INDONESIAN ASSOCIATION FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Indonesian Association for Public Administration 2017 Department of Administration

PROCEEDING TOWARDS OPEN GOVERNMENT : FINDING THE WHOLE –GOVERNMENT

INDONESIAN ASSOCIATION FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

APPROACH

organized by Department of Administration The Faculty of Social and Political Science Universitas Airlangga Surabaya 8-9 September 2017

– International Conference Toward Open Government: Finding The Whole Government Approach

ISBN 978

–602–18461–5-5 Editor: Nanang Haryono, Agie Nugroho Soegiono, Putu Aditya Ferdy Ariawantara, Philipus Keban.

Cover: Novri Susan. Prints I, September 2017 First published in Indonesia in 2017 by The Faculty Of Social And Political Science Universitas Airlangga Dharmawangsa Dalam Surabaya Street 60286, East Java, Indonesia Telp.: +62-31-5034015 Fax.: +62-31-5012442 Website: http://www.fisip.unair.ac.id E-mail: info@fisip.unair.ac.id

Remarks from the Dean

Dear IAPA Conference 2017 delegates,

Thank you for your enthusiastic participation during the Indonesian Association for Public

Administration International Conference held in Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, from 8 to 9

September 2017. Last year’s conference main topic was ‘Towards Open Government: Finding the Whole Government

Approach ’. The topic spesifically addressed the urgency of open government which at the moment has

received exponential and positive responses from leaders and citizens around the globe. In the forms of

organisations, citizen projects, and ICT usage, the movements of open government urge public leaders

and other stakeholders to strengthen their commitments in order to promote openness culture between

government bodies. By promoting transparency, public involvement, and technology usage, open

government initiative seek s to tackle today’s governing challenges such as corruption, poverty,

inequality, and climate change by opening the doors for non-government actors to get involved,

including the academics.

As academics, I believe that the scholars would have crucial role in addressing open government

initiatives. Openness culture would ease researchers to gain access to government information, data,

and document which stimulate research on public issues which might already illustrate on this

proceeding. This proceeding is the collective research made by approximately one hundred participants

during the IAPA Conference.

I hope that 63 articles published in this proceeding will provide new insights and debates on open

government discussion. Indeed, this has been a great knowledge-sharing experience which hopefully

could enhance and contribute to the development of more advanced theories and practices in the future.

Once again, thank you for your valuable contribution. Yours sincerely, Dr. Falih Suaedi, Drs. M.Si.

Dean of Faculty of Social and Political Sciences

Welcome

Dear IAPA 2017 participants,

On behalf of IAPA Organising Committee, I would like to give high appreciation to all participants

during the IAPA International Conference 2017 at Universitas Airlangga. As an academic forum, the 2017 ’s IAPA International Conference attempted to facilitate open government champions to unlock their country’s potentials through openness and collaboration from

multi-stakeholders. The forum had become not only a learning and consulting network but also a

platform to collaborate best practices in achieving more inclusive development. I believe, open

government principles such transparency, participation, and collaboration could bring greater benefits,

especially improving the life of the citizens. Through research and collaboration, academics, especially

in the field of public administration, will embrace crucial role in the future.

Receiving approximately 90 distinguished papers from four different countries, the committee has been

working hard to compile their insightful ideas into this proceeding. The topics between research papers

in this proceeding vary from national to local government initiatives, from government to non-

government perspective, from conventional to advanced technology methods.

We wish that this proceeding will contribute in open government dialogues, ideas, and practices that

can be a learning experience for its further implementation.

Your sincerely, Sulikah Asmorowati, S.Sos., M.DevSt., Ph.D Chairperson of the Conference Committee

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Prof. Eko Prasojo Universitas Indonesia

Dr. Falih Sueadi Universitas Airlangga

Dr. Bintoro Wardiyanto Universitas Airlangga

Dr. Antun Mardiyanta Universitas Airlangga

Dr. Sri Yuni Woro Astuti Universitas Wijaya Putra

Dr. Lina Miftahul Jannah Universitas Indonesia Bevaola Kusumasari, Ph.D.

Universitas Gadjah Mada Prof. Dr. Sangkala, M.Si.

Universitas Hassanudin Dr. Hardi Warsono

Universitas Diponegoro Dr. Sintaningrum

Universitas Padjajaran Dr. M. R. Khoirul Muluk

Universitas Brawijaya Dr. Ardiyan Saptawan Universitas Sriwijaya

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE

Sulikah Asmorowati, S.Sos., Public Administration Department, FISIP, M.DevSt., Ph.D Universitas Airlangga Philipus Keban, S.IP., M.Si Public Administration Department, FISIP,

Universitas Airlangga Dr. Erna Setijaningrum, S.IP., M.Si Public Administration Department, FISIP,

Universitas Airlangga Dr. Eko Supeno, M.Si Public Administration Department, FISIP,

Universitas Airlangga Roestoto Hartojo Putro, Drs., SU. Public Administration Department, FISIP,

Universitas Airlangga R. Wahyuni Triana, Dra., M.Si Public Administration Department, FISIP,

Universitas Airlangga

H. Sunaryo, Drs., MPSt Public Administration Department, FISIP, Universitas Airlangga

Gitadi Tegas Supramudyo, Drs., M.Si Public Administration Department, FISIP, Universitas Airlangga

Nanang Haryono, S.IP., M.Si Public Administration Department, FISIP, Universitas Airlangga

Agie Nugroho Soegiono, S.IAN., MPP Public Administration Department, FISIP, Universitas Airlangga

Putu Aditya F.A., S.IP., M.KP Public Administration Department, FISIP, Universitas Airlangga

Rahmat Kuncoro System and Information Unit, FISIP, Universitas Airlangga

REVIEWER

Yogi Suprayogi, S.Sos., MA., Ph.D Univesitas Padjajaran Dr. Sri Juni Woro Astuti, M.Com Universitas Wijaya Putra Dr. Bevaola Kusumasari, S.IP., M.Si Universitas Gadjah Mada Prof. Dr. Sangkala, M.Si. Universitas Hasanuddin Dr. Lina Miftahul Jannah Universitas Indonesia Dr. Sintanigrum Univesitas Padjajaran Dr. Ardiyan Saptawan Universitas Sriwijaya Dr. M. R. Khoirul Muluk Universitas Brawijaya Dr. Hardi Warsono Universitas Diponegoro Dr. Hermawan, S.IP., M.Si Universitas Brawijaya Dr. Bintoro Wardianto, Drs., MS. Universitas Airlangga Dr. Falih Suaedi, Drs., M.Si. Universitas Airlangga Sulikah Asmorowati, S.Sos., M.DevSt., Ph.D Universitas Airlangga Dr. Erna Setijaningrum, S.IP., M.Si. Universitas Airlangga Philipus Keban, S.IP., M.Si. Universitas Airlangga Nanang Haryono, S.IP., M.Si. Universitas Airlangga Putu Aditya Ferdian Ariawantara, S.IP., M.KP Universitas Airlangga

STUDENT COMMITTEE

Moch. Allsyah Abidin Public Administration Department, Universitas Airlangga

Imam Ridlo Ismail Public Administration Department, Universitas Airlangga

Arief Adhityanto Public Administration Department, Universitas Airlangga

Ardimas Public Administration Department, Universitas Airlangga

Inda Umayani Public Administration Department, Universitas Airlangga

Mentari Aidina Putri Public Administration Department, Basuki Universitas Airlangga Anggreini Savira Putri Public Administration Department,

Universitas Airlangga

KEYNOTE SPEAKERS Yanuar Nugroho, Ph.D.

Deputy 2, Executive Office of The President of The Republic of Indonesia Drs. Sunyoto, M.Si.

Regent of the Regency of Bojonegoro

Prof. Andrew Rosser

The University of Melbourne, Australia

Dr. Violeta Schubert

The University of Melbourne, Australia

KEYNOTE SPEAKERS

Prof. (Assoc.) Tippawan Lorsuwannarat, Ph.D.

Director Ph.D. Programme National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Thailand Dr. Falih Suaedi, Drs. M.Si.

Dean of the Faculty of Social and Political Sciences Universitas Airlangga

Prof. Peter Grabosky

Australian National University, Australia

Dr. Waluyo Commissioner of Civil Service Reform

Table of Contents

i Cover ............................................................................................................................................ iv Welcome Dean of Faculty of Social and Political Sciences .................................... v Welcome Chairperson of The Conference Committee ........................................... Reviewer ..................................................................................................................................... viii x Keynote Speakers ................................................................................................................... xii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................

1 The Political Economy of Open Government

1 Andrew Rosser ......................................................................................................................

2 Secrecy, Transparency And Legitimacy in National Security and Domestic Policing

8 Peter Grabosky ........................................................................................................................

3 Open Government: Reflections on Country Development

22 Tippawan Lorsuwannarat ..................................................................................................

4 Government-Culture Nexus: Exploring the Efficacy of the Explanatory Value ‘of culture’ as Causality for Poor Governance and Performance

30 Violeta Schubert ......................................................................................................................

5 Lessons Learned in Selecting and Recruiting High Rank Officers in Indonesia

43 Waluyo .........................................................................................................................................

6 Planning and Development Policy Models by Designs of Region in Border Area (A Study in North Borneo Region)

49 Hery Nariyah, Sri Wulandari ..........................................................................................

7 Actor Analysis in Public Procurement at Bandung City Irham Prima Rinaldi ...........................................................................................................

8 Partnership of Implementation Inclusive Education in Surakarta

72 Kristina Setyowati, Azyani Zulfatindayu ......................................................................

9 Participatory Rural Appraisal As The Participatory Planning Method Of Development Planning Ahmad Mustanir, Barisan, Hariyanti Hamid ...............................................................

10 Public Private Partnership (PPP) Policy in Waste Management at Pekanbaru Alexsander Yandra, Khuriyatul Husna, Sri Roserdevi, Harsini ..........................

11 The Implementation of Online-Based Employment Service Application System (SAPK) In The Employment Agency of Pekanbaru Wasiah Sufi, Dwi Herlinda, Irawati .................................................................................

12 Implementation of UKM Cluster Development Policy in East Java Budi Prasetyo, Rizca Yunike Putri ................................................................................... 100

13 Community Empowerment in Implementation of Village Iklim Program in Bantan District Regenecy of Bengkalis Dadang Mashur ....................................................................................................................... 108

14 Relationship Interaction Quality with Physical Environment Quality and Outcome Quality in Improving Public Service Based Brady and Cronin Model Dasman Lanin, Aziza Bila .................................................................................................... 119

15 Leadership Model of Handling Conflict in Central Sulawesi Provice Daswati, Mustainah, Yulizar Pramudika, Tawil ........................................................ 126

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16 The Implementation Model of Deliberative Democracy Based Public Sphere in The Child Friendly Integrated Public Sphere (RPTRA) in North Jakarta Dodi Faedlulloh, Retnayu Prasetyani, Indrawati ...................................................... 133

17 Renewable Energy in Riau Islands Faizal Rianto, Diah Siti Utari, Billy Jenawi, Riau Sujarwani .................................. 143

18 Dilemma of Local Institutional Reforms after the release of Government Regulation No.18 of 2016 Bintoro Wardiyanto ............................................................................................................... 147

19 Transparency in Policy Process through Public Participation Wisber Wiryanto ..................................................................................................................... 160

20 Potential Development of The Community in Development in The Pekanbaru City Zaili Rusli .......... ......................................................................................................................... 166

21 Towards Management og Regional Assets the Productive and Professional Zulkarnaini ................................................................................................................................ 177

22 Enhacing The Case of Doing Business in Surabaya Through One Stop Shop (OSS) Licensing Service Rindri Andewi Gati, Antun Mardiyanta, Erna Setijaningrum............................... 186

23 Bela Nanda As A Form of Innovation of Birth Certificate Service in Klungkung Regency Bali Province: Perspective of Intitution Collaboration Ida Ayu Putu, Sri Widnyani ................................................................................................. 193

24 Analysis of Gender in Supporting The Development in Karang Anyar Village Jati Agung District South Lampung Ida Farida, Refly Setiawan .................................................................................................. 198

25 E-Government Innovation In Service Excellence: Implementation Of E- Health In Health Care Indah Prabawati, Meirinawati ........................................................................................... 205

26 A System Dynamic Conceptual Framework of On-Street Parking Increasement Irwan Soejanto, Intan Berlianty, Yuli Dwi Astanti ................................................... 214

27 The Transparency of The Policy Ishak Kusnandar ..................................................................................................................... 220

28 Analysis of Social Policy: (Case: Post-Flood Reconstruction on 2016 in Bandung District) Irfan Mauludin, Tiesya Anindita, Ramadhan Pancasilawan ................................. 226

29 Bureaucratic Reform: The Management of Civil Servants Based on Law No.5 of 2014 about State Civil Apparatus Kristina Setyowati .................................................................................................................. 236

30 Harmonization in Implementation of Coorperation Among Two Local Goverment in Public Infrastucture Management M. Daimul Abror ...................................................................................................................... 242

31 Community Contribution As One Of The Disaster Couses and Local Alternative Community-Based Solutions to Flash Flood Disaster in Mekarjaya Village, Cikajang Sub-District, Garut Regency Ahmad Buchari, Meilanny Budiarti Santoso ............................................................... 249

32 Public Service Information System of the Office of Kampar Timur Sub- District of Kampar District Sulaiman Zuhdi, Elly Nielwaty, Abdul Mirad .............................................................. 258

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33 Positioning Analysis of Indonesia Insurance Industry in ASEAN Economic Society (AEC) Ary Miftakhul Huda, Novella Putri Iriani, Bagoes Rahmat Widiarso ............... 264

34 Performance Evaluation of the Procurement Committee to Achieve Transparency of Government Procurement: Study in UPT Procurement of Goods/ Services in East Java Provincial Government Ardi Kasmono Nur Kholis ................................................................................................... 275

35 The Planning of Urban Village Area Expantion in Mojokerto City Putu Aditya. F.A , Nanang Haryono.................................................................................. 285

36 Analysis of Women's Work in Improving Family Revenue in The Coastal Area Pasie Limau Kapas District, Rokan Hilir Regency Mimin Sundari Nasution, Meizy Heriyanto, Lena Farida ....................................... 293

37 Women Empowerment Based On Fishery Economy in Pujud Sub District of Rokan Hilir Mayarni ....................................................................................................................................... 300

38 Water Supply Service For Poor Society Indragiri Hulu District By Water Supply and Sanitation With Community Based Program (PAMSIMAS) Dwi Herlinda Irawati ............................................................................................................ 312

39 Performance Evaluation of Tourism Sector Policy In support of Bandung Creative City Thomas Bustomi ..................................................................................................................... 318 40 Public service innovation: Acceleration on Outpatient care In Prof. Dr.

Margono Soekarjo Purwokerto hospital Hardi Warsono , M. Imanuddin ......................................................................................... 329

41 Poverty Eradication For Forest Rural Communities (MHD) (A Case Study in Tanjung Medan Village District ofRokan IV Koto Rokan Hulu Regency Riau Province) Aguswan, Nurfeni, Widya Astuty ..................................................................................... 340

42 Implementation of Program The Village Empowerment in Riau Province Trio Saputra, Bunga Chintia Utami, Sudaryanto ....................................................... 347

43 Care Service For The Elderly Community : Service Quality "Santun Lansia" in the Public Health Center Erna Setijaningrum, Aris Armuninggar, Hario Megatsari ..................................... 355

44 Development of Corporate Social Responsibility and Community Development Model on Vulnerable Society for Improving Quality of Life Yusuf Ernawanf, Yayan Sakti Suryandaru, Nanang Haryono .............................. 360

45 The Influence of Internal Organizational Politic and Job Satisfaction on Health Care Service Quality In Regional Hospital of Padangpanjang City Mela Gusri Rahman, Dasman Lanin, Syamsir, Nailuredha Hermanto .............. 371

46 Service for the Residents of Rental Apartment Rawabebek DKI Jakarta Based on Public Satisfaction Index Retnowati WD Tuti, Mawar ............................................................................................... 378

47 Capacity Building of Electronic Government in Sragen (The case study of The Capacity Building of electronic government in Sragen Regency and its impact on Decision Process and Public Service Improvement) Muhammad Shobaruddin ................................................................................................... 385

48 HIPPA as the Organization of Agricultural Irrigation Management in Rural Java: Impact on Farm Sustainability and Development of Rural Community

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Rustinsyah ................................................................................................................................. 411

49 The Use of Information Technology in Improving the Public Service in East Java Yayan Sakti Suryandaru ....................................................................................................... 418

50 Public Sphere on Recess of Members Regional House of Representative Kediri Regency In 2014 Fierda Nurany........................................................................................................................... 428

51 The Effect of the Implementation of the Health Policy on the Effectiveness of the Organizations of General Hospital Regions in the Services of Inpatients (Study in RSUD Banjar City and Tasikmalaya Regency) Rustandi.......................................................................................................................... 434

52 Implementation of Spatial Policy in Managing Green Open Space in the Administration City of North Jakarta Hendra Wijayanto, Ratih Kurnia Hidayati................................................................... 460

53 Electronic Identity Card (E-KTP) Making Service at Dumai City Population and Civil Registration Agency of Riau Province Mashuri...................................................................................................................................... 469

54 Implementation of Community-Based Risk Reduction Policy (CBDRM) in Central Bengkulu Regency (CBDRM Case Study of Earthquake and Tsunami in Pondok Kelapa and Pekik Nyaring Central Bengkulu Regency) Sri Indarti................................................................................................................................... 476

55 Public Participation in Promotion Tourism Bengkulu Province Through Social Media Eha Saleha............................................................................................................... 483

56 Use of Mass Media Supporting Information Dissemination Policy in Central Java Indonesia Galih Wibowo, Kismartini........................................................................................ 490

57 The Mechanism of Public Complaint Management in Samarinda Samsat Office

500 Bambang Irawan…………………………………………………………………………………..

58 Bela Beli Kulon Progo: The Role of Regent Leadership in Poverty Reduction at Kulon Progo District Muh Aziz Muslim, Achilles Yuska

508 Wicaksono…………………………………………

59 Women’s Representation in Legislative (A Study Conducted in the Local House of the Representative, Ciamis Regency during Period 2014-2019)

518 Etih Hendriyani………………………………………………………………………………….

60 Development of Competency, Job Performance, Commitment and Integrity at Government of Makassar City

530 Lukman Hakim, Nuryanti Mustari……………………………………………………….

61 Evaluation of Village Development: Bias of Indeks Desa Membangun (IDM) and Indeks Pembangunan Desa (IPD) Far

543 is Widyatmoko………………………………………………………………………………..

62 Good Corporate Governance Perspective in the Provision of Drinking Water in Surabaya

557 Allen Pramata Putra……………………………………………………………………………

63 Design Reality Gap in the Implementation of E-Government (Case Study of Program Penerimaan Peserta Didik Baru (PPDB) Online in Mojokerto)

571 Eka Purnama Nur, Sulikah Asmorowati………………………………………………

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64 Leadership, Participation, Transparency and Accountability in Rural Development Policy in Berumbung Baru Village, Dayun Districts Siak Regency Riau Province

583 Muammar Alkadafi, Rodi Wahyudi…………………………………………………..

65 Rural Local Government System in Indonesia: Recent Issue on Making Autonomy Local by Fiscal Decentralization

594 Mochammad Doddy Syahirul Alam, Bhayu Rhama……………………………...

66 Behaviour and Participation Community Organizations As Local Actors in Policy Implementation in Denpasar

I Made Wimas Candranegara……………………………..............................................

601

67 Digital Local Government

I Gede Agus Wibawa, Lilik Antarini……………………………................................. 618

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GOVERNMENT APPROACH

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INDONESIAN ASSOCIATION FOR PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The Faculty Of Social And Political Science Universitas Airlangga TOWARDS OPEN GOVERNMENT: FINDING THE WHOLE

PROCEEDING

IAPA 2017 Indonesian Association for Public Administration 2017

The Faculty of Social and Political Science Universitas Airlangga

PROCEEDING TOWARDS OPEN GOVERNMENT: FINDING THE WHOLE

–GOVERNMENT APPROACH

ISBN : 978

–602–18461–5-5

xviii

– 9 Sept 2017 FISIP UNAIR

xix

IAPA International

Conference 2017

IAPA 2017

The Political Economy of Open Government

Abstract:

AUTHOR: The success of open government initiatives hinges on the

Andrew ROSSER extent to which there is political will to adopt and implement them at the national level. This paper seeks to understand the

University of Melbourne, conditions under which such political will emerges by

Faculty of Arts, Asia Institute, examining the findings of studies on the political economy of Victoria, Australia. the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), one of the most prominent and widely promoted open government initiatives. These studies suggest that government responses to the EITI (and the extent of political will they have

Email: embodied) have hinged on i) broad political and economic andrew.rosser@unimelb.edu.au attributes of countries such as the extent of their economic dependence on natural resources, the degree of ethnic fragmentation, and the nature of their political regimes; ii) incentive structures for state behaviour emanating from their relationships with other states; iii) the views of key political

Keyword: leaders such as national presidents and reformist elites; and open government, political iv) the extent of civil society mobilisation in support of greater economy, EITI, transparency, transparency in the resources sector. I note that the first and political will third of these factors are difficult for proponents of open government

—even powerful international ones—to change at least in the short to medium term. I accordingly suggest that they should focus their efforts instead on trying to alter state incentives by linking reform measures to material and other rewards and building the capacity of civil society organisations and networks to advocate and lobby for open government in their respective countries.

‘Unless we have political will, we will not have anything.’ Erik Solheim 1.

INTRODUCTION adoption and implementation than where it

It is widely argued that the success does not. The OECD (2015: 75), for of open government initiatives hinges on instance, has argued in a recent report on the extent to which there is political will to open government in Morocco that, in its enhance government transparency at the experience, ‘firm political will and strong country level. Where such political will committed leadership are required to exists, it is suggested, open government develop a government-wide strategy to initiatives face much better prospect of create the necessary synergy, coherence

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and convergence and to steer them towards tangible and meaningful results for citizens’ (see also OECD 2016: 74-75). At the same time, ‘political will’ has featured prominently in a range of reports on the success or failure of specific open government initiatives (see, for instance, Clark 2016 and Lindroth 2016: 4).

Despite the analytical prominence of political will in discussions about open government initiatives, however, we know little about the conditions that lead to its emergence. As Brinkerhoff (2010: 1) has noted in relation to anti-corruption programs: ‘Quite often, “lack of political will” is identified as the culprit for poorly performing anti-corruption programmes. Yet despite the frequency with which it is used to explain unsatisfactory reform outcomes, political will remains under- defined and poorly understood.’

This paper seeks to enhance our understanding of the nature and role of political will in shaping the success or failure of open government initiatives by examining the findings of studies on the politics of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), one of the most prominent and widely- promoted of these initiatives. These studies, it is argued, suggest that government responses to the EITI

—that is, whether they have adopted and implemented the EITI —have hinged on i) broad political and economic attributes of countries such as the extent of their economic dependence on natural resources, their degree of ethnic fragmentation, and the nature of their political regimes; ii) incentive structures for state behaviour emanating from their relationships with other states; iii) the views of key political leaders such as national presidents and reformist elites; and iv) the extent of civil society mobilisation in support of the greater transparency in the resources sector.

As such, they suggest that the level of relevant political will has specific, if multiple, roots: it emanates not out of thin air but from a set of structural, institutional, agential and societal factors. In this connection, the paper further notes that proponents of open government will find it difficult to change the first and third of the factors listed above at least in the short to medium term. It accordingly suggests that they should focus on trying to build the capacity of civil society organisations and networks to advocate and lobby successfully for open government initiatives in their respective countries and altering incentive structures for states by linking EITI participation to material and other rewards. This strategy offers the best prospects in the short to medium term.

The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. Section 2 provides an introduction to the EITI. Section 3 provides an overview of the findings of studies on the politics of this initiative. Section 4 examines the implications of these findings for groups seeking to promote more open government in developing countries.

2. The EITI

The EITI was established in response to growing concern, particularly among international development organisations, about the negative developmental effects of natural resource wealth, a phenomenon commonly labelled the ‘resource curse’. By the early 2000s, numerous studies produced evidence to suggest that natural resource wealth undermined economic growth, increased the likelihood of civil war, increased corruption, worsened poverty, and undermined democracy (Auty 1993; Ross 1999; Rosser 2006a).

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To the extent that scholars saw a way of avoiding the resource curse, they emphasised the role of state capacity (understood in Weberian terms) in shaping government ability to managing the challenges posed by that the curse. In one important analysis, for instance, Eifert, Gelb and Tallroth (2003) argued that ‘mature democracies’ (for which their exemplar was Norway) and ‘reformist autocracies’ (for which their exemplar was ‘New Order’ Indonesia) had performed best in addressing the resource curse. In the case of the former, this was because their stable party systems, high level of social consensus, competent and insulated bureaucracies and judicial systems, and highly educated electorates had translated into long policy horizons, policy stability and transparency, competitiveness and a coalitional structure in which pro- stabilisation constituencies were politically stronger than pro-spending constituencies. In the case of ‘reformist autocracies’, it was because their stable governments, broad social consensus in favour of development and autonomous, competent and politically insulated technocratic elites had translated into long decision horizons, policy stability and strong constituencies in favour of stabilisation and fiscal restraint, even if they had also resulted in low levels of transparency (Rosser 2006b).

Launched by the UK government in 2002, the EITI brought together governments, companies and NGOs to address the resource curse by seeking to transform all resource-rich countries into models of good governance

—at least in relation to the management of government revenues from the natural resource sectors. The initiative involved setting an international standard on transparency in oil, gas and mining requiring governments to report the revenues that they received from companies operating in these industries, these companies to declare what they paid to governments, independent auditing and verification of revenues and payments, and the active involvement of civil society throughout the process. The presumed benefits of doing so were increased transparency in revenues from the resources sector and, with that, reduced corruption and vulnerability to the other problems associated with the resource curse.

Between 2007 and 2015, 49 countries signed up to the initiative. Of these, 31 achieved full compliance with the EITI standard (EITI nd a). However, many countries did not sign up and still have not done so including many resource-rich countries. The EITI’s website lists 52 countries as currently participating in the initiative. Non-signatories include Ecuador, Venezuela, Russia, Angola, Lao PDR, Iran, and all of the Gulf States (with the exception of Iraq). At the same time, of those countries that have signed up to the initiative, a small number have, at one point or another, had candidate/compliant status temporarily suspended either because they have missed reporting deadlines, made unsatisfactory progress, or experienced political instability. The current website indicates that five countries fall into this category: two because of political instability and three because of inadequate progress (see EITI nd b). Three countries have been either delisted or withdrawn from the EITI: Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Azerbaijan.

3. EXPLAINING DEVELOPING COUNTRY RESPONSES TO THE EITI

What explains this varied response by countries to the EITI? Why have some

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countries —particularly resource rich countries —signed up to the initiative and become compliant and others not? Why have a small number been suspended for missing deadlines or making unsatisfactory progress and others ceased to participate altogether?

The academic literature on the EITI is quite small and focuses mainly on explaining the origins, evolution, and future challenges of the initiative (see, for instance, Collier 2008 and Haufler 2010); presenting critiques of the initiative’s approach and presumed benefits (see, for instance, Hilson and Maconachie 2009; Mouan 2010; Aaronson 2011); and assessing its impact on the quality of governance and economic growth in participating countries (see, for instance, Kolstad and Wiig 2009; Sovacool and Andrews 2015; Kasekende et al 2016; Sovacool et al 2016). There is a significant non-academic literature on the EITI produced by development practitioners and civil society activists. But much of this has focused on promoting the benefits of the initiative (Bickham 2009; Meyer 2011) and making recommendations to strengthen it (Publish What You Pay et al 2013). A small number of scholars, practitioners and/or activists have noted the importance of ‘political will’ in shaping the uptake and implementation of the EITI (see, for instance, Oxfam 2010 and Wilson and Van Alstine 2017: 61). But very few have so far delved deeply into the role of politics in shaping the adoption and implementation of the initiative or considered the policy implications that an analysis of the role of political factors may produce.

To the extent that they have examined the role of these factors, they have produced two broad types of analysis. The first has used multi-country statistical analysis to identify the political and economic attributes of countries that, on average, are most likely to join the initiative. Such studies have also, at least in some cases, drawn on this analysis to comment upon governmen ts’ motivations in joining the initiative.

In the first study of this variety, Pitlik et al (2010), for instance, found that resource rich countries, ethnically fractionalized countries, democratic countries, and non-OPEC member countries were more likely to sign up to the EITI than countries with the opposite attributes. In a similar, more recent, analysis, Kasekende et al (2016: 125) found that, on average, ‘corrupt countries and countries attracting greater shares of FDI as well as countries with lower per capita GDP were more likely to join the initiative’. This, they speculated, is ‘probably because EITI membership enables them to signal their commitment to greater transparency’ and, in turn, ‘reap some beneﬁts in the form improved investment and assis tance’. They also found, like Pitlik et al. (2010), that democratic countries have an incentive to join the EITI but not OPEC countries. Finally, their analysis suggested that ‘countries which received more foreign aid before joining tended to be more reluctant to become EITI members’. In a third study of this type (although one that also employed qualitative research techniques), David-Barrett and Okamura (2016: 243) found that ‘countries in lesser need of a good reputation with international actors are less inclined to pursue EITI implementation’, suggesting that countries may be motivated largely by reputational concerns and the presumed financial and other benefits that flow from this. They showed that countries that sign up to the EITI receive greater levels of foreign aid,

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suggesting that more aid may be among these benefits.

The second type of analysis has been detailed case studies researched using qualitative techniques. In one of the most detailed analyses of this type, Shaxson (2009), for instance, examined the political dynamics surrounding Nigeria’s decision to declare support for the EITI in 2003 and subsequently progress to candidate status in 2007. In contrast to the quantitative studies examined above, he argued that political leadership was the most crucial factor in shaping Nigeria’s decision to adopt the EITI, focusing in this respect on the role of Present Obasanju and a ‘reform team’ of senior officials to which he gave his backing. Shaxson also pointed to the effects of a debt rescheduling agreement with foreign creditors that provided an incentive for the Nigerian government to push ahead with economic and governance reforms and speculated that a desire on the part of Nigerian elites to reign in international oil companies may also have played a part in the decision. Interestingly, he judged that neither civil society organisations nor donors had exercised much influence on Nigeria’s decision to adopt the EITI. However, analyses of several other countries’ experiences—particularly ones produced by civil society activists

—have argued that civil society organisations have in fact played a crucial role in generating pressure for the adoption of the EITI in those countries (Namkhaijanstan 2009; Revenue Watch Institute 2013; Triwibowo and Hanafi 2014).

There are various problems with both sets of analyses. Most notably, although they are ostensibly about the political determinants of countries’ responses to the EITI, they draw little, if at all, on theories and analytical frameworks from political science, at least in any explicit way. Nevertheless, they have provided us with useful insight into the types of countries that are most likely to join the EITI, the effects of incentive structures for states (particularly in terms of their relationships with other states), and the sorts of domestic political dynamics that translate such potential and incentives into concrete action.

4. CONCLUSION

What are the implications of these findings for efforts to promote open government? It is unclear how far the EITI case is generalisable to other sorts of open government initiatives. To the extent that it is, these findings suggest that proponents of open government should seek to promote reform through two main mechanisms. Broad attributes —such as the structural and institutional variables discussed above — are difficult to change in the short to medium term. So, too, are the views and strategies of political leaders. Accordingly, the analysis suggests that proponents of open government should focus on i) trying to build the capacity of civil society organisations and networks to advocate and lobby successfully for open government initiatives in their respective countries; and ii) seeking to alter state incentives by linking reform measures to material and other rewards. This strategy offers the best prospects of success.

[15] Lindroth, H. (2016) ‘The Open Government Partnership in Asia and the Pacific’, The Governance Brief Issue 25, Manila: Asian Development Bank. [16] Meyer A. (2011)

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