THE USE OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN THE DIRECT SPEECHES IN ERNEST HEMINGWAY’S SHORT STORY THE UNDEFEATED
THE USE OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN THE DIRECT
SPEECHES IN ERNEST HEMINGWAY’S SHORT STORY
THE UNDEFEATED
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
AJENG GALIH PRASASTHA SEKARWATI
Student Number: 03 4214 005
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2007
“Happiness” Being happy doesn’t mean everything is perfect… It means you have decided
to look beyond the imperfectness For my lovely family: my parents,
My sisters and brother,
and
Especially my late grandfather,
I love you grandpa…
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My highest gratitude goes to Jesus Christ for all of His blessings in every step of my life and every second of my day. I will never reach into this level without His guidance.
Many people gave contribution to me in the process of composing this under graduate thesis. First of all, I am profoundly grateful to my major sponsor, Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M. Pd., M. A., who has given me a guidance and encouragement during his busy schedules. His professionalism and expertise have given a very big support for me from the beginning of the process of composing this under graduate thesis.
I would also express my gratitude to my Co-Advisor, J. Harris H. Setiajid, S. S., M. Hum., who has given his advice and guidance in finishing this under graduate thesis.
My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved father, Wasono, and my mother, Rudatiningtyas. Their patience, guidance and advice are the most important thing that I need to do anything. I would like to thank my sisters, Lia and Naning, and also my brother, Jalu, for all wonderful time at home which is full of happiness.
Special thanks go to Sanata Dharma University for giving me the opportunity to develop my intellectuality. I would like to express my profound gratitude for the generous assistance extended to me by all lecturers, and for all of the staffs and librarians. Lots of gratitude I give to Mbak Ninik, staff at the secretariat, for her patience to help me in dealing with all matters related to the campus. I must also thank Ms. Anna Fitriati S. Pd., M. Hum. for all of her time for helping me to finish this under graduate thesis.
I am grateful to Yongki Ragil Kuncoro Jati, whose fingers are always locked with my fingers, for giving me all his time. Special thanks go to Mrs. Yosephine, Oga and Ully for giving me supports to finish my duty.
I express my gratitude to all my friends in Lunatic society for giving me the unforgettable moment of friendship. Thanks also to all my dearest friends Renzie, Widhy, Frida, Prita, Tyas, Jhony, Djatipz, Dhanang, Vall, Yeri, Superbay, Susiet at campus. Thanks for my friends at Ben’s Cell for all happy moments that I have got.
I would also give my profound gratitude for everyone whose names I cannot mention one by one for their contributions given to me so that I can complete this undergraduate thesis.
Ajeng Galih Prasastha Sekarwati
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………... i APPROVAL PAGE……………………………………………………. ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE………………………………………………… iii MOTTO PAGE………………………………………………………… iv DEDICATION PAGE…………………………………………………. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………. viTABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………. viii
ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………….. x ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………… xiCHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION …………………………………….. 1 A. Background of the Study …………………………………… 1 B. Problem Formulation ………………………………………. 4 C. Objectives of the Study …………………………………….. 5 D. Benefits of the Study……………………………………….. 5 E. Definition Terms …………………………………………… 6 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………………………
7 A.
7 Review of Related Studies …………………………………
1. An Analysis of Clause Structures in Hemingway’s
A Clean, Well Lighted Place ……………………………. 7 2. Toward a Speech Acts Theory of Literary Discourse…...
8 3. The Said and the Unsaid: Mind, meaning and Culture….
8 B.
9 Review of Related Theories ………………………………..
1. Theories of Simple Sentences……………………………
9 a. Theory of Clause Elements…………………………...
10
b. Theory of Seven Types of Clause Structure…………
13 c. The Classification of the Simple Sentences………….
14 2. Theories of Pragmatics…………………………………..
15 a. Theories of Cooperative Principle of Conversation….
15 b. Theories of Hedges………………………………….
17 c. Theories of Conversational Implicatures…………….
19 d. Theories of Speech Acts……………………………..
21 3. Theories of Sociolinguistics……………………………..
21 C. Ernest Hemingway and His Short Story The Undefeated… 24 D.
25 Theoretical Framework ……………………………………
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY …………………………………
27 A. Object of the Study ………………………………………… 27 B.
28 Method of the Study ……………………………………….
1. Data Collection…………………………………………..
28
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULT ………………………………
30 A.
30 Analysis Result on the Pattern of the Simple Sentences …..
B.
Analysis Result on the Relation of the Pattern with the Responses................................................................
37 1. Analysis Result by Using the Theories of Pragmatics…..
38
2. Analysis Result by Using the Theories of Sociolinguistics
45 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ……………………………………..
51 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………
54 APPENDICES ……………………………………………………….
56 1. The Classification of the Simple Sentences………………..
56
2. Summary of The Undefeated…………………………………. 61
ABSTRACT
AJENG GALIH PRASASTHA SEKARWATI. The Use of Simple Sentences
in the Direct Speeches in Ernest Hemingway’s The Undefeated. Yogyakarta:
Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2007.
Language can be formed in written or spoken. Each has its own characteristics. In the written form, spoken language is called the direct speech form. Although this direct speech is written but its use is still the same as in the spoken form. The direct speech which uses the simple sentence form might indicate politeness related to its responses when it is used in certain community as it is seen in Hemingway’s The Undefeated.
The problems to be answered can be formulated into two issues. The first problem is the patterns of the simple sentences in the direct speeches form found in the short story. The second problem is the pattern of the sentences which helps the characters in the short story to produce the correct responses related to politeness although it uses the simple sentence form.
This study is descriptive. The method of the study used in this under graduate thesis is based on the characteristic of scientific study which covers two steps. First, data collection, the writer made lists on the direct speech form found in the short story. Second, data analysis, the writer did the analysis to answer the problems formulated in chapter 1. To answer the first problem, the writer identified the sentences which is in the form of simple sentence and classifies them into its pattern. To answer the second problem, the writer analyzed the sentences using the theories of Pragmatics to find out whether the sentences violate the rules in the conversation or not then the writer uses the theories of Sociolinguistics to find out the relation between the response and the form of the sentence. The object of this study is Hemingway’s short story entitled The
Undefeated .
The findings can be described as follows: the percentage for the simple sentences found in the study is 72,44%, that for the complex and compound sentences is 22,44% and the rest is the special construction which has the percentage of 5,10%. Among the simple sentences there are only six types out of seven found in the short story. They are SVC, SVO, SVA, SVOA, SV and SVOO. None of those simple sentences violate the rules in the conversation, and in fact the use of simple sentence form might imply the solidarity among the characters.
The general conclusion of this under graduate thesis is that Hemingway uses mostly two or three elements only in producing the sentences in the dialogue to make it simple but understandable. The simple patterns of the sentences do not violate the rules in conversation and they imply the solidarity among the characters in the short story.
ABSTRAK
AJENG GALIH PRASASTHA SEKARWATI. The Use of Simple Sentences
in the Direct Speeches in Ernest Hemingway’s The Undefeated. Yogyakarta:
Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2007.Bahasa dapat berbentuk tulisan dan lisan. Keduanya memiliki karakteristik tersendiri. Dalam bentuk tulisan, bahasa lisan disebut juga kalimat langsung. Meskipun kalimat langsung ini berbentuk tulisan fungsinya masih tetap sama seperti ketika kalimat ini berbentuk lisan. Kalimat langsung yang menggunakan bentuk kalimat sederhana dapat mengindikasikan adanya norma kesopanan terkait dengan respon yang timbul saat digunakan di dalam komunitas tertentu seperti yang terlihat pada karya Hemingway yang berjudul The Undefeated .
Rumusan permasalahan yang akan dibahas meliputi dua pokok permasalahan. Masalah pertama mengenai pola kalimat sederhana pada kalimat langsung yang terdapat pada cerita pendek. Masalah kedua mengenai peran pola- pola kalimat sederhana untuk membantu para pelaku dalam cerita pendek untuk membuat respon yang tepat terkait dengan norma kesopanan meskipun hanya menggunakan pola kalimat sederhana.
Penelitian ini bersifat deskriptif. Metodologi yang digunakan dalam skripsi ini berdasar pada karakteristik penelitian ilmiah yang meliputi dua langkah. Langkah pertama, pengumpulan data, penulis membuat daftar kalimat langsung dari cerita pendek. Langkah kedua, analisis data, penulis melakukan analisis untuk menjawab permasalahan yang dirumuskan pada bab 1. Untuk menjawab masalah yang pertama, penulis mengidentifikasi kalimat yang memiliki pola kalimat sederhana lalu mengklasifikasikan menurut pola-polanya. Untuk menjawab masalah kedua, penulis menganalisis kalimat tersebut menggunakan teori Pragmatik untuk mengetahui apakah kalimat tersebut melanggar kaidah percakapan atau tidak lalu penulis menggunakan teori Sosiolinguistik untuk menemukan hubungan antara respon dengan pola kalimat yang digunakan. Objek skripsi ini adalah cerita pendek karya Hemingway yang berjudul The Undefeated.
Hasil penelitian yang didapat adalah sebagai berikut: kalimat sederhana sebanyak 72,44%, kalimat bertingkat dan kalimat majemuk sebanyak 22,44% dan sisanya kalimat dengan pola khusus sebanyak 5,10%. Penulis hanya menemukan enam dari tujuh pola kalinat pola kalimat yaitu SVC, SVO, SVA, SVOA, SV dan SVOO. Kalimat-kalimat tersebut tidak ada yang menyalahi kaidah percakapan. Penggunaan pola kalimat sederhana dapat menunjukkan adanya hubungan solidaritas antat pelaku dalam cerita pendek tersebut.
Kesimpulan umum dari skipsi ini adalah Hemingway menggunakan dua atau tiga elemen saja dalam menyusun kalimat pada kalimat langsung agar lebih mudah dimengerti. Pola yang sederhana ini tidak menyalahi kaidah percakapan dan hal ini menunjukkan adanya solidaritas antar pelaku di dalam cerita pendek.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study In our daily activities in everyday life, we need to communicate with
others. The tool that we use to communicate is the language. We deliver messages trough language. From the first time it appeared, language has been developing far and keeps growing until this recent day. Language develops in many different aspects in our life and it becomes a very important part in human life.
Language, then, varies one from another. The variation caused by many factors in the communities where the language is being used. Although the language may differentiated by these variations, the speaker and the listener who use the language show us that in the communication there is a link which is connecting and supporting the users of the language to communicate so that the communication runs well.
There are two kinds of language that are commonly used in our daily life. Those are the written and the spoken language. Both written and spoken languages have their own characteristics and forms to make them understandable when they are used in the communication.
The language formed in written and spoken are different in the way that written language has to be formed in a very clear way to make it understandable since the writer can not give further explanation right away or fix the errors of the writer when it is in the written form, can give further explanation and also fix the errors that he or she has made. That is why the writers who are writing in the written language should consider a lot of things in forming the sentences where the messages are carried.
There are many products of written language. Short stories are among of them. The writers of the shirt story deliver the message through the sentences and each sentence has its own message which supports one another. The sentences in short story are bound one another to create a united idea from the writers. The sentences in short stories have an important role to deliver the message in a very clear way since short story is limited in length.
Writers write a story in a very special way to make the readers impressed by the sense of the sentences which are constructed inside the story. The writers invite the readers to get involved in the story by making a real feeling through the senses in the sentences. When the writers write a story, they should arrange the sentences in a clear way to make an understandable plot to follow. Once the writers make incorrect or irrelevant sentence, they will tear down the readers’ imaginations since the sentences and its meaning will be irrelevant with the ideas stated in the previous sentences.
Sometimes people cannot understand the message of the sentence because of its form. For example, they cannot understand the message because the sentence form is complicated. Almost the same with it, the readers are easier to get the writers’ idea or message when they can understand the story through many also have a role to deliver the writer’s idea. The characters can express the writer’s idea through the interaction which they have made with other characters.
The interactions can be done in the conversation form.
In linguistics, we can find the pragmatics which studies about understanding the speaker’s meaning and about how more gets communicated than is said. George Yule in his book, Pragmatics, includes the speech acts and states that:
In attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances (Yule, 1996:47). The writer takes the statement above as one of the basic theory to make the analysis about the relation of the pattern of the sentences related to the responses of the characters. This, as mentioned above, is one way of the story’s writer to deliver the idea or message.
The interactions between the characters in the short story build a certain community which is similar to the speech community in daily life. A sociolinguistics becomes the link which connects the grammar that the characters use in their sentences with their manner in delivering those sentences to make the interaction with another character.
The writer chooses Ernest Hemingway’s work as the source of the analysis because Hemingway is well known for his simplicity in writing and the discussion of this paper deals with simple sentences.
Leech in his book A Communicative Grammar of English Language states that: In general, the grammar of spoken sentences is simpler and less strictly constructed than the grammar of written sentences. It is difficult to divide a spoken conversation into separate sentences and the connection between one clause and another less clear because the speaker relies more on the understanding of the hearer of context and on his ability to interrupt if he fails to understand (Leech, 1975: 23). This statement becomes the reason why the writer has chosen a short story. A short story becomes the target to be analyzed without loosing the elements of the work itself. The Undefeated has a moderate number of pages to get the data. The writer has certain limitation in making the analysis. The discussion will be limited only in the direct sentences inside the quotation mark. This is because the writer wants to know deeper about the relation between the sentences and the characters, who uses the sentences in their dialogues, as the elements which was built in the story as a whole.
B. Problem Formulation
Based on the above, there are two problems from the research that can be formulated as follows:
1. What are the patterns of simple sentences taken from the direct speeches form in the short story?
2. How do the patterns of the simple sentences help the characters to produce the good responses?
C. Objectives of the Study
In this part, the writer will explain the aim of having the research as it has already formulated in the problem formulation above. There are two problems proposed by the writer in making the research.
The writer’s aim are, first is to classify the sentences into its pattern. The result of the classification will provide evidence that the sentences which are used in the short story are mostly simple sentences not complex or compound sentences.
The second aim is to find out the relation between the pattern of the sentences which is simple sentences in helping the characters to understand the context of their conversation to produce the good responses and completing the etiquette of communication by reflecting the politeness through the utterances.
D. Benefits of the Study
Hopefully, after reading this thesis, the readers and the writer will have a deeper understanding about the simple sentences form. Later on, both the readers and the writer will be able to distinguish simple sentences from other kinds of sentences form. The readers and the writer might learn more about Hemingway’s work because this undergraduate thesis discusses different aspect of Hemingway’s work which is not discussing only about the grammar.
E. Definition Terms In this part, the writer will give the definitions of terms stated in the title.
The title of this paper is The Use of Simple Sentences in the Direct Speeches in
Ernest Hemingway’s Short Story “The Undefeated”. There will be three
definitions based upon the title. They are the definition of simple sentence, direct speech and short story.
First, a sentence definition according to Leech is a unit made up of one or more clauses (Leech, 1975: 288). A sentence can be a simple sentence, a compound sentence or a complex sentence. The second definition terms related to the title of this paper, a simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one clause only (Quirk et al., 1972:342).
The direct speech is the quotation of the actual utterances delivered or spoken by the speaker (Asher, 1994:5113). George Yule, in his book Explaining
English Grammar , defines direct speech as a type of reported speech with its
typical characteristic, the quotation mark (Yule, 1998: 300).The last term stated in the title of this undergraduate thesis is short story. A short story is a brief work of prose fiction. A short story differs from a novel because of the limitation of length imposes the effect that can be achieved in composing each of them (Abrams, 1981:193-194).
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE In this chapter, the writer will present the review of related studies and the
review of related theories. The review of related studies will show that some studies had been conducted related to the discussion in this under graduate thesis.
The writer presents the review of related theories as the basic for making the analysis in the next chapter.
A. Review of Related Studies
Desi Rochmawati’s undergraduate thesis entitled An Analysis of Clause
Structures in Hemingway’s A Clean, Well Lighted Place (2005) discussed the
pattern used by Hemingway in his story A Clean, Well Lighted Place. She used the theories of simple sentence, which consists of the theory of clause structure’s elements and the theory of seven basic clause types, and the theories of complex sentence. The theory of clause structure’s elements was used to recognize the element of a clause, while the theory of seven basic types was used to classify the types of clauses. Theories of complex sentence were used to classify the sentence or clause whether it was complex or not. She wanted to prove some statements from the expert who said that Hemingway has his own style that was the use of simple sentences in his works.
Mary Louise Pratt in her paper entitled Toward a Speech Act Theory of
Literary Discourse (1977) explained that linguistic approaches to literary analysis
have generally been based on the assumption that literature possesses intrinsic linguistic features that distinguish it from our everyday utterances. The aim of her study was to provide a more adequate basis for a linguistic theory of literature, one which allows us to describe literary utterances in the same terms used to describe other types of utterances. She used the theory of speech act and the theory of cooperative principles. Pratt saw the literary communicative event as essentially the same as our everyday conversation.
Stephen A. Tyler in his paper entitled “The Said and the Unsaid: Mind,
Meaning, and Culture ” stated his thesis that
Speaking represents unconscious knowledge of an abstract system of conventional signs and rules with which to construct sentences and construe meanings (1978). He mentioned that the scientific explanation of language should not explain language as language alone but also as both the object and vehicle to make the unified interpretation of thought and culture. He gave the example of the parents who expand a child’s ungrammatical utterances into fully grammatical forms. The parents were treating the child’s utterances as indices of underlying sentences and not just taught the child to speak grammatically; they were also teaching the child by example to use the documentary method of interpretation.
Based upon those three papers, the writer will make a different study. This undergraduate thesis is still using the same source which is the sentence. The sentences but its application when it is being used in the language. The writer will combine the theories of simple sentences, the theories of pragmatics and the theories of sociolinguistics to make a new formulation related to the grammar and speech.
B. Review of Related Theories
In this part the writer explains the theories that are going to be applied in the analysis part in the next chapter. The writer uses three theories. They are the theories of simple sentences, the theories of Pragmatics and the theories of Sociolinguistics.
1. Theories of Simple Sentences
Sentences are divided according to their structure into three classes. They are simple, compound and complex. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses (Curme, 1947:152). Since the focus of this paper is the simple sentence, the writer will give the theories on simple sentences only.
A simple sentence, according to A Student’s Grammar of the English
Language consists of a single independent clause, which can be classified into
seven types (Quirk, 1990:204). A clause can be defined as a unit that can be analyzed into the elements. They are subject (S), verb (V), object (O) which is divided into subject complement (Cs) and object complement (Co), and adverbial (A) (Quirk et al.,1973:343).
Based on the definitions above, this section will be divided into three sub- sections. They are the explanation of the clause elements, the explanation of the seven basic types of clause structures, and the classification of the simple sentences.
a. Theory of Clause Elements
Based on the elements which are composed in a clause, there are four elements in clause. They are subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C), and adverbial (A).
i. Subject (S)
A subject is usually a noun phrase or a clause with nominal function. It occurs before the verb in the declarative clauses and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses (Quirk, 1990:207). The subject has the characteristic of having the numbers and person concord with the verb phrase (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). For examples: (1) We walk trough this street everyday.
(2) She meets them everyday. From the two examples above, the subjects are we, on the first example, and she, on the second example. Although both of the examples are having the same subject which is the personal pronoun but they have different verbs. In the first example, the verb for the subject we is walk without an ‘s’ ending as in the verb in the second example meets. This verb’s ending is related to the subject whether it is singular or plural (Krohn, 1986: 11).
ii. Verb (V)
States, events and actions are represented grammatically by the word class of verbs (Jackson, 1990: 16). This element is normally present in all clauses including in the imperative clauses, where the subject is typically absent (Quirk, 1990: 207)
A verb will determine the clause types since different verb classes require different complementation to complete the meaning of the verb or no complementation if there is an intransitive verb. The verb in simple sentence is always a finite verb. A finite verb is a verb which is showing the tense distinction between ‘past’ and ‘present’ and being associated with a particular subject (first, second or third, singular or plural) (Jackson, 1982:74). For examples:
(3) She cries. (4) She is reading a book. From the two examples above, the sentences have different type of clause because of its verb. In sentence (3) the type is Subject-Verb (SV) where the personal pronoun she is the S and cries is the V. In sentence (4) the type is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) where she is the S, the finite verb is the to-be is, and the noun phrase the book is the O.
iii. Object (O)
Object is like a subject which is a noun phrase or clause with nominal function. Object follows the subject and the verb phrase. There are two kinds of objects. They are direct object (Od) and indirect object (Oi). When there are two objects occur in the sentence, indirect object (Oi) always precedes the direct object (Od) (Quirk et al., 1973: 348). For examples: (5) We share an enemy.
(6) He gave her an explanation. In sentence (5), the subject is the personal pronoun we, the verb is share, and the noun phrase an enemy is the object of the verb share. In this sentence the object is a noun phrase, the enemy functions as the head of the NP and the article an functions as the determiner. The object here is the Od, direct object.
iv. Complement (C)
A complement function can be filled by a noun phrase or by an adjective phrase. It is different from object since a complement has the same reference with its subject or its object (Jackson, 1982:84). A complement does not have a corresponding passive subject. There are two kinds of complements. They are the subject complement (Cs) and the object complement (Co). The subject complement is related to the subject while the object complement is related to the direct object (Quirk, 1990: 207). For examples: (7) My glass is empty.
(8) We found them very pleasant. In sentence (7) the word empty is related to the word glass’ which is the subject, this is called Cs, the subject complement. In sentence (8) the phrase very
pleasant is related to the direct object them, this is called Co, the object
complement. v. Adverbial (A)There are three basic types of adverbs. They are adverbs of manner, adverbs of time and adverbs of place (Wishon, 1980: 9). For examples: (9) Alice studies hard. (10) He went home. (11) She is working now. From the examples above can be seen that in sentence (9) the adverb is
hard , which is the adverb of manner. In sentence (10) the adverb is home which
functions as the adverb of place. In the last example, in sentence (11), the adverb is now which is the adverb of time.
b. Theory of Seven Types of Clause Structure
Quirk in his book A Student’s Grammar of the English Language states that there are seven types of clause structure in English (Quirk, 1990: 204). They are: (1) Type S V : We (S) walk (V).
(2) Type S V C : She (S) is (V) my mother (C). (3) Type S V A : The book (S) is (V) on the shelf (A).
(5) Type S V O O : He (S) gave (V) me (O) a bucket of flower (O). (6) Type S V O C : He (S) got (V) his shirt (O) dirty (C). (7) Type S V O A : I (S) met (V) him (O) yesterday (A).
c. The Classification of Simple Sentences
In A Grammar of Contemporary English, the simple sentences are classified into four major syntactic classifications (Quirk, 1972: 385-386). They are:
i. Statements
Statements are sentences in which the subject is always occur and generally precedes the verb. This sentence functions to convey information. For example: John will speak to the boss to day.
ii. Questions
This type of sentences is usually used to express lack of information and requests the listener to supply this information verbally. There are several markers to show that a sentence belong to this category. They are: (1) The placing of the operator in front of the subject.
For example: Will John speak to the boss today? (2) The initial positioning of an interrogative or wh-element.
For example: Who will speak to? (3) The rising question intonation at the end of the sentence.
iii. Commands
Commands are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject and whose verb is in the imperative mood. The subject in the imperative form is usually omitted because the subject of this kind of sentence is clear enough to be understood by the addressee. For example: Speak to the boss today.
iv. Exclamations
Exclamations are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by
what or how, without the inversion of the subject and the operator. This type of
sentences is used to express the speaker’s own feeling. For example: What a noise they are making! 2.
Theories of Pragmatics
In this section, the writer will describe the theories of Pragmatics that will be use in the next chapter to make the analysis. The writer divides this section into four sub-sections. They are the theories of cooperative principles of conversation, the theories of hedges, the theory of conversational implicatures and the theories of speech acts.
a. Theories of Cooperative Principle of Conversation
In the conversation, both the speaker and the addressee are invited to get involved in the speech. Both of them are supposed to complete each other by giving the appropriate responses in order to make the conversation. George Yule
Cooperative principle is an assumption in conversation that each participant will attempt to contribute appropriately, at the required time, to the exchange of talk (Yule, 1996:128). Based on the above there are four maxims formulated by Grice to make an analysis whether an utterance is sensibly connected to the meaning in the discourse or not .
i. Maxim of Quantity
In maxim of quantity, the speaker should make his or her contribution to the discourse, in this case is conversation, as informative as necessary and neither more nor less.
ii. Maxim of Quality The speaker should not say something that he or she believes to be false.
And he or she is not supposed to say something in which he or she lacks adequate evidence. In other words, do not lie.
iii. Maxim of Relevance
Speaker is supposed to be relevant, means that he or she should say things related to the current topic of the conversation.
iv. Maxim of Manner
In maxim of manner, there are four important points stated by Grice. First, the speaker should avoid obscurity of expression. Second, he or she must avoid ambiguity which might cause misunderstanding in conversation. Third, speaker should be brief. And fourth, speaker should be orderly in giving the utterance in the conversation.
b. Theories of Hedges
Hedges or cautious notes are used to avoid violating the maxim especially to express politeness during the conversation. There are many expressions which can be used to maintain the maxims of conversation. Below are the hedges according to Yule’s Pragmatics (Yule, 1996: 38-39):
i. Hedges in the Maxim of Quantity
This type of hedges is used to deal with the response related to the maxim of quantity. It shows that the speaker is conscious to the maxim of quantity where he or she should not give the contribution more than it is required. For examples: (1) As you probably know, I am terrified of the bugs.
(2) So, to cut a long story short, we grabbed our stuff and ran. The hedges are, the first in sentence (1) is in the clause as you probably
know and the second in sentence (2) is in the clause so, to cut a long story (Yule,
1996:38). ii. Hedges in the Maxim of QualityThis type of hedges is used to cooperate with the response related to the maxim of quality. This type of hedges indicates that what the speaker says may not be accurate. For examples: (3) As far as I know, they’re married.
(4) I’m not sure if this is right, but I heard it was secret ceremony in Hawaii. Both clauses in sentence (3) and (4) show that the speaker does not totally sure about the truth of the utterance he or she gives, but the hedges will help him or her to avoid the violation of the maxim of quality (Yule, 1996:38).
iii. Hedges in the Maxim of Relevance
This type of hedges is used to cooperate with the response related to the maxim of relation. It can be found in the middle of the speaker’s talk and go on to mention some unconnected information during the conversation. The speaker might use the expressions like anyway; Oh, by the way; or well, anyway. For examples:
(5) Not to change the subject, but is this related to the budget? (6) I don’t know if this is important, but some files are missing.
The part of the sentences which are printed in bold show the hedges are being used. These hedges are the link between the previous information of the conversation with the new information of the conversation which is not related one another (Yule, 1996:39).
iv. Hedges in the Maxim of Manner
This type of hedges is used to deal with the response related to the maxim of manner. Below, where the hedges are printed in bold, are the examples of the hedges in a heard during an account of a crash (Yule, 1996:39): (7) This may be a bit confused, but I remember being in car.
(8) I’m not sure if this makes sense, but the car had no lights.
c. Theories of Conversational Implicatures
In the normal situation of conversation, sometimes we find utterances which are likely violating the cooperative principles. To maintain the cooperative principles in the conversation the participants of the conversation needs the conversational implicatures which occurs as the additional unstated meaning (Yule, 1996:40). There are four kinds of implicatures.
i. Generalized Conversational Implicatures
In this implicature, there is no special knowledge needed in the context to convey the meaning.
For example:
A: “I hope you brought the bread and the cheese.”
B: “I brought the bread.” From the short conversation in the example above, B brought the bread and did not mention the cheese. It means that A could draw an assumption from
B’s utterances that B only brought the bread (Yule, 1996:40).
ii. Scalar Implicatures
The characteristic of the scalar implicature is the use of certain word which expresses one value from a scale of values. For example the use of the words all, most, many, some, few, always, often, sometimes, etc. (Yule, 1996:41).
iii. Particularized Conversational Implicatures
Particularized conversational implicature is the opposite of the generalized conversational implicature. In the particularized conversational implicature, a special or local knowledge is needed to convey the additional unstated meaning (Yule, 1996:42-43). Below is the example:
Wife : The door bell is ringing! Husband : I’m in the shower!
From the dialogue above, it seems that the dialogue is flouting the maxim of relevance. To make this dialogue relevant the wife should draw some assumption. She knows that the door bell is ringing then she said “The door bell is ringing!”. She said it on purpose. She wants that her husband open the door for the guest. The husband gives response by saying “I’m in the shower!”. It is clear enough for the wife that her husband cannot open the door. In short we can conclude then that the dialogue above does not flouting the maxim of relevance.
iv. Conventional Implicatures
The conventional implicatures are not based on the cooperative principle of the maxims. These implicatures do not depend on special contexts for their interpretation. One of the characteristics is the use of the conjunction but, even, yet and and (Yule, 1996:45).
For example: (1) Mary suggested black but I choose white.
(2) He even helped tidy up afterwards. (3) Dennis isn’t here yet. (4) She put on her clothes and left the house.
d. Theories of Speech Acts
Speech acts are the actions performed via utterance. There are some specific labels given in the speech acts in English. They are apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request (Yule, 1996:47).
Speech acts have three dimensions. According to Austin, the dimensions are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is the basic act of uttering a meaningful linguistic form. Illocutionary act is the communicative force of an utterance. The last that is the perlocutionary act is the effect which was recognized by the hearer that was intended by the speaker.
For example, there was someone saying, “Sit and be quiet!”. This order was followed by the action of the listener to sit and be quiet. Locutionary act is the part when the order “Sit and be quiet!” is said and we can convey the meaning from the utterance of the speaker. Illocutionary act is the part seen from the speaker’s point of view that he or she wants the listener to sit and be quiet. Perlocutionary act is the part seen from the listener’s point of view that they should sit and be quiet. The action follows perlocutionary act is called perlocutionary effects.
3. Theories of Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the study about the relationship between language and society. In sociolinguistics, language is not only described as the tool which is used by the people to deliver the message, but sociolinguistic tries to figure out a larger scope of the application of the language it self. For example, how is actually the work of the language in the communication (Holmes, 1992:1).
In a sociolinguistics study, the language often called as a code, as Wardhaugh states that:
When two or more people communicate with each other in speech, we can call the system of communication that they employ a code. In most cases that code will be something we may want to call a language (Wardhaugh, 1986:1).
One aspects of language that has been studied in sociolinguistic is language varieties. The theory of language varieties states that that are five language varieties, they are idiolect, dialect (or accent), style, register, and speech level or level.