English competence needed by nursing department students - USD Repository
ENGLISH COMPETENCE NEEDED BY NURSING DEPARTMENT STUDENTS A THESIS
Presented to The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Magister Humaniara (M.Hum.) in English Language Studies
by Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto Student Number: 056332003
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2)
PAGE OF DEDICATION
To my wife (Jeni Ariyanti, A.Md) and my daughter (Adzkia Khairunnisa Wijayanto) as my Source of Spirit!! To my parents who always give me support for my career.
My sister, her husband and my nephew and niece
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. He understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else’s idea, phrase, or sentence without a proper reference.
th
Yogyakarta, November 15 , 2008 The writer
Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, my greatest gratitude is addressed to Allah SWT for His love and blessings. He guided me and showed me the paths to complete my thesis and study. He gave me power and helped me to cope problems, hindrance, and burden during the writing of the thesis. Without Him, I would not be like what I am now.
My thesis would never have been completed without the assistance and supports from the following people, to whom I will address my gratitude. The gratitude goes to:
1. Drs. FX. Mukarto, M.S., Ph.D., as my supervisor, for sparing his time to give me concerning consultation of my thesis; 2. dr. Anis Kusumawati as the Dean of Health and Science Faculty or
‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP) for giving permission in conducting this research;
3. Kris Linggardini, S.Kp as the Head of Study Program of Nursing Department Students at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP) for giving time to spare the time for interview and showing the related documents;
4. Angkat Adi Cahyoko, S.Pd an English lecturer for helping me to conduct the observation and interview;
5. H. Rijoto Abdulah and Hj. Siti Fatimah as my parents, my beautiful wife Jeni Ariyanti, A.Md, and my lovely daughter Adzkia Khairunnisa Wijayanto. You are always in my heart and are never forgotten in my life.
6. My best friend Theresia Laksmi Widyarini, S.Pd., M.Hum. Thanks for your help, ideas, motivation, suggestions, and references.
7. All my friends in The Graduate Program (S2) in English Language Studies (KBI) Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta. Thanks for the great relationship.
Finally, I would like to thank all my friends who cannot be stated here. My God bless them all.
Pikir Wisnu Wijayanto
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page PAGE OF TITLE .........…………………………………………………. i PAGE OF APPROVAL ………………………………………………… ii PAGE OF DEDICATION ………………………………………………. iv PAGE OF STATEMENT AND WORK’S ORIGINALITY ……..…....... v PAGE OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..………………………………… vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………….. vii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………… xii LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………… xiii ABSTRACT ……………….……………………………………………. xv ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………… xvi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ……………………………………... 1 A. Background …………………………………………………………... 1 B. Problem Identification ………………………………………………... 5 C. Problem Limitation …………………………………………………… 5 D. Problem Formulation………………………………………………….. 6 E. Research Objectives …………………………………………………... 7 F. Research Benefits ……………………………………………………… 7 CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW AND FRAMEWORK….. 9 A. Theoretical Review …………………………………………………... 10
1. Communicative Competences …………………………………… 10 a.
Communicative Approach ……………………………......... 10
b. Development of Communicative Competences ……………… 11
c. Elements of Communicative Competences…………………… 13 1) Discourse Competence …………………………………. 14 2) Actional Competence …………………………………... 15 3) Linguistic Competence …………………………………. 15 4) Sociocultural/Sociolinguistic Competence……………… 16 5) Strategic Competence .………………………………….. 17
2. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) ……………………………… 18
a. The Definition of ESP ………………………………………… 18
b. The Criteria of ESP……………………………………………. 20
c. ESP Categories ………………………………………………... 21
d. English for Nursing Students………………………………….. 22
e. Establishing English Competence in ESP Context: Nursing….. 23
3. Syllabus Design …………………………………………………... 32
a. Syllabus Development………………………………………… 32
b. Competence-based Syllabus…………………………………... 34
c. Need analysis in Syllabus Design ……………………………. 35
B. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………. 42
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY …………………………………… 48 A. Methods ……………………………………………………………… 48 B. The Nature of Data……………………………………………………. 50 C. The Pilot Study ……………………………………………………….. 50 D. Data Setting and Source...................................................................... 51 E. Data Gathering Instruments …………………………………………... 52
1. Interview …………………………………………………………. 53
2. Observation ………………………………………………………. 57
F. Data Collection ……………………………………………………….. 58
1. Primary data ……………………………………………………… 59
2. Supporting data …………………………………………………… 61
G. Data Analysis …………………………………………………………. 61
1. Data reduction …………………………………………………….. 62
2. Display data ………………………………………………………. 62
3. Drawing conclusion ………………………………………………. 62
H. Data Validation ……………………………………………………….. 64
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULT………………………………… 65 A. English competence for nursing department students’
in term of communicative competences activities ….………………… 65 B.
Syllabus Development………………………..………………………. 81
1. Assessing Learners’ Needs…………………………………… 81
2. Developing Goals and Objectives …………………………… 82
3. Deciding Syllabus Type ……………………………………… 83
4. Specifying Contents …………………………………………. 84
5. Planning Syllabus ……………………………………………. 87
6. Selecting Teaching Approaches and Materials ……………… 94
7. Assessment Procedures and Criteria…………………………. 95
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS …… 96 A. Conclusions ………………………………………………………….. 96 B. Recommendations……………………………………………………. 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………… 100
APPENDICES …………………………………………………………. 105
Appendix 1 Interview Guide for the Students…………………………… 106 1.a Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM1 1.b Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM2 1.c Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM3 1.d Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM4 1.e Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM5 1.f Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM6 1.g Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM6 1.h Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM7 1.i Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM8 1.j Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM9 1.k Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM10 1.l Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM11 1.m Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM12 1.n Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM13 1.o Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM14 1.p Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM15 1.q Interview Transcripts from the Students: SDPM16
Appendix 2 Interview Guide for the Lecturer…………………………… 107 2.a Interview Transcripts with the lecture of nursing department
(Mr. AAC, S.Pd) Appendix 3 Interview Guide for the Head of Study Program or Kaprodi and Dean the Health Science Faculty the Health Science
Faculty (FIK) UMP……………………………………….. 108 3.a Interview transcripts with the Head of Study Program
(Mrs. LGG S.Kep) 3.b Interview transcripts with the Dean of Health Faculty
(Mrs. dr. AS) Appendix 4 Curriculum and Syllabus of UMP Documents ……………... 151
LIST OF FIGURES
Page Figure 2.1 Communicative competence model……………………….. 14Figure 2.2 The classification of ESP categories………………………. 22Figure 2.3 Target Situation Analysis (TSA) and Learning SituationAnalysis (LSA)……………………………………………. 24
Figure 3.1 Interactive Model of Analysis Scheme................................. 62
LIST OF TABLES
Page Table 4.4 Translating the data collection, medical record and report data…………………. ….…………………………. 71Table 4.10 Communicating in term of involving patient in management……………………………………………….. 77Table 4.9 Giving explanation and advice ……………………………. 76Table 4.8 Approaching to the patient ………..……………………… 76Table 4.7 Listening, questioning and diagnosing ……………………. 75Table 4.6 Using communication skills in a healthcare ……………… 74Table 4.5 Executing the basic treatment …………………………….. 72Table 4.3 Giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment ………………………………………………. 70Table 2.1 Steps work reference to English for Nursing Department… 26Table 4.2 Giving the health counseling ……………………………... 68Table 4.1 Giving the explanation of the escort of basic treatment ….. 67Tabel 3.4 Obervation Guide............................................................... 58Tabel 3.3 Interview Guideline Blue Print for the Officials................ 56Tabel 3.2 Interview Guideline Blue Print for Lecturer....................... 55Tabel 3.1 Interview Guideline Blue Print for students ...................... 55Table 4.11 Specifying Contents ………………………………..…….. 84
ABSTRACT
Wijayanto, Pikir Wisnu. 2008. English Competence Needed by Nursing
Department Students : Yogyakarta: English Language Studies. Graduate Program.
Sanata Dharma University.The research aimed at finding out the English competence needed by nursing department students during the course of their studies as well as in preparing themselves for their future work as nurses at the international level. The competence needed by the students and nurses-to-be was then used as the basis for designing the English syllabus to be proposed to and adopted by the Health Science Faculty (Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan or FIK) of Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto.
This research took place at the Health Science Faculty at Nursing Department Program at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto. The research was descriptive qualitative in nature. This study used interviews and observations to collect the data to answer the research questions. The source of data was sixteen nursing students, one lecturer and the dean.
The results of the data analysis indicated that there were ten main competencies to acquire by nursing students to function properly in the nursing profession. The competencies included giving explanation of the escort of basic treatment, giving the health counseling, giving the explanation of the escort of pathology and its treatment, translating the data collection, medical record and report data, executing the basic treatment, using communication skills in a healthcare, approaching to the patient, listening, questioning and diagnosing, giving explanation and advice, and communicating in term of involving patient in management. The ten basic competencies were then used as the bases in designing the syllabus for the Nursing Department students. The type of syllabus chosen was competence-based one. The syllabus stated the competency standards, basic competencies along with their indicators, list of teaching materials, suggested learning experience, time allotment, list of resources and media, and assessment.
ABSTRAK
Wijayanto, Pikir Wisnu. 2008. Kompetensi Bahasa Inggris yang Dibutuhkan oleh Mahasiswa Diploma 3 Perawat: Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi kompetensi Bahasa Inggris yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa keperawatan selama perkuliahan untuk mempersiapkan mereka dalam bekerja sebagai perawat nantinya dalam taraf internasional. Kompetensi yang dibutuhkan oleh mahasiswa dan perawat natinya digunakan sebagai landasan penyusunan silabus yang diperuntukan serta direkomendasikan untuk Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan Universita Muhammadiyah Purwokerto.
Penelitian ini berlangsung di Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan, Program Diploma Tiga Perawat Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto. Metode penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif. Metode kualitatif merupakan prosedur dalam penelitian yang hasilnya berupa data deskriptif dari beberapa pernyataan dari partisipan dan dari kegiatan obsevasi yang dilakukan. Sumber data adalah 16 mahasiswa, seorang dosen Bahasa Inggris, serta Ketua Program Studi Keperawatan dan Dekan Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan UMP.
Hasil dari analisa data tersebut kemudian mengindikasikan bahwa terdapat sepuluh kompetensi utama yang harus dimiliki oleh mahasiswa keperawatan dalam menunjang kegiatan mereka sebagai tenaga perawat. Kompetensi terbut adalah memberikan penjelasan mengenai dasar-dasar keperawatan; memberikan bimbingan kesehatan; memberi penjelasan mengenai pencegahan terhadap penyakit dan perawatannya; menerjemahkan serta mengumpulkan data, catatan mengenai kesehatan dan data laporan; melaksanakan tindakan keperawatan dasar; menggunakan ketrampilan berkomunikasi di dalam bidang perlindungan kesehatan; pendekatan terhadap pasien; mendengarkan, bertanya dan mendiagnosa; memberikan nasihat dan penjelasan; serta berkomunikasi dalam hal melibatkan pasien di dalam manajemen. Kesepuluh kompetensi dasar tersebut kemudian digunakan sebagai dasar penyusunan silabus untuk mahasiswa keperawatan. Tipe silabus yang dipilih adalah competence- based. Silabus tersebut berisi tentang kompetensi standar, kompetensi dasar, yang disesuaiakan dengan indikator yang ada, daftar materi pembelajaran, kegiatan pembelajaran yang disarankan, alokasi waktu, daftar referensi dan media, serta penilaian.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter is proposed to introduce the research and give explanation
for the necessity to conduct it. A brief description of the context where the research is conducted is provided with English competence for nursing department students in their communication activities both in their study and in the work setting for their international relationship. This chapter consists of six main parts, namely the background of the study, problem identification, problem limitation, problem formulation, research goals, and research benefits.
A. BACKGROUND
Empiric reality sows that English is an international language. This implies that the needs of mastering English appropriately in order to respond the intensive interaction in each country, especially in the global era. Therefore, as the most widely spread international language, mastering English is a must. In Indonesia, English is still viewed as a luxurious language. The consideration why English is included as a subject in Elementary School, as the basic, is that English is supposed as a need for the students in their future, especially in the globalization era. English has been described as a global as well as a local language (Crystal, 1997: 34). Therefore, the way of teaching English should be contextualized to the learner’s situation and need (Kachru 1992: 41). Mastering English language is the main success condition for individual, society (local), and Indonesian in answering the era challenge in a global level (Depdiknas, 2001: 7).
This research aims at describing the English competence needed related with communication activities performed by nursing department students in English learning activities and the graduate students in their future work. The required competences are needed in order to perform those international communication activities successfully. Thus its basic purpose is that of enabling the students to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting. The product of this research will be in form of syllabus design which incorporates with the communication activities and the required communicative competences in English.
Austin (1976) stated that nurse is a health care professional who is engaged in the practice of nursing. Nurses are men and women who are responsible (along with other health care professionals) for the treatment, safety and recovery of acutely or chronically ill or injured people, health maintenance of the healthy, and treatment of life-threatening emergencies in a wide range of health care settings. To support their responsibilities for doing treatment, a nurse need a communication activities and competences in order to maintain a good relationship to other people.
Learning English in the nursing department is not an easy task since the students were not accustomed using English in their previous formal school.
Teachers are easy to be trapped as the only learning ‘models’. In this condition, a learning process will be boring if students are only as ‘good spectators’ and
‘ listeners’ without an interactive communication. This class will produce passive
students, and this is contradictory to the language learning principle; be active more practices. Passive students are also the effect of the class-learning situation when the teacher takes much more place in class.
Krashen (1985) acknowledges that two-way interaction is a particular good way of providing comprehensible input because it enables the learners to obtain additional contextual information and optimally adjusted input when meaning has to be negotiated because of some communications problem. The learners who are accustomed to being taught English exclusively in their mother tongue may at first be uncomfortable if the teacher speaks to them in English expecting them not only to understand but also to respond. Making an effort to get the gist and using strategies to interpret, express, and negotiate meaning are important to develop their communicative competence.
The Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ (FIK) Muhammadiyah University Purwokerto (UMP) has done the academic efforts to build and increase the English competency of the students. Since 2000/2001, the institution has established the Enrichment of English Program (1 Year Program/Diploma 1), so that the students get the course for 16 (sixteen) credits which are taught into 4 (four) semesters. In English syllabus, the core courses consist of listening, reading, writing and speaking, which are divided into 8 sub materials. The four main courses can be synergized, therefore, it is hoped that the courses can bring real benefits to English competency for students. According to that purpose, the main priority and priority scale to the materials which are given according the real needs of the students.
In order to perform the communication activities in English, the nursing department focuses on cognitive language proficiency and discipline specific language competency for nursing, where communicative and socio-linguistic competences in the area of specialization are paramount. The belief is that linguistic competence alone (i.e. knowledge of grammar and doing grammar exercises without reference to use and function) is not enough to guarantee or automatically lead to the ability to communicate. The Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ (FIK) Muhammadiyah University Purwokerto (UMP) also tries hard to wean the students from the “giving or receiving the lesson” condition by preparing them to educate themselves, monitor their own work and invent their individual strategies for learning. It engages them in procedures of converting items of knowledge into actualized communicative behavior from knowing to functioning, emphasizing that what students learn in English is transferable to all areas of the curriculum.
The efforts of institution to build and increase the English Competence for the students ideally get the positive respond from the students in order to get the purposes which are hoped by the institution. But the students can have the different perspectives. Therefore, the need of English competence from the students’ perspective is interesting to be studied. And to specify the scope of the study, applying English for specific purposes is suitable for this case. Hopefully, the research result can provide valuable information and give stimulus for further research.
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
The main issue discussed in this study was that the students’ need of English competence, which its basic mission was that of enabling the students to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting. The material and other elements need to be in concordance with the needs of communication activities performed by nursing department students in terms of their English learning activities and their future work as well as the required competences in order to perform those communication activities successfully. Therefore, the syllabus must be incorporated into the communication activities and the required communicative competences in English.
Teacher is responsible in the teaching learning process at first, or in other words the success of teaching learning process mostly depends on the teacher. Therefore, it is the teacher's responsibility to create elements, which are needed in the teaching learning process, such as, materials and also the teaching technique on how to deliver the authentic materials to the students. Creating and applying the authentic materials according to the needs and appropriate technique must be done by the teacher with certain considerations to achieve the purpose. The applied teaching technique should be able to make the students able to the function of language in their daily life.
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION
To focus the study, the researcher limited the scope of subject of research and the research achievements. The study only covers the second up to the forth semester students in Nursing department (Nursing diploma) at the Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu Kesehatan’ (FIK) at Muhammadiyah University of Purwokerto (UMP). The researcher delimitated the respondents’ opinions, since their learning experiments are used as the research data.
In doing limitation of the research achievement, the research only focus on the authentic English competence needs in learning process such as listening, speaking, writing, and reading related with nursing competencies. Since the students are prepared to be nurses, the authentic materials and needs are also related to their future job. Hence, the instructional materials will be designed based on the students’ need of communicative competence in English learning as well as the purpose of learning it self. The use of bills, flyers, classified, pictures of signs, and prescriptions, will make the students able to relate the given information in the learning material with their recent educational background in nursing academy in communicative way
D. PROBLEM FORMULATION
The research deals with the English competence of nursing department students. The research problems are formulated as follows:
1. What English Competence was needed by nursing students related with the communication activities at the Health Science Faculty of UMP?
2. How were the needs of English Competence of the nursing students be integrated into a syllabus design?
E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The research had been conducted to serve some objectives, namely: 1. to identify the English Competency needed by nursing students related with the communication activities at the Health Science Faculty or ‘Fakultas Ilmu
Kesehatan’ (FIK) students, and 2. to design a syllabus which integrates the needs of English Competency of nursing students
F. RESEARCH BENEFITS
By conducting this research, it is hoped that by focusing on the nursing communication activities and future knowledge and skills of the language, this research helps them in developing their ability and competency in English and they can perform the communication activities in nursing context successfully and enable them to function adequately through the medium of English both in the classroom and in the work setting in their international relationship.
The main purpose of this study is for the science and technology significances, which are to provide the scientific language learning, which employ recent development of technology. And the sub-purposes, as having been highlighted earlier, are to answer the both research questions on the previous subchapter. At narrower scale, such as in academic environment, mastering English competence is also needed for the students, because mastering English can give the benefits, such as ‘a window’ for mastering science and technology, supports their study, and increases the preparation of work competition.
Finally, those benefits can bring the positive value not only for the students but also for their institution. Therefore, by conducting this research, it is hoped that the result of this research will be useful and bring worth contribution to future teachers, next researchers and the parties who are concerned with the teaching learning strategies in English for Specific Purposes.
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW AND FRAMEWORK This chapter aims to review the theories underlying this study that
become the bases for the discussion. The discussion consists of two main parts, namely, theoretical review and theoretical framework.
The theoretical review discusses three major points. They are communicative competence, English for Specific Purposes (ESP), and syllabus design. The first discussion starts with communicative competence needed by nursing department students based on the needs. The discussion on communicative competence comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in learning. The second discussion is on the program for learners having specific purposes in learning English. The program to be discussed in the English for Specific Purposes (ESP). ESP also serves as the background of this study since the English for nursing department students is part of it. The discussion on ESP talks about the origin, definition, criteria, categorization, and components. The last part discusses syllabus design within which the English competence-based syllabus design, need analysis as the bases for finding the English competence needed and designing a syllabus and the steps in syllabus development are reviewed. Finally, all the discussion reviewed will be compiled within a framework provided in the second subchapter.
A. THEORETICAL REVIEW
The related theoretical review mainly discusses communicative competency, the ESP for nursing students, and the syllabus design.
1. Communicative Competences
Communicating effectively in English as a foreign language (EFL) has been identified as a major challenge facing EFL nursing students. Strategies used at the institution which are aimed at assisting students to meet this challenge included assessment of language proficiency for the nursing program, language assistance throughout the program, and measures taken by faculty to decrease the materials and test bias and facilitate the materials and test-taking by EFL students.
The very term 'communicative' carries an obvious ring of truth that we 'learn to communicate by communicating' (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 131).
a. Communicative a.
a. Communicative AAAApproach Communicative Communicative pproach pproach pproach The fact is that most teachers now claim to use a communicative approach in some way or other (Karavas-Doukas 1996), and it is hardly surprising that no-one wishes to be called a non-communicative teacher. In strong versions of CLT the teacher is required to take a 'less dominant role' and the learners are encouraged to be 'more responsible managers of their own learning' (Larsen-Freeman 1986: 131). Communication approach aims to make communicative competence the goal of language
a. teaching and develop procedures for teaching the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. A communicative approach that based on the view that language is “a vehicle for expression of functional meaning” emphasizes the semantics and communicative dimension rather than merely grammatical characteristic of language (Richard & Rodger, 1987:17).
A communicative approach is often seen to need a syllabus based on language functions from which the necessary forms and structures will be derived (Soars & Soars, 2000). A functional syllabus is “still a series of language patterns, albeit patterns linked to semantic and pragmatic values’ (Willis & Willis 2001: 174), and communication activities in classroom are often pale shadows of genuinely engaging interaction. Littlewood (1981:1), as cited in Richard & Rodger (1986:66), adds “One of the most characteristic features of communicative approach is hat it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of language”. It means that language teaching should include not only grammar, but also the elements of communication function. "The belief, so widely held and so frequently repeated that "language is (a means of) communication "is wrong in a way that has been devastating to any adequate conception of what humans are and how they differ from other species. Communication is just one use to which language can be put (and distinguishing between a thing and its uses should surely form the most basic step in any analysis.)" (Bickerton, 1996).
b. Development of Communicative Competences
Human as social creatures, in their lives can not separate from the need to interact and integrate with the environment. To interact and integrate with the environment, human used language in expressing what they think and feel. Language is a verbal communication which is used by human, as the most effective and efficient communication means in society. Nababan (1993 p.5) said that in general language has a function as social communication means. According to Chomsky, every human being is being born with the capacity to acquire language(s). Other expert, Wood and Power (1987) attempt to define the meaning of competence in two versions:
The ability to use knowledge, product and process skills and as a result, act effectively to achieve a purpose and the process and development of sufficient skills, knowledge, appropriate attitudes and experience for successful performance in life roles.
In these definitions, he suggests that competence could be used in two different ways, firstly, in a theoretical approach to indicate improved performance and secondly, by assuming competence as the deep structure responsible for the surface performances. Their definitions work on the assumption that one can gain specific performance externally and then monitor the extent to which it conforms to these prescriptions while the term of performance refers to the actual use of language either comprehension or production. It contrasts with competence. ‘Competence’ refers to what speakers-hearers know, and ‘performance’ refers to the use of this knowledge in communication (Chomsky in Rod Ellis 1990). The notion of performance in their definitions raises methodological problems about how or what a person can do relate what s/he understands. We can assume in this thesis, that competency searched by teachers is closer to performance which is measurable through observations.
Gonczi (1994) developed some competency elements become structural program such as the development of learners’ personalities, skills and scientific, masterpiece, behavioral and interactional societies. In other words we can say that competencies consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective performance of a real world task or activity developed into some competency elements become structural program such as the development of learners’ personalities, skills and scientific, masterpiece, behavioral and interactional societies.
Ashworth and Morrison (1991) argued that in addition to skills and knowledge, the notion of competence was broad and involved a diverse set of qualities including: attitudes, motives, personal interests, perceptiveness, receptivity, maturity and aspects of personal identity. Therefore, was it appropriate to label these different qualities as competencies and to what extent would this facilitate learning.
c. Elements of Communicative Competences
The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce- Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The implication is that the communicative competence formulated is to prepare learners to communicate using language in order to participate in the language community. This model is formulated as Communicative Competence represented in Celce-Murcia et al. (1995) as follows:
Socio
- cultural Competence Discourse Competence Linguistic Actional Competence Competence Strategic Competence
1) Discourse Competence
According to Canale & Swain in Richards & Rodgers (2001) discourse competence concerns with the interpretation of individual message element in term of their interconnectedness and of how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text. Moreover Savignon in Celce-Murcia (2001) refers the interconnectedness as to series of utterances, written words, and /or phrases to form a text, a meaningful whole, bottom – up processing and top down processing, coherence and cohesion, global meaning and structural links.
In communication, both the production and comprehension of language require one’s ability to perceive and process stretches of discourse, and to formulate representation of meaning from referent in both previous sentences and following sentences. Learners must develop competence which is concerned with intersentential relationship (Shumin in Richards & Renandya, 2002). In discourse, whether formal or informal, the rules of cohesion and coherence apply which aid in holding the communication together in a meaningful way. Therefore, effective speakers should acquire a large repertoire of structures and discourse markers to express ideals, show relationships of time, and indicate cause, contrast, and emphasis.
2) Actional Competence
The competence is referred as to actional competence because when someone says something, he/she actually do something. He/she may ask for services, give compliment, ask for information, etc (Landasan Filosofis Theoritis
Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris , 2004). In brief, when someone uses language, spoken
or written, every utterance that he/she make could be labeled as actional language.3) Linguistic Competence
Linguistic competence includes tacit, subconscious knowledge of language structures, not normally available for spontaneous report, but implicitly in what the ideal speaker can say. It is dependent on innate structure, and acquired independently of sociocultural feature except for the more presence of speech in the environment. Therefore, linguistic competence is the ability to speak and understand language in a grammatically correct manner. Linguistic performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, but under the idealization quoted by Lyons performance cannot directly reflect competence and nor can it have any major effect on it (Brown et al., 1996).
Linguistic competence is an umbrella concept that includes increasing expertise in grammar (morphology, syntax), vocabulary, and mechanics.