The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders Vol 1 (A L) pdf
The GALE
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
NEurological D isorders
VOLUME
A - L
GALE
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
N Eurological
D isorders1 The
S T A C E Y L . C H A M B E R L I N , B R I G H A M N A R I N S , E D I T O R S
Project Editors Stacey L. Chamberlin, Brigham Narins Editorial Erin Watts Editorial Support Services Andrea Lopeman Indexing Services Synapse
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[DNLM: 1. Nervous System Diseases—Encyclopedias—English. 2. Nervous System Diseases—Popular Works. WL 13 G151 2005] I. Title: Encyclopedia of neurological
disorders. II. Chamberlin, Stacey L. III. Narins, Brigham, 1962– IV. Gale Group.
RC334.G34 2005616.8'003—dc22 2004021644
ISBN 0-7876-9150-X (set hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-7876-9151-8 (v. 1) — ISBN 0-7876-9152-6 (v. 2) 1. Neurology—Encyclopedias.
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
CONTENTS
List of Entries ................................................vii
Introduction ..................................................xiii
Advisory Board..............................................xv
Contributors .................................................xvii
Entries Volume 1: A–L........................................................1 Volume 2: M–Z...................................................511Glossary .......................................................941
General Index...............................................973
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS v
LIST OF ENTRIES
❙ A
Abulia Acetazolamide Acupuncture Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis Adrenoleukodystrophy Affective disorders Agenesis of the corpus callosum Agnosia AIDS Alcohol-related neurological disease Alexander disease Alpers’ disease Alternating hemiplegia Alzheimer disease Amantadine Amnestic disorders Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Anatomical nomenclature Anencephaly Aneurysms Angelman syndrome Angiography Anosmia Anticholinergics Anticonvulsants Antiepileptic drugs Antimigraine medications Antiparkinson drugs Antiviral drugs Anxiolytics Aphasia Apraxia Arachnoid cysts Arachnoiditis Arnold-Chiari malformation Arteriovenous malformations Aspartame Asperger’s disorder Assistive mobile devices Ataxia-telangiectasia Ataxia Atomoxetine Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Autism Autonomic dysfunction
❙ B
Back pain Bassen-Kornzweig syndrome Batten disease Behçet disease Bell’s palsy Benign positional vertigo Benzodiazepines Beriberi Binswanger disease Biopsy Blepharospasm Bodywork therapies Botulinum toxin Botulism Brachial plexus injuries Brain anatomy Brain and spinal tumors Brown-Séquard syndrome
❙ C
Canavan disease Carbamazepine Carotid endarterectomy Carotid stenosis Carpal tunnel syndrome Catechol-O-methyltransferase inhibitors Central cord syndrome
Central nervous system Central nervous system stimulants Central pain syndrome Cerebellum Cerebral angiitis Cerebral cavernous malformation Cerebral circulation Cerebral dominance Cerebral hematoma Cerebral palsy Channelopathies Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder Cholinergic stimulants Cholinesterase inhibitors Chorea Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy Clinical trials
Congenital myasthenia Congenital myopathies Corpus callosotomy Corticobasal degeneration Craniosynostosis Craniotomy Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease CT scan Cushing syndrome Cytomegalic inclusion body disease
❙ D
Dandy-Walker syndrome Deep brain stimulation Delirium Dementia Depression Dermatomyositis Devic syndrome Diabetic neuropathy disease Diadochokinetic rate Diazepam Dichloralphenazone Dichloralphenazone, Isometheptene, and Acetaminophen Diencephalon
Diet and nutrition Disc herniation Dizziness Dopamine receptor agonists Dysarthria Dysesthesias Dysgeusia Dyskinesia Dyslexia Dyspraxia Dystonia
❙ E
Electric personal assistive mobility devices
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
vii Electroencephalography Electromyography Empty sella syndrome Encephalitis and Meningitis Encephalitis lethargica Encephaloceles Encephalopathy Endovascular embolization Epidural hematoma Epilepsy Exercise
❙ F
Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome
Laminectomy Lamotrigine Learning disorders Lee Silverman voice treatment Leigh disease Lennox-Gastaut syndrome Lesch-Nyhan syndrome Leukodystrophy Levetiracetam Lewy body dementia Lidocaine patch Lissencephaly Locked-in syndrome Lupus Lyme diseasePain Pallidotomy Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration Paramyotonia congenita Paraneoplastic syndromes Parkinson’s disease Paroxysmal hemicrania Parsonage-Turner syndrome Perineural cysts Periodic paralysis Peripheral nervous system Peripheral neuropathy Periventricular leukomalacia Phantom limb Pharmacotherapy Phenobarbital Pick disease Pinched nerve Piriformis syndrome Plexopathies Poliomyelitis viii
❙ P
Occipital neuralgia Olivopontocerebellar atrophy Opsoclonus myoclonus Organic voice tremor Orthostatic hypotension Oxazolindinediones
❙ O
Narcolepsy Nerve compression Nerve conduction study Neurofibromatosis Neuroleptic malignant syndrome Neurologist Neuromuscular blockers Neuronal migration disorders Neuropathologist Neuropsychological testing Neuropsychologist Neurosarcoidosis Neurotransmitters Niemann-Pick Disease
❙ N
Multiple sclerosis Multiple system atrophy Muscular dystrophy Myasthenia, congenital Myasthenia gravis Myoclonus Myofibrillar myopathy Myopathy Myotonic dystrophy
Machado-Joseph disease
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Megalencephaly Melodic intonation therapy Ménière’s disease Meninges Mental retardation Meralgia paresthetica Metachromatic leukodystrophy Microcephaly Mitochondrial myopathies Modafinil Moebius syndrome Monomelic amyotrophy Motor neuron diseases Movement disorders Moyamoya disease Mucopolysaccharidoses Multi-infarct dementia Multifocal motor neuropathy❙ M
❙ L
Fabry disease Facial synkinesis Fainting Fatigue Febrile seizures Felbamate Fisher syndrome Foot drop Fourth nerve palsy Friedreich ataxia
K Kennedy’s disease Klippel Feil syndrome Krabbe disease Kuru
Joubert syndrome ❙
❙ J
I Idiopathic neuropathy Inclusion body myositis Incontinentia pigmenti Infantile spasms Inflammatory myopathy Interferons
❙
Hallucination Headache Hearing disorders Hemianopsia Hemifacial spasm Hereditary spastic paraplegia Holoprosencephaly HTLV-1 Associated Myelopathy Huntington disease Hydantoins Hydranencephaly Hydrocephalus Hydromyelia Hypersomnia Hypotonia Hypoxia
❙ H
Gabapentin Gaucher disease Gene therapy Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease Gerstmann syndrome Glossopharyngeal neuralgia Glucocorticoids Guillain-Barré syndrome
❙ G
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS List of Entries Polymyositis Pompe disease Porencephaly Positron emission tomography (PET) Post-polio Syndrome Primary lateral sclerosis Primidone Prion diseases Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy Progressive supranuclear palsy Pseudobulbar palsy Pseudotumor cerebri
❙ R
V Valproic acid and divalproex sodium Vasculitic neuropathy
ix List of Entries
Zellweger syndrome Zonisamide
❙ Z
Wallenberg syndrome West Nile virus infection Whiplash Whipple’s Disease Williams syndrome Wilson disease
❙ W
Vasculitis Ventilatory assistance devices Ventricular shunt Ventricular system Vertebrobasilar disease Vestibular schwannoma Visual disturbances Vitamin/nutritional deficiency Von Hippel-Lindau disease
Ulnar neuropathy Ultrasonography ❙
Radiation Radiculopathy Ramsay-Hunt syndrome type II Rasmussen’s encephalitis Reflex sympathetic dystrophy Refsum disease Repetitive motion disorders Respite Restless legs syndrome Rett syndrome Reye syndrome
❙ U
Tremors Trigeminal neuralgia Tropical spastic paraparesis Tuberous sclerosis
Tabes dorsalis Tay-Sachs disease Temporal arteritis Temporal lobe epilepsy Tethered spinal cord syndrome Third nerve palsy Thoracic outlet syndrome Thyrotoxic myopathy Tiagabine Todd’s paralysis Topiramate Tourette syndrome Transient global amnesia Transient ischemic attack Transverse myelitis Traumatic brain injury
❙ T
Sixth nerve palsy Sjogren-Larsson Syndrome Sleep apnea Social workers Sodium oxybate Sotos syndrome Spasticity Speech synthesizer Spina bifida Spinal cord infarction Spinal cord injury Spinal muscular atrophy Spinocerebellar ataxia Status epilepticus Stiff person syndrome Striatonigral degeneration Stroke Sturge-Weber syndrome Stuttering Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis Subdural hematoma Succinamides Swallowing disorders Sydenham’s chorea Syringomyelia
Sandhoff disease Schilder’s disease Schizencephaly Schizophrenia Sciatic neuropathy Sciatica Seizures Septo-optic dysplasia Shaken baby syndrome Shingles Single Proton Emission Computed Tomography
❙ S
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
PLEASE READ—IMPORTANT INFORMATION
The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders is a medical reference product designed to inform and edu- cate readers about a wide variety of diseases, syndromes, drugs, treatments, therapies, and diagnostic equipment. Thomson Gale believes the product to be comprehensive, but not necessarily definitive. It is intended to supplement, not replace, consultation with a physician or other health- care practitioner. While Thomson Gale has made sub- stantial efforts to provide information that is accurate, comprehensive, and up-to-date, Thomson Gale makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including with- out limitation, warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose, nor does it guarantee the accuracy, comprehensiveness, or timeliness of the information con- tained in this product. Readers are advised to seek profes- sional diagnosis and treatment for any medical condition, and to discuss information obtained from this book with their healthcare providers.GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
xi
INTRODUCTION
The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders(GEND) is a one-stop source for medical information that covers diseases, syndromes, drugs, treatments, therapies, and diagnostic equipment. It keeps medical jargon to a minimum, making it easier for the layperson to use. The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders presents au- thoritative and balanced information and is more compre- hensive than single-volume family medical guides.
- Definition • Purpose • Precautions • Description • Preparation • Aftercare • Risks • Normal results
- Resources • Key terms
SCOPE Almost 400 full-length articles are included in The
Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders. Articles follow a standardized format that provides information at a glance. Rubrics include:
Diseases
Treatments
- Definition • Description • Demographics • Causes and symptoms
- Diagnosis • Treatment team
- Treatment • Recovery and rehabilitation
- Clinical trials
- Prognosis • Special concerns
- Resources • Key terms
INCLUSION CRITERIA
ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
Drugs
A preliminary topic list was compiled from a wide va- riety of sources, including professional medical guides, consumer guides, and textbooks and encyclopedias. The advisory board, made up of seven medical and healthcare experts, evaluated the topics and made suggestions for in- clusion. Final selection of topics to include was made by the medical advisors in conjunction with Gale editors.
- Definition • Purpose • Description • Recommended dosage
- Precautions • Side effects
- Interactions • Resources • Key terms
The essays were compiled by experienced medical writers, physicians, nurses, and pharmacists. GEND med- ical advisors reviewed most of the completed essays to in- sure that they are appropriate, up-to-date, and medically accurate.
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
xiii
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK reference for the rare childhood disease commonly known as Hallervorden-Spatz disease that points to the entry en- The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders titled Pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration. has been designed with ready reference in mind: oduction
- A Resources section directs users to sources of further
- Straight alphabetical arrangement allows users to lo-
Intr information, which include books, periodicals, websites, cate information quickly. and organizations.
- Bold faced terms function as print hyperlinks that point
- A glossary is included to help readers understand unfa- the reader to full-length entries in the encyclopedia.
miliar terms.
- A list of key terms is provided where appropriate to de-
- A comprehensive general index allows users to easily fine unfamiliar words or concepts used within the con- target detailed aspects of any topic.
text of the essay.
Cross-references placed throughout the encyclopedia di- • GRAPHICS rect readers to where information on subjects without their own entries can be found. Cross-references are also used to The Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders is assist readers looking for information on diseases that are enhanced with over 100 images, including photos, tables, now known by other names; for example, there is a cross- and customized line drawings. xiv
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
ADVISORY BOARD
An advisory board made up of prominent individuals from the medical and healthcare communities provided invaluable assis-
tance in the formulation of this encyclopedia. They defined the scope of coverage and reviewed individual entries for accu-
racy and accessibility; in some cases they contributed entries themselves. We would therefore like to express our great
appreciation to them: Laurie Barclay, MD Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, RN Roy Sucholeiki, MD Neurologist and Writer Nurse, Writer, and Editor Professor, Director of the Tampa, FL London, UK Comprehensive EpilepsyProgram
F. James Grogan, PharmD Yuen T. So, MD, PhD
Department of Neurology Pharmacist, Clinician, Writer, Associate Professor
Loyola University Health System Editor, and Consultant Clinical Neurosciences
Chicago, IL Swansea, IL Stanford University School of Medicine Gil I. Wolfe, MD
Joel C. Kahane, PhD Stanford, CA Associate Professor
Professor, Director of the Department of Neurology
Anatomical Sciences Laboratory The University of Texas The School of Audiology and
Southwestern Medical Center Speech-Language Pathology Dallas, TX The University of Memphis
Memphis, TN
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
xv
CONTRIBUTORS
Lisa Maria Andres, MS, CGC Certified Genetic Counselor and Medical Writer San Jose, CA Paul Arthur Science writer London, England Bruno Verbeno Azevedo Espirito Santo University Vitória, Brazil Deepti Babu, MS, CGC Genetic Counselor Marshfield Clinic Marshfield, WI Laurie Barclay, MD Neurologist and writer Tampa, FL Julia Barrett Science Writer Madison, WI Danielle Barry, MS Graduate Assisstant Center of Alcohol Studies Rutgers University Piscataway, NJ Maria Basile, PhD Medical Writer Roselle, NJ Tanja Bekhuis, PhD Science Writer and Psychologist TCB Research Boalsburg, PA Juli M. Berwald, PhD Geologist (Ocean Sciences) Chicago, IllinoisRobert G. Best, PhD Director Division of Genetics
University of South Carolina School
of Medicine Columbia, SCMichelle Lee Brandt Medical Writer San Francisco, CA Dawn J. Cardeiro, MS, CGC Genetic Counselor Fairfield, PA Francisco de Paula Careta Espirito Santo University Vitória, Brazil Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, MD Physician and Medical Writer Durham, NC Stacey L. Chamberlin Science Writer and Editor Fairfax, VA Bryan Richard Cobb, PhD
Institute for Molecular and Human
Genetics Georgetown University Washington, D.C.Adam J. Cohen, MD Craniofacial Surgery, Eyelid and Facial Plastic Surgery,
Neuro-Ophthalmology Downers Grove, IL Tish Davidson, AM Medical Writer Fremont, CA
James Paul Dworkin, PhD Professor Department of Otolaryngology, Voice/Speech Pathology
Program and Laboratory Wayne State University Detroit, MI L. Fleming Fallon, Jr., MD, DrPH Professor Department of Public Health Bowling Green State University Bowling Green, OH Antonio Farina, MD, PhD Department of Embryology, Obstetrics, and Gynecology University of Bologna Bologna, Italy Kevin Fitzgerald Science Writer and Journalist South Windsor, CT Paula Anne Ford-Martin Medical Writer Warwick, RI Lisa A. Fratt Medical Writer Ashland, WI Rebecca J. Frey, PhD Freelance Medical Writer New Haven, CT Sandra L. Friedrich, MA Science Writer Clinical Psychology Chicago, IL Sandra Galeotti, MS Science Writer Sao Paulo, Brazil
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
xvii
Larry Gilman, PhD Electrical Engineer and Science Writer Sharon, VT Laith Farid Gulli, MD Consulting Psychotherapist Lathrup Village, MI Stephen John Hage, AAAS, RT(R), FAHRA Medical Writer Chatsworth, CA Brook Ellen Hall, PhD Science Writer Loomis, CA Dan Harvey Medical Writer Wilmington, DE Hannah M. Hoag, MSc Science and Medical Writer Montreal, Canada Brian Douglas Hoyle, PhD Microbiologist Nova Scotia, Canada Cindy L. Hunter, CGC Genetic Counselor Medical Genetics Department Indiana University School of
Medicine Indianapolis, IN Alexander I. Ioffe, PhD Senior Scientist Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences Moscow, Russia Holly Ann Ishmael, MS, CGC Genetic Counselor The Children’s Mercy Hospital Kansas City, MO Joel C. Kahane, PhD Professor, Director of the Anatomical Sciences
Laboratory The School of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology The University of Memphis Memphis, TN
Kelly Karpa, PhD, RPh Assistant Professor
Department of Pharmacology
Pennsylvania State University
College of Medicine Hershey, PA
Karen M. Krajewski, MS, CGC
Genetic Counselor, Assistant Professor of Neurology Wayne State University Detroit, MI Judy Leaver, MABehavioral Health Writer and
Consultant Washington, D.C.Adrienne Wilmoth Lerner University of Tennessee College of Law Knoxville, TN
Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, RN
Nurse, Writer, and Editor London, UK K. Lee Lerner Fellow (rt) Science Policy Institute London, UKAgnieszka Maria Lichanska,
PhDDepartment of Microbiology and
Parasitology University of Queensland Brisbane, Australia Peter T. Lin, MD Research AssistantMember: American Academy of
Neurology, AmericanAssociation of Electrodiagnostic Medicine Department of Biomagnetic Imaging University of California, San Francisco Foster City, CA Iuri Drumond Louro, MD, PhD Adjunct Professor
Human and Molecular Genetics
Espirito Santo University Vitória, BrazilNicole Mallory, MS, PA-C Medical Student Wayne State University Detroit, MI Igor Medica, MD, PhD Assistant Professor School of Medicine University of Rijeka Pula, Croatia Michael Mooney, MA, CAC Consultant Psychotherapist Warren, MI Alfredo Mori, MD, FACEM, FFAEM Emergency Physician The Alfred Hospital Victoria, Australia Oxford’s Program in Evidence- Based Health Care University of Oxford Oxford, England Marcos do Carmo Oyama Espirito Santo University Vitória, Brazil Greiciane Gaburro Paneto Espirito Santo University Vitória, Brazil Borut Peterlin, MD, PhD Neurologist; Consultant Clinical Geneticist; Director Division of Medical Genetics University Medical Center Lubiana, Slovenia Toni I. Pollin, MS, CGC Research Analyst Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Nutrition University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, MD J. Ricker Polsdorfer, MD Medical Writer Phoenix, AZ Scott J. Polzin, MS, CGC Medical Writer Buffalo Grove, IL Jack Raber, PharmD Principal Clinipharm Services Seal Beach, CA xviii GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS Contributors
Robert Ramirez, DO Medical Student University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey Stratford, NJ Richard Robinson Medical Writer Tucson, AZ Jennifer Ann Roggenbuck, MS, CGC Genetic Counselor Hennepin County Medical Center Minneapolis, MN Nancy Ross-Flanigan Science Writer Belleville, MI Stephanie Dionne Sherk Freelance Medical Writer University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI Lee Alan Shratter, MD Consulting Radiologist Kentfield, CA Genevieve T. Slomski, PhD Medical Writer New Britain, CT
Amie Stanley, MS Genetic Counselor Medical Genetics The Cleveland Clinic Cleveland, OH Constance K. Stein, PhD Director of Cytogenetics, Assistant Director of Molecular
Diagnostics SUNY Upstate Medical University Syracuse, NY Roger E. Stevenson, MD Senior Clinical Geneticist, Senior Clinical Laboratory Geneticist Greenwood Genetic Center Greenwood, SC Roy Sucholeiki, MD Professor, Director of the Comprehensive Epilepsy
Program Department of Neurology Loyola University Health System Chicago, IL Kevin M. Sweet, MS, CGC Cancer Genetic Counselor James Cancer Hospital, Ohio State University Columbus, OH
David Tulloch Science Writer Wellington, New Zealand Carol A. Turkington Medical Writer Lancaster, PA Samuel D. Uretsky, PharmD Medical Writer Wantagh, NY Chitra Venkatasubramanian, MBBS, MD (internal medicine) Resident in Neurology Department of Neurology and Neurosciences Stanford University Stanford, CA.
Bruno Marcos Verbeno Espirito Santo University Vitória, Brazil Beatriz Alves Vianna Espirito Santo University Vitória, Brazil
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
xix Contributors
A
Abetalipoproteinemia see Bassen-Key Terms Kornzweig syndrome Basal ganglia A group of brain structures that are responsible for movement. Dopamine A brain chemical (neurotransmitter)
responsible for carrying messages throughout the
Abulia
nervous system, particularly messages regarding
❙ movement.
Definition
Abulia is a state in which an individual seems to have Frontal lobe The area of the brain responsible for higher thinking. lost will or motivation.
Description Diagnosis
Abulia is not a separate condition; rather, it is a symp- Abulia is not an individual diagnosis; it is a symptom tom associated with various forms of brain injury. It may that usually occurs as part of a constellation of symptoms occur in association with a variety of conditions, including accompanying a specific disorder. Diagnosis of the un-
stroke, brain tumor, traumatic brain damage, bleeding into
derlying disorder depends on the kinds of symptoms that the brain, and exposure to toxic substances. co-exist with abulia. Psychiatric interview,
magnetic res- onance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, or computed tomog-
raphy (
CT) imaging of the brain, EEG, blood tests, and Causes and symptoms
neurological testing may all be used to diagnose an un- Some research suggests that abulia occurs due to mal- derlying condition. function of the brain’s dopamine-dependent circuitry. In- juries to the frontal lobe (the area of the brain responsible for higher thinking) and/or the basal ganglia (the area of
Treatment team
the brain responsible for movement) can interfere with an Treatment of abulia is usually part of a program of individual’s ability to initiate speech, movement, and so- general rehabilitation for the symptoms accompanying the cial interaction. Abulia has been noted in patients who have underlying condition. A
neurologist or psychiatrist may
suffered brain injuries due to stroke, bleeding into the brain lead a treatment team. Other professionals that may be in- from a ruptured aneurysm, trauma, brain tumor, neurolog- volved include physical therapists, occupational therapists, ical disease (such as Parkinson’s disease), psychiatric recreational therapists, and speech and language therapists. condition (such as severe
depression or schizophrenia), and exposure to toxic substances (such as cyclosporin-A).
Treatment
An individual with abulia may not appear to have There are no specific treatments for abulia. The un- much will or motivation to pursue activities or initiate derlying condition should be treated such as administering conversation. Such an individual may appear apathetic, antidepressants or electroconvulsive therapy to depressed disinterested, asocial, quiet or mute, physically slowed or patients or antipsychotic medications to schizophrenic pa- still (hypokinetic), and emotionally remote. tients. Patients who have suffered brain injury due to
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS Acetazolamide
Doses must be taken on a regular schedule but indi- viduals should not double dose to make up for a missed dose.
viduals who suffer epilepsy.
Acetazolamide is also used to treat non-neurological disorders such as glaucoma (acetazolamide decreases pressure in the eye), and to reduce the symptoms of edema (an excess storage of water by the body that leads to lo- calized swelling or puffiness) and altitude sickness.
Description
Acetazolamide is prescription medication and is available only with a licensed physician’s prescription. Ac- etazolamide is available in oral form in extended release capsules and tablets. Acetazolamide can also be adminis- tered by injection.
Recommended dosage
For both adults and children the recommended dosage for use in epilepsy cases is based upon actual body weight. In all cases, the exact dosage is determined by an experienced physician and/or pharmacist. In the most common cases, the normal recommended dosage is 4.5 mg per pound of body weight (10 mg per kg of body weight) and is administered in multiple (divided) doses de- livered in the form of tablets or capsules.
When used to control anticonvulsive seizures, aceta- zolamide doses should not be stopped all at once. In most cases, physicians usually curtail (gradually lower) the dose an individual takes over time.
Acetazolamide is used to treat a number of disorders, including the control of epileptic
Precautions
As with most prescription medicines, acetazolamide should stored in a safe place—away from the reach of chil- dren. Acetazolamide should also be stored in a dry area away from excessive heat or light. Outdated medicine (medicines past their expiration date) should be discarded in a container that is safe from the reach of children.
Women who are pregnant, plan to become pregnant, or who are breast-feeding infants should inform their physician of this fact before taking acetazolamide.
Side effects
Unwanted side effects while taking acetazolamide in- clude drowsiness,
fatigue, or a dizzy lightheaded feeling.
seizures in those indi-
Purpose
stroke, bleeding, or trauma will benefit from rehabilitation programs that provide stimulation and attempt to re-teach skills.
PERIODICALS Al-Adawi, Samir. “Abulia: The Pathology of ‘Will’ and Dopaminergic Dysfunction in Brain-Injured Patients.”
Research has looked at the possibility of treating ab- ulia with medications that boost the activity of dopamine throughout the brain, but this is far from becoming a stan- dard treatment.
Prognosis
The prognosis of abulia depends on the prognosis of the underlying condition.
Resources BOOKS Friedman, Joseph H. “Mood, Emotion, and Thought.” In
Textbook of Clinical Neurology , edited by Christopher G.
Goetz. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 2003.
Medical Sciences 1 (1999): 27–40.
Fluid buildup can alter the shape of the eye and cause pressure on the optic nerve. Clinically, this condition is de- scribed as glaucoma. Inhibition of the enzymatic work of carbonic anhydrase activity (e.g., through the action of a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor) can lower fluid pressure in the eye.
Nishie, M. “Posterior Encephalopathy Subsequent to Cyclosporin A Presenting as Irreversible Abulia.” Internal Medicine 42, no. 8 (1 August 2003): 750–755.
Pantoni, L. “Abulia and Cognitive Impairment in Two Patients with Capsular Genu Infarct.” Acta Neurologica Scandinavia 104, no. 3 (1 September 2001): 185–190.
Vijayaraghavan. “Abulia: A Delphi Survey of British Neurologists and Psychiatrists.” Movement Disorders 17, no. 5 (September 2002): 1052–1057.
Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, MD
Acanthocytosis see Bassen-Kornzweig syndrome
❙ Acetazolamide Definition
Acetazolamide (a-set-a-ZOLE-a-mide) is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor. Carbonic anhydrase is an enzyme that shifts the rate of reaction to favor the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and free protons. Carbonic anhydrase activity is key to the reg- ulation of pH and fluid balance in many different reactions throughout the body.
Individuals who experience these side effects should not
Acupunctur e Key Terms Carbonic anhydrase An enzyme that shifts the
OTHER Medline Plus. U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health. <http://www.nlm.nih.gov/ medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202114.html> (May 9, 2004).
Acupuncture’s record of success has stimulated a number of research projects investigating its mechanisms
ing abdominal surgery. By 1993, Americans were making 12 million visits per year to acupuncturists, and spending $500 million annually on acupuncture treatments. By 1995, there were an estimated 10,000 certified acupunc- turists practicing in the United States; as of 2000, there were 20,000. About a third of the credentialed acupunc- turists in the United States as of 2002 are MDs.
pain follow-
Acupuncture was virtually unknown in the United States prior to President Richard Nixon’s trip to China in 1972. A reporter for the New York Times named James Re- ston wrote a story for the newspaper about the doctors in Beijing who used acupuncture to relieve his
Acupuncture is thought to restore health by removing energy imbalances and blockages in the body. Practition- ers of TCM believe that there is a vital force or energy called qi (pronounced “chee”) that flows through the body and between the skin surface and the internal organs, along channels or pathways called meridians. There are 12 major and eight minor meridians. Qi regulates the spiritual, emo- tional, mental, and physical harmony of the body by keep- ing the forces of yin and yang in balance. Yang is a principle of heat, activity, brightness, outwardness, while yin represents coldness, passivity, darkness, interiority, etc. TCM does not try to eliminate either yin or yang, but rather keep them in harmonious balance. Acupuncture may be used to raise or lower the level of yin or yang in a specific part of the body in order to restore the energy balance.
Acupuncture, one of the main forms of therapy in tra- ditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been practiced for at least 2,500 years. In acupuncture, certain points on the body are stimulated by the insertion of fine needles. Unlike the hollow hypodermic needles used in mainstream med- icine to give injections or to draw blood, acupuncture nee- dles are solid. The points can be needled between 15° and 90° relative to the skin’s surface, depending on treatment.
❙ Acupuncture Definition
Paul Arthur
ORGANIZATIONS National Eye Institute. 2020 Vision Place, Bethesda, MD 20892-3655. (301) 496-5248. <http://www.nei.nih.gov/>.
Epilepsia 44 (July 2003): 986.
rate of reaction to favor the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and free protons.
Resources PERIODICALS Varadkar S., J. S. Duncan, and H. Cross. “Acetazolamide and Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy.”
Physicians and pharmacists are trained to evaluate the potential for adverse interactions by prescription drugs with other drugs. In the case of acetazolamide physicians eval- uate potential adverse reactions with a range of drugs that include—but are not limited to—amphetamines, over-the- counter aspirins, cyclosporine, mood altering drugs (e.g., lithium), drugs used to control mental depression, drugs used to control irregular heartbeats, digoxin, diuretics (also known as water pills), and vitamins.
Interactions
depres- sion, pains in the area of the kidneys, and bloody or black tarry stools.
Individuals who experience changes in their vision should also consult their physician. In some rare cases, individuals may suffer
Individuals who are diabetic and who take acetazo- lamide may experience elevated sugar levels in their urine and blood.
Acetazolamide can also lead to excessive depletion (loss) of potassium from the body. To counter this poten- tial loss, many physicians recommend that patients eat food or drink beverages such as orange juice to replace lost potassium. The loss of potassium does not occur in every case, however, and high levels of potassium can also be dangerous. Individuals who show signs of potassium loss—including, but not limited to, dryness of mouth, in- creased thirst, or muscle cramps—should alert their physi- cian. Because diet can impact a number of health factors, individuals should only alter their diet after consulting their physician.
operate machinery or drive while experiencing these symptoms. Other common side effects include shortness of breath.
Optic nerve The bundle of nerve fibers that carry visual messages from the retina to the brain.
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS Acupunctur e Key Terms
Neurotransmitter A chemical in the brain that transmits messages between neurons, or nerve cells. Opioids Substances that reduce pain and may in-
The risk of infection in acupuncture is minimal if the acupuncturist uses sterile disposable needles. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) man- dates the use of sterilized needles made from nontoxic ma- terials. The needles must be clearly labeled as having their use restricted to qualified practitioners.
Precautions
The exact mechanism by which acupuncture works is not known. Studies have demonstrated a variety of physi- ologic effects such as release in the brain of various chem- icals and hormones, alteration of immune function, blood pressure, and body temperature.
gia, although its efficacy in relieving these disorders is largely unproven. Acupuncture should not be used to treat traumatic injuries and other emergency conditions requir- ing immediate surgery. Also, while it appears to have ben- efits in relieving symptoms such as pain under the proper circumstances, it has not been shown to alter the underly- ing course of a disease.
depression, anxiety, HIV infection, and fibromyal-
The purpose of acupuncture in TCM is the rebalanc- ing of opposing energy forces in different parts of the body. In Western terms, acupuncture is used most com- monly as an adjunctive treatment for the relief of chronic or acute pain. In the United States, acupuncture is most widely used to treat pain associated with musculoskeletal disorders, but it has also been used in the treatment of headaches, other painful disorders, and nausea and vom- iting. In addition to these disorders, acupuncture has been used to treat a variety of disorders such as asthma, infer- tility,
Purpose
philosophy, a pair of opposing forces whose harmo- nious balance in the body is necessary to good health. as well as its efficacy. Research has been funded not only by the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM), but also by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the National Institute of Dental Research, the National Institute of Neu- rological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), and the National Institute on Drug Abuse. In 1997, a consensus panel of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) presented a report in which it described acupuncture as a sufficiently promising form of treatment to merit further study. In 2000, the British Medical Association (BMA) recommended that acupuncture should be made more readily available through the National Health Service (NHS), and that fam- ily doctors should be trained in some of its techniques.
Pneumothorax A condition in which air or gas is present in the chest cavity. Qi The Chinese term for energy, life force, or vital force. Yin and yang In traditional Chinese medicine and
duce sleep. Some opioids are endogenous, which means that they are produced within the human body. Other opioids are produced by plants or for- mulated synthetically in the laboratory.
medicine that involves burning a “Moxa,” or cone of dried wormwood leaves, close to the skin to relieve pain. When used with acupuncture, the cone is placed on top of the needle at an acupuncture point and burned.
Cardiac tamponade A condition in which blood
Moxibustion A technique in traditional Chinese
of pathways or channels that convey qi (also sometimes spelled “ki”), or vital energy, through the body.
Meridians In traditional Chinese medicine, a network
and vomiting associated with pregnancy. Acupunc- ture appears to be an effective treatment for women with this condition.
Hyperemesis gravidarum Uncontrollable nausea
leased by the body in response to stress or traumatic injury. Endorphins react with opiate receptors in the brain to reduce or relieve pain.
Endorphins A group of peptide compounds re-
which the practitioner stimulates the traditional acupuncture points electronically.
Electroacupuncture A variation of acupuncture in
leaking into the membrane surrounding the heart puts pressure on the heart muscle, preventing complete filling of the heart’s chambers and normal heartbeat.
Patients should also inquire about the practitioner’s credentials. People who would prefer to be treated by an MD or an osteopath can obtain a list of licensed physicians
Acupunctur BL e
ST LI GV CV
SI KI LU HE PE TW BL GB SP LV
Traditional Chinese medicine teachings state that channels of energy flow throughout the body, and that disease is caused by too much or too little flow of energy along these channels. Points along the channels, called meridians, are manipulated in acupuncture. In the illustration, points are shown on the bladder (BL), conception vessel (CV), gallbladder (GB), govern- ing vessel (GV), heart (HE), kidney (KI), large intestine (LI), liver (LV), lung (LU), pericardium (PE), small intestine (SI), spleen (SP), stomach (ST), and triple warmer (TW) meridians. (Illustration by Electronic Illustrators Group.) GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS
e Acupunctur Governor vessel Bladder meridian