondents agreed and strongly
people who are bilingual are considered as intelligent
agreed that age can affect a learner’s proficiency to
while more than half of the respondents
learn a language and this result is congruent to the
acknowledged that everyone can speak a foreign
common claim made by most adults in Merritt’s study
language if given the opportunity.
(2012) in which adults are believed to be simply poor
at language compared to children who seem to have
better language learning capabilities. Besides, some
Table 2: Language Beliefs (Level of Difficulty in ESL Learning)
Items
Mean
10. Some languages are easier to learn than others
3.94
11. I believe that I will learn to speak English well.
4.19
12. In learning English, it is easier to speak up than to understand
3.44
.964
what people say.
13. In learning English, reading is easier than speaking and listening.
3.63
.957
A 56%
14. In learning English, writing is easier than speaking and listening.
3.37
.957
A 50%
15. People whose first language use a different alphabet system than
A 56%
3.56
.892
English will find it difficult to learn English.
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
that beliefs could be useful for practical reasons in
All the items in Table 2 show the learner’s beliefs in
which educators can help to develop these beliefs to
relation to the level of difficulty in ESL learning. It is
enhance learning. On a lesser note, these admissions
interesting to note that most of the items reported the
of finding reading and writing skills less difficult than
mean scores of 3.5 and above (‘agreement’ with the
the other skills (speaking and listening) might also
indicate that some respondents lacked confidence
percentages between 50% to 70%). It is perceived
of speaking in English or any other foreign languages
that the respondents agreed that some languages are
and thus, they might feel shy or face difficulties in
easier to learn than the others. They seemed to be
communicating in other languages besides their own
positive about it as they believed that they can learn
mother tongue. The ability to obtain and master all
to speak English well. Such positive beliefs can affect
four language skills is a merit if one desires to be an
their motivation and confidence in learning process
effective English speaker. On another note, adult
and this is supported by Dornyei (2005) who stated
22
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A.
Language beliefs among adult learners: Individual differences levels
differences to adapt to the given language activities
and complete the tasks effectively. Educators on the
other hand, need to adjust their language lessons and
activities to suit the needs of their learners, both in
terms of the syllabus and learner differences.
learners usually have diverse variables when it comes
to learning English which include individual beliefs,
attitudes, expectations, motivations and strategies
(Hurd, 2006). Thus, if the respondents obtain certain
degree of positive beliefs in learning English
language, they are able to overcome their individual
Table 3: Language Beliefs (Nature of Language Learning)
Items
Mean
Std.
Deviation
Highest
Frequencies
16. It is necessary to know the customs, the cultures, and the
lifestyles of English speaking people (such as British, Americans or
3.31
1.014
Australians) in order to speak English correctly and appropriately in a
N / A 31%
particular context.
17. It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country such as
A 63%
3.88
.957
England, United States or Australia.
18. Learning vocabulary is an important part of learning English.
4.31
.479
A 69% / S.A. 31
19. Learning grammar is an important part of learning English.
4.31
.479
A 69% / S.A. 31
20. Learning how to translate directly from Bahasa Malaysia is an
A 56%
3.75
.775
important part of learning English.
21. Learning English is different from learning other academic
A 56%
3.56
.892
subjects.
22. Learning English involves a lot of memorization.
3.25
1.000
A 50%
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
frequently been exposed to memorization or drilling
teaching and learning kind of method when they were
The next set of beliefs in Table 3 is associated with
in school learning English. Memorization could
the nature of language learning. The first apparent
include sets of grammar rules and vocabularies which
finding is that 63% of the respondents believed that it
is better to learn English from the English-speaking
they had to memorize to be tested later. Furthermore,
natives in the English spoken countries. Moreover,
adult learners need to understand the nature and
more than half of the respondents optimistically
structure of the language; as they learn to use the
admitted that learning grammar and vocabulary is
language itself, where effective instruction will
fundamental in learning the English language, as well
incorporate direct instruction in the aspects of
as the idea of translating from Malaysia’s official
vocabulary, grammar, and syntax as these relate to
language, Bahasa Malaysia to English. To add, half of
specific topic areas and task types (Burt, Peyton, &
the respondents agreed that memorization is required
Schaetzel, 2008; Kruidenier, 2002; Larsen-Freeman,
in learning to speakEnglish. This belief stems from the
2003) in Centre of Applied Linguistics (2015).
fact that these respondents, who are also adult
learners, are probably ‘old-timers’ who might have
Table 4: Language Beliefs (Learning and Communication Strategies
Items
Mean
Std. Deviation
23. It is important to speak English with correct pronunciation.
3.69
.793
24. We shouldn’t say anything in English until we can say it correctly.
3.44
1.209
Highest
Frequencies
A 69%
A 44% / D
38%
A 56%
A 44%
A 56%
D 44%
N 50%
25. I enjoy practising English with the foreigners I meet.
3.81
.655
26. It is okay. to guess, if we don’t know a word in English.
3.27
1.062
27. In learning English, it is important to practise a lot.
4.31
.602
28. I feel timid (shy) speaking English with other people.
3.19
1.276
29. If beginner students are permitted to make errors in English, it will
2.75
.931
be difficult for them to speak correctly later.
30. In learning English, it is important to practise with audio materials
A 63%
3.94
.772
(CDs, MP3s and etc.)
31. In learning English, it is important to practise by listening to TV,
A 56%
4.06
.680
Internet or radio programmes in English frequently
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
strategies. The results for this section seem to
illustrate a mixture of positive and negative beliefs. A
Table 4 reveals the responses of language beliefs in
few of the positive outlooks are many of the
association to the learning and communication
23
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
disagreed. Generally, these results indicate that many
respondents agreed that appropriate communicative
activities are useful in enhancing their communication
strategies: learning correct pronunciation,
using
authentic materials (audio, printed or online) and
continuous practicing. Centre for Applied Linguistics
(2015) also suggested that adult learners prefer
authentic
communication
tasks
and
use
communication strategies because they can acquire
meaningful interaction and natural communication.
respondents agreed that correct pronunciation is vital.
They also acknowledged the significance of constant
practice and repetition, and recognized the
effectiveness of using a wide range of audio
materials, mass media and the Internet so that they
will become proficient English speakers. On the
contrary, though many agreed that it is important to
speak with excellent pronunciation, 44% still agreed
that they should not say anything in English until they
can say it correctly. Besides that, some respondents
exhibited shyness to speak English (36% of
agreement and strong agreement) while 44%
Table 5: Language Beliefs (Motivation and Expectations in ESL Learning)
Items
Mean
32. Malaysians feel that it is very important to learn English.
4.06
33. I would like to learn English so that I can get to know people who
3.75
speak English better (such as Americans, British or Australians).
34. If I can use English well, I will have better opportunities for a good
4.19
job.
35. I want to be able to speak English well.
4.06
36. I would like to have friends from other countries.
3.80
37. I want to learn English well because it can help me access
4.13
information from around the world.
38. English is important for higher education level, especially diploma
4.19
and graduate studies.
39. Learning English will help me communicate with people from
4.25
other countries because English is an international language.
*S.A- Strongly agree; A-agree; N- neutral; D- disagree; S.D- strongly disagree
The final set of items for language beliefs in relation to
motivation and expectations revealed more positive
responses as compared to the rests of the items. It is
believed that the respondents were sufficiently
motivated to acknowledge the significance of being
good users of English language (most of the
respondents agreed that English provides more
opportunities for better careers, great access to
information from all around the world, vital role for
tertiary education and good
communication with
foreigners). Many adult learners are motivated to learn
languages, especially if the activities involve
communicative tasks such as solving problems or
completing tasks that enables them to handle real-life
tasks successfully (Condelli, Wrigley, & Yoon, 2009;
Miller, 2010; Peyton, Moore, & Young, 2010; Wiggins &
McTighe, 2005). To add, they also agreed that
communicating in English will enable them to expand
their circle of friends and networking. Hence, with such
positive responses, the respondents can improve their
English proficiency and increase their confidence and
motivation to learn the language. These results are
parallel to the observations made by Smith and Strong
(2009) who pointed out that most adult learners are
goal-oriented and often direct their learning to fulfil
specific needs.
Std. Deviation
.854
.775
.750
.574
.833
.619
.544
.577
Highest
Frequencies
A / S.A 50%
A 56%
A 44% / S.A
38%
A 69%
A 44%
A 63%
A 69%
A 63%
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Learners’ language beliefs have been regularly studied
over the years in the area of education. These beliefs
can actually affect one’s drive and confidence to make
an effort in learning a foreign language. The findings
from the BALLI survey imply that these respondents
who are adult learners possess both positive and
negative beliefs, and the beliefs are at various levels.
Notably, the inclination towards positive beliefs is seen
to be stronger than the negative ones, especially the
beliefs regarding foreign language learning / aptitude
and, motivations and expectations in ESL learning.
Perhaps, most adult learners are more target-driven
and have obtained more experiences in which they are
able to distinguish what they want to achieve in lives, as
compared to the younger learners. Despite their
individual differences, most adult learners are likely to
be able to plan their own learning to suit their personal
needs and preferences. In general, to improve the
proficiency of the language learners, educators can
plan and set up strategies which support learners of all
age levels, who lack confidence and are weak in the
language, to change their beliefs into more positive
outcomes. Besides, to ensure a successful adult
teaching and learning process, educators should be
alert of what adult learners are expecting from their
language lessons and what learning behaviours that
they might bring into the classrooms. With such
24
Johari, A., Sahari, S. H., Morni, A., & Tom, A. A.
Language beliefs among adult learners: Individual differences levels
Hariati, A., & Lee, Y.M. (2011). Top jobs only for those
who know the language well. Retrieved August
7, 2014 from http://www.thestar.com.my
Horwitz, E.K. (1988). The beliefs about language
learning of beginning university foreign language
students. The Modern Language Journal, 72(3),
283-294.
Kalaja, P., & Barcelos, A.M.F. (Eds.). (2003). Beliefs
about SLA: New research approaches.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based principles for
adult basic education reading instruction.
Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
Retrieved
February
8,
2005,
from
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/
html/adult_ed/index.html
Merrit, A. (2013) Are children really better at foreign
language. The Telegraph. Retrieved: 10 May
2014
from
www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationopinio
n/10315238.
Miller, S. F. (2010). Promoting learner engagement
when working with adult English language
learners. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Retrieved
from
http://www.cal.org/adultesl/resources/digests/pro
moting-learner-engagement-whenworking-withadult-english-language-learners.php
Nikitina, L., & Furuoka, F. (2006) Re-examining
Horwitz’s Beliefs about Language Learning
Inventory (BALLI) in the Malaysian context.
Electronic Journal of Foreign Language
Teaching, 3(2), 209-219.
Peyton, J. K., Moore, S. K., & Young, S. (2010).
Evidence-based, student-centered instructional
practices. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Retrieved
from
http://www.cal.org/caelanetwork/resources/stude
ntcentered.html
Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs
in learning to teach. In J. Sikula, T.J. Butter & E.
Guyton (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher
education (pp.102–119). New York: Macmillan
Schleppegrell, M. (1987). The older language learner.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Language and
Linguistics Washington DC. Retrieved on: 11
June 2014 from www.ericdigests.org/pre927/older.htm
Smith, A.F.V., & Strong, G. (2009). Adult language
learners: An overview. Retrieved: 13 June 2014
from www.tesol.org/docs/bk_CP_AdultLL_615
Talebinejad, M. R., & Nekouei, R. (2013). The
relationship between foreign language anxiety
and belief towards FLL among children EFL
learners. Basic Research Journal of Education
Research and Review, 2(3), 49-54.
Vilbulphol, J. (2004). Beliefs about language learning
and teaching approaches of pre-service EFL
Teachers
in
Thailand
(Unpublished
Dissertation). Oklahoma State University, USA.
awareness, the educators can improve the way they
teach language as to avoid impeding the adult learners’
various learning beliefs, experiences and individualities.
Furthermore, in tackling adult learners, the educators
need to accept the reality that adult learners can learn a
new language. Schleppegrell (1987) stated that the
adult learners’ self directness, life experiences,
independence as learners, and motivations to learn
should provide them with the advantages to learn as the
ability to learn a language is not seen to decline with
age.
REFERENCES
Brown, H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An
interactive approach to language pedagogy.
Second Edition. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Schaetzel, K. (2008). Working
with adult English language learners with limited
literacy: Research, practice, and professional
development. Washington, DC: Center for
Applied Linguistics. Retrieved from http://www.
cal.org/caelanetwork/resources/limitedliteracy.ht
ml
Center of Applied Linguistics. (2015). Fundamental
Principles of Effective Adult Language
Education.
Retrieved
from:
http://www.cal.org/adultesl/pdfs/fundamentalprinciples-of-effective-adult-languageeducation.pdf
Chew, F.P., & Chui, J.H. (2012). Beliefs about ESL
learning among secondary school students in
Terengganu, Malaysia. International Journal of
Research in Economics and Social Sciences,
2(2), 44-63.
Condelli, L., Wrigley, H., & Yoon, K. S. (2009). “What
works” for adult literacy students of English as a
second language. In S. Reder & J. Bynner
(Eds.), Tracking adult literacy and numeracy
skills: Findings from longitudinal research (pp.
132-159). New York and London: Routledge.
Dornyei, Z. (2005) The psychology of the language
learner: individual differences in second
language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum
Ellis, R.
(2008) Learner Beliefs and Language
Learning. Asian EFL Journal, 10(4), 7-25.
Ehrman, M. E., Leaver, B.L., & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A
brief overview of individual differences in second
language learning. System, 31, 313-330.
Fazilatfar, A. M., Damavandi, R. R., Sani, R. H., &
Heirati, J. K. (2015). Learners’ belief changes
about language learning. International Journal of
English Language Education, 3(1), 1-19.
Hurd, S. (2006) Individual learner differences and
distance language learning: An overview.
Retrieved
from:
http://oro.open.ac.uk/6002/1/IndLearnDiffsDLL100206.pdf
25
International Journal of Education
Vol. 10 No. 1, August 2017, pp. 20-26
©2017 Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17509/ije.v10i1.7648
White, C. (2008). Beliefs and good language learners.
In Griffiths, C. (Ed.), Lessons from good
language learners (pp. 121-130). Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by
design. Alexandria, VA: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Woolfolk, A. E. (2006). Educational Psychology.
Michigan: Allyn and Bacon.
Zuraidah, A. (2007). Willing learners yet unwilling
speakers in ESL classrooms. Malaysian Journal
of University Education, 3, 57.
26