Poverty and Social Development.
SOCIOLOGY AND WELFARE
DEVELOPMENT
Edited by:
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
Foreword by:
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
SOCIOLOGY AND WELFARE DEVELOPMENT
© 2015 Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin et. al.
First Published May, 2015
Published By
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
In Cooperation With
Penerbit Samudra Biru (Member of IKAPI)
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ii
Sociology and Welfare Development
CONTENTS
Contents ...................................................................................
iii
List of Contributors .................................................................
v
Acknowledgement ....................................................................
ix
Foreword ..................................................................................
xi
Introduction .............................................................................
xiii
Welfare Development: Meanings, Issues and
Challenges
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................
1
Poverty and Social Development
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, Ali Maksum, Indri
Indarwati ........................................................
19
The Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its Future Challenges
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen,
Forina Lestari and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ....
39
Development for Urban Poor Housing
Mohd Haizzan Yahaya, Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Hery Wibowo and Mohd Tauik
Mohammad .....................................................
69
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Sociology and Welfare Development
iii
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
iv
Baitul Mal wat Tamwil: a Sociological
and Social Welfare Movement ?
Hery Wibowo & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........
Environmental Participation among Youth:
Challenges, Issues and Motivating Factors
Lim Jen Zen & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .........
79
97
Indonesian Workers Health Condition:
A Sociological Analysis
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, Desi Yunita
and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........................... 125
he Delivery System of Education Programs
Mahathir Yahaya, Ali Maksum,
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and Azlinda Azman ... 135
Child Brides, Not Our Pride:
Looking Into Child Marriage Incidences in
Malaysia
Mitshel Lino, Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and
Azlinda Azman ................................................
143
Concluding Remarks
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................. 151
Sociology and Welfare Development
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen, is a PhD candidate at West
Australia University, Perth – Australia. He is a Planning Staf, Directorate
of Spatial Planning and Land Afairs, Indonesia National Development
Planning Agency (Bappenas). He is a Best Graduate Student in Regional
and Planning Department, Bandung Institute of Technology (2006)
and Utrecht Excellence Scholarships Awardee 2007-2009 on Research
Master Human Geography & Planning, Faculy of Geoscience, Utrecht
University.
Ali Maksum, is a Ph.D candidate at the Centre for Policy Research
and International Studies (CenPRIS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
His current project is about the Indonesia-Malaysia relations from
defensive realism perspective. He has written articles have been published
in such publisher as Kajian Malaysia: Journal of Malaysian Studies,
Springer (ISI), Indonesia national newspapers and conferences.
Azlinda Azman, Ph.D is an Associate Professor and Head of Social
Work Programme at the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. She is also the Convenor of the
AIDS Action and Research Group (AARG), USM. She was a Fulbright
Scholar and obtained her Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree in Clinical
Social Work from New York University. Her ields of expertise include
social work education and practice, theory and methods in social work
and social work research. Her areas of research interest include poverty,
Sociology and Welfare Development
v
HIV/AIDS and drug related issues.
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, a leturer at Social Welfare Departement
in Social and Political Sciences Faculty, University of Padjadjaran. She
obtained Bachelor degree, master degree and Doctoral degree from
University of Padjadjaran. Some scientiic papers had been published
at national or international level. Currently, he is focusing on waste
management problem in society who life near the Cikapundung river at
Bandung City.
Desi Yunita, oicially join the Departemen of Sociology at Social
and Political Science Faculty University of Padjadjaran since 2014. She
got Magister degree in Sociology also from University of Padjadjaran and
focusing the research on development and environmental problem.
Forina Lestari, obtained B.Sc.Eng. (ITB, 2006), MSc in Housing,
School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia
(USM, 2008). Lecturer at Indonesian Institute of Technology (ITI). She
has published a book: Alam Takambang Jadi Guru: Merajut Kearifan
Lokal dalam Penanggulangan Bencana di Sumatera. Consultant and
expertise at Directorate of Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National
Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) and Directorate General of
Spatial Planning, Ministry of Public Works (2013), Directorate General
of Regional Development Assistance, Ministry of Home Afairs and
Expert, Deputy of the Area Development, Ministry of Public Housing
(2012), Expert Staf, Commission V (Infrastructure), he Indonesian
House of Representatives (DPR, 2011). Junior Expert, Directorate of
Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National Development Planning
Agency (Bappenas, 2010).
Hery Wibowo, S.Psi, MM, PhD is a leturer at Departement of Social
Welfare Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran University.
Indri Indarwati, is PhD candidate in Social Work at Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM). Since 1999 she has been attached as a civil servant in
the Ministry of Social Afairs. Her research areas are study of social work,
gender and community development.
vi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Mitshel Lino is a Master of Social Sciences (Psychology) candidate
under the supervision of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Intan Hashimah Mohd
Hashim from the Department of Social Work, Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Her research interest surrounds the ield of Social Psychology. She was
a Graduate Assistant, serving as a Psychology tutor in the university.
She was invited to the Golden Key International Honour Society for
academic excellence and awarded Second Upper Class Honours from her
undergraduate. Her past researches included the area of Multicultural
Psychology and Child Marriage in Malaysia, collaboration project with
UNICEF.
Mohd. Haizzan Yahaya MSW is Ph.D scholars from University
Sains Malaysia. He is currently researching on Urban Poor Housing
and being supervised by. Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, PhD and associate
professor Azlinda Azman, PhD
Mohd Tauik Mohammad is a Ph.D scholar at the Social Work
Programme, School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia. His
current Ph.D studies regarding on Specialization Social Work, Forensic
Social Work/Victims’ Studies/Restorative Justice, being supervised by
associate professor Azlinda Azman, PhD.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, MA and Ph.D. from University of
Malaya. He is a leturer at Departement of Social Welfare (1982-2011)
and Departement of Sociology (2011-present), Head Departement
of Sociology in Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran
University (2014- present). Visiting Associate Professor at University
of Malaya (2008) and Visiting Associate Professor at Univerisiti Sains
Malaysia (2012- present).
Tia Devianty, S.IP., MPA, is a PhD candidates at Universitas
Padjadjaran, and a master’s degree graduate from Public Policy, Faculty
of Public Policy and Management, Flinders University, Australia. Now,
a lecturer at Ahmad Yani University, Bandung - from september 1996
– present Teaching, Researching, and Public Servicing. Current Researches
are mainly about Capacity Building For Decentralization (2008-now).
Sociology and Welfare Development
vii
Current Public Services are Facilitator, Comprehensive Maternal Village
Program in West Java, West Java Province Health Department (2006 –
2008), Facilitator for Sustainable Capacity Building for Decentralization
(SCBD) Project in Bau-bau City and Buton Regency (2008 – 2012),
District Advisory Team Capacity Building Program Minimum Service
Standard Basic Education at Sorong West Papua (2014-2016), tdevianty@
rocketmail.com.
Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, S.Ip MA is a researcher at the Department of
International and Strategic Studies, Universiti Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
He is activist in Art Movement in Malaysia.
viii
Sociology and Welfare Development
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah. hanks to Allah SWT, whom with His willing
giving me the opportunity to complete this book entitled Sociology and
Welfare Development. he publication of this book would not have
been possible without the guidance and knowledge wich I have acquired
from my honourable professors; Professor A.D Saefullah - University of
Padjadjaran and Professor Abd. Hadi Zakaria - University of Malaya. I
would also like to dedicate this book to my beloved wife, Tuty Tohri and
our lovely children Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, Forina Lestari, Fitaha Aini and
Tamal Arief Ihsan - their support in my life.
he publication of this book would not be possible without the
assistance and cooperation that we have received over the years from
the many individuals and organization in various parts of the world.
In particular, we wish to thank our team, all authors - Department of
Sociology Padjadjaran University and Universiti Sains Malaysia. Specially
thanks especially to Ali Maksum for his excellent assistance during the
editorial process of this book. Dr. Arry Bainus the Dean of Faculty of
Social and Political Sciences, Padjadjaran University. All of my MastersPhD students and colleagues at Padjadjaran University as well as USM
whom I would like to thanked for providing continuous support towards
my success.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Sociology and Welfare Development
ix
x
Sociology and Welfare Development
FOREWORD
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
First of all, I am honored to write this foreword and to give my
warm endorsement to this book edited by my colleague Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Ph.D. In my point of view, Indonesian harmony is urgent and
should be achieved soon. he government and all stakeholders are pushed
to react and formulate a strong policy to reach the national goals.
his book provides a comprehensive assessment regarding sociology
and welfare development discourses with a new paradigm and approaches
to build Indonesian future. his compilation chapter divided into ifteen
chapters, conclusion and also given constructive policy recommendations.
Although, all authors in this book are depart from various background
and issues, yet they produce and extent some challenges should become
serious attention especially the government. I can argue that this book is
very multidisciplinary and discussed from various angle.
Personally, as practitioner and based on my professional experiences,
I am strongly recommend this book to be read speciically by civil servant,
professional, academicians and those who engage in the social welfare
tasks. One of the important recomendation given by this book is a good
public policy totally need tough cooperation among individuals, groups,
and institutions. I am also impressed that this book which emphasized on
Sociology and Welfare Development
xi
welfare development discourses is smartly promoting the ideas of “spiritual
development” which in some extent isolated from main discussion. his
is important and also to alerting as well as to underscore that Indonesia
is a religious country.
Finally, I am pleased to congratulate to Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin,
PhD which successfully publish this book and demonstrated that he
is a productive scholar. As academician, lecturer and researcher he has
more than thirty years professional experiences in the ield of social and
political sciences in Indonesia as well as recognized in the broad. I hope,
the collaboration between the agency of research and development in
the Ministry of Home Afairs of the Republic Indonesia with the Centre
for Socioglobal Studies - Padjadjaran University become more efective,
fruitful and sustain in the future.
hank you and Wassalam.
Jakarta, 2014
xii
Sociology and Welfare Development
INTRODUCTION
In the Name of God, the Most Gracioeus, the Most Merciful
his book provides a thematic issues and challenges in the new era,
sociology to develop human welfare. he main objective of the Sociology
and Welfare Development is to present an integrated analysis of how
the discipline of sociology can contribute to our wider understanding
of the variety of welfare development issues, practices and institutions
approachs, policies and philosophy wich exist in our society and countries.
his explanatory chapters expected to examine and understand as well as
ofer choices for human beings in the dinamics world to build a human
welfare.
his book depart from the point of view that sociology is as applied
social science can contribute to the development of human life through
many perspectives. he various theme have been selected are discussed
from philosophy to policy models. Each chapter attempt to understand
with a core idea namely welfare development.
In the irst chapter, the main theme related to welfare development
is regarding the global presence in knowledge body. In this chapter
demonstrate that there have gap and diferences between modern and
spiritual concept of welfare development. Chapter two focus on poverty
phenomena in Indonesia as a serious problem. Some have observed
that poor family are marginalized and obtain small attention, while
many also has seen that the problems are the policy makers. It has to
recognized that some assistants and stimulus packages has given by
government to the poor family. However, it has to recognized also that
there were existed some problems regarding inefective management,
Sociology and Welfare Development
xiii
policy implementation, bureaucracy and corruption. Yet, all indicates
that Indonesian government has taken a serious strategic action in order
to struggle to eradicate poverty as well as eradication policy against
chronic of corruption. Related with poverty phenomena, in the chapter
nine, concern on historical and inherited problems such as the disabled
people, the pursuit of full employment in urban areas and overstaing
in the public sector, were important causes for urban poverty. However,
these historical problems did not result in serious poverty under the well
planned economic system. he number of poor people inherited from
the previous period was also relatively small.
In the third chapter focus on human geography and planning as part
of human life. Sociologically, this study concludes that the relationships
between two adjacent metropolitan centres are two geographical
phenomena occurred in the Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region
(JBMUR). However, a rapid urbanization process has also been occurring
in the corridor area between both metropolitan centers. here are both
direct and indirect relations between these two geographical phenomena
which inally lead to the emergence of the Jakarta-Bandung mega-urban
region. In the fourth chapter, that in addition, the struggle of urban poor
communities in Malaysia for housing and land rights is closely related
to the development and history of the country. After the British colonial
period, Malaysia’s priority was to develop its economy by focusing on
the manufacturing and export industry in urban areas. his resulted
when people from rural areas migrating from village to the city, in search
of opportunities and to ill the workforce demand. Most of the urban
migrants would build their own house near the manufacturing factories,
because the surrounding lands were unoccupied and unused. With hard
work and their own resources they would clean the area (wilderness) and
build houses; this would encourage the development in the area and
hence they are known as urban pioneers.
In the ifth chapter the author analyzes the social-welfare fund
called Baitul Mal wat Tamwil (BMT). he authors believe that BMT in
particular and microinance institutions in general is one of the social
welfare movement, getting stronger if you see the development of BMT
in Indonesia, as have been reported by Reuters. he growth of Islamic
microinance institutions (LKMS) in Indonesia is increasingly signiicant.
he main objective of the micro and super micro which is generally being
located in rural areas, LKMS transformed into a small people mover a
tough economy. Currently, there are about three million customers who
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Sociology and Welfare Development
obtained inancial assistant from micro LKMS or BMT.
Chapter six examines the environmental destruction of young
generation to protect and conserve the natural environment. As such,
the key actors in engaging youth participation in environmental action,
be it the government, non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) or
the community, should address the multi-dimensional issues that are
obstacles towards the involvement of the young and come up with
strategies to develop a more intrinsically-motivated participation.
Generally, environmental awareness among youth worldwide is at an
adequate level but it is the translation into action that is still lacking. A
review of the implementation strategies of current environmental action
programs involving youth should be done by the respective organizers
in order to create programs that are fun, hands-on and allows as well
as entrusts youth to apply their environmental knowledge and personal
skills to make key decisions for the future of then environment which
they shall inherit from the present. Hence, there is a need to move
beyond the present, traditional top-down institutionalized approach of
implementing programs towards a more dynamic and lexible approach
in which youth are viewed stakeholders, knowledge sharers and leaders,
and not mere passive participants who carry out the aims dictated by the
organizers.
concentrates on socio-cultural diferences between
hometown and destination areas of Indonesian migrant workers and the
impact towards their health condition. It involves the diferences physical
environment, social, and culture. he diferences of physical environment
involve climate change as well as socio-culture between hometown (Peteuy
Condong Village) and destination (Saudi Arabia). hese diferences
inluence towards the workers health condition related job. Social
diferences are related with social economic status between employers
and workers, that impact to the mental depression of the workers.
Culture diferences are cultures diferentiation between hometown and
destination country. Arabian cultures are introvert and over protected. It
emerge diiculties to access health services. While in the chapter eight,
discuss speciic theme about how to develop any rural community it can
be achieve through the dissemination on the importance of education to
all family members in the rural area. his method is expected to transform
the communities towards appreciating education better. he recognition
of society towards education only, is not enough to enhance the living
standards. Yet, it should be incorporated a the positive attitudes of the
Chapter seven
Sociology and Welfare Development
xv
rural community towards education as a strategy for improving life. At
the same time, the delivery system of the education programs must be
enhanced and it is all depend on the commitment of the school and
teachers of the rural schools as well.
Finally, the last chapter focus on the incidences of child marriage are
no longer pertinent only for less developed country; it actually happens
extensively in diferent parts of the world. Due to psychological and
biological immaturity, children are insuiciently mature to make an
informed decision about a life partner.
his book examines the welfare development issues in the broader
“sociology of welfare development” perspective. It is compiled from
travelers and knowledge experiences in international seminars, talks and
forum of researchers, supervisions and other discussion with my PhD and
Master students. hat experiences, together with their personal values and
interests extremely inluence to all authors in this book. Personally, I hope
that those who engage and read this book will obtain fruitful knowledge.
All errors are the author’s responsibility.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
xvi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Chapter
Poverty
and Social
Development
2
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, Ali Maksum,
Indri Indarwati
Readers guide
his chapter explains the wider concepts
of poverty and the role of social development in
Indonesia. Poverty reduction in Indonesia is still
a top priority as part of the holistic programme in
poverty eradication eforts. Nevertheless, poverty
at the same time connotes social exclusion and a
deprivation of the basic human rights in getting
a decent life. his marginalized population is
often excluded from the mainstream society.
he Indonesian government regards social
development as dependent on the development
of the whole person. his chapter focuses on
the poverty dynamics and the signiicant social
changes in the process of development of the
nation. However, social development programme
by itself is comprehensive has changed the poverty
alleviation policies from a macro top-down
Poverty and Social Development
19
approach to a community or household participatory approach. he existence
of the current social development with efective social capital and enforcement
of human rights and social security are expected to improve the social justice
and social welfare of the people in Indonesia.
Introduction
Poverty in Indonesia is recognized internationally, and has been an
area where many practitioners, policy makers, international donors and
scholars interested in. Most of the poverty research in Indonesia generally
has acknowledged that poverty is a dynamic phenomenon since the
poor is a human being that is growing and changing over time. Social
development programme by the government of Indonesia itself has
changed the poverty alleviation policies from a macro top-down approach
into a community or household participatory approach (Villanger and
Enes, 2004). Below are illustration regarding the development of poverty
eradication policies in Indonesia.
MACRO POVERTY DATA
20
Sociology and Welfare Development
MICRO POVERTY DATA
Targetting
Household (HH)
2005 (PSE 05)
2008 (PPLS 2008)
000 HH
%
000 HH
%
Very Poor
3.894,3
20,4
2.989,9
17,1
Poor
8.237,0
43,1
6.828,8
39,1
NEAR POOR
6.969,6
36,5
7.665,3
43,8
TOTAL
19.100,9
100,0
17.484,0
100,0
Poverty
Alleviation
Programme in
Indonesia
Source:
National Socioeconomic Survey (Susenas), conducted every March, number of sampel
68,000 HH Kecuk Suhariyanto, Director Of Statistical Analysis And Development,
Bps-Statistics Indonesia 2011
he two pictures above shows, irst that data macro the x-axis is the
development of the problem of poverty. Trend of the problem of poverty
has declined from 2006 to 2014. he cause is the presence of several
Poverty and Social Development
21
programs and activities organized by the various ministries. Besided that
data micro; the claim targets addressing poverty in Indonesia implemented
by various government sectors. he main target is the poor, near-poor
and very poor.
In the last 10 years, the government has innovated and implemented
several policies to alleviate chronic poverty such as educational subsidy
(Bantuan Operasional Sekolah), scholarships, conditional cash transfers,
community empowerment programmes (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat), credits for small-medium enterprises (microinance) and
infrastructure development projects (Program Pengembangan Kecamatan).
In addition, Government also provides social safety nets to protect the
poor from some external shocks through distributing subsidized rice
(RASKIN), cash transfers (Bantuan Langsung Tunai) and health insurance
targeted to the poor (ASKESKIN). hose policies are deliberated to
cope with transient poverty. Sparrow, Suryahadi and Widyanti (2010)
using the Susenas panel 2005 and 2006 showed that health insurance
targeted to the poor (ASKESKIN) improves access to healthcare in that it
increases utilization of outpatient healthcare among the poor. hus, this
policy would potentially protect households falling into the transitory
poor category due to health shocks.
Development strategy in Indonesia is pro-growth, pro-job and propoor, However, the efectiveness of these policies in alleviating poverty is
still need to re-scrutinized. Evaluating the impact of poverty alleviation
policies in the static term or short period can be diicult since for some
policies there is a lag between policy implementation and the results of
the policy emerging. Further, it is generally acknowledged that the impact
of human capital investment such as education and health on household
welfare cannot be investigated immediately.
POVERTY DYNAMIC AND ITS IMPLICATION
Poverty, Social Exclusion and Human Rights?
Poverty is a contested concept; at a basic level it is about income
(economic). he meanings of poverty has a strong correlation to a broader
level (social exclusion and human rights) and taking into account to security,
autonomy, self-esteem and well-being (De Haan and Maxwell, 1998).
he concept of absolute poverty expressed only in terms of the minimum
needs was considered inappropriate. It is argued that even the needs
22
Sociology and Welfare Development
of food vary from one group to another and it is linked to the context
in which one lives (Townsend, 2008). De Haan and Maxwell (1998)
raise issue for the need for two concepts. “So then why do we need the
concept of social exclusion? Our existing concepts of poverty are broad enough
to encompass the multi-dimensional concerns of the social exclusion school:
and our explanations of poverty certainly cover much of the same territory”.
In answering the query raised, three key issues are identiied. Firstly the
exclusion ofers a framework which includes the institutional processes
causing deprivation. Secondly the exclusion embodies the issues of social
justice which would be a useful tool to investigate the issues connected to
the poverty in developed world. Finally it would help to open up grounds
for a new dialogue, as exclusion will provide opportunities to discuss the
comparisons, convergence and connections.
Poverty has traditionally been deined as low income. Amartya Sen, has
pushed for an understanding of poverty that moves away from an incomebased measure towards a broader conception of human development
(Vizard, 2006). However, poor people generally see poverty through its
diferent manifestations of deprivation: “hunger, undernutrition, illiteracy,
lack of access to basic health services, social discrimination, physical insecurity
and social and political exclusion”. hey are also acutely aware of their
lack of voice and power that leaves them are open to be exploitated and
humiliation. Poverty means “deiciency in necessary properties or desirable
qualities” and it is thus not limited to being in a state of need or lack of
means of subsistence (situations which determine the extent of inancial need
of a person / group). Being impoverished is more than lacking inancial
means. It is inadequacy, destitution and deprivation of economic,
political, and social and human resources. In broader perspective shows
that poverty is multidimensional.
Since the poverty incidence can change over time, it is important
to conduct the dynamic analysis to distinguish between poverty, social
exclusion, human right problems and also to evaluate the efectiveness of
government policies on changing poverty status in Indonesia. here has
been very few analysis in poverty dynamics in Indonesia, i.e. investigating
the welfare movements of a set of households over time; most studies
analyse changes in the poverty incidence, depth and severity of poverty
at a point in time. Dercon and Shapiro (2007) surveyed that the impact
of risks and shocks on poverty mobility has received relatively limited
attentions in the literature of poverty dynamics. Hence, analysis of
poverty dynamics provides intuitions into the efects of socio-economic
Poverty and Social Development
23
and anti-poverty policies and can help policy makers identify policies
that efectively help households to move away from poverty.
Is Poverty A Human Rights Violation?
Poverty is an assault on human dignity, but it can also relected a
violation of human rights when it is the direct consequence of government
policy or is caused by the failure of governments to act. A human rights
approach to poverty calls for a paradigm shift in how we understand
and address poverty. Poverty is a cause and consequence of human rights
violations, while others contend that “Poverty is itself a violation of Human
Rights”. hese arguments, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive,
suggest that violations of human rights can be cause, consequence or
constitutive element of poverty (CESR Human Rights Insights (2008) :
• Cause: his suggests that poverty causes human rights violations – those
living in extreme poverty are not treated as human beings worthy of human
rights, and are discriminated against, often exploited, marginalized and
stigmatized, and denied access to rights and resources on the basis of their
poverty.
• Consequence: his suggests that poverty is a consequence of human
rights violations or in other words, that human rights violations cause
poverty. Violations of human rights e.g. forced eviction from homes or
land, or the destruction or denial of access to productive resources can
clearly cause poverty.
• Constitutive: his argument suggests that poverty, especially extreme
poverty, is in itself a negation of human dignity and therefore a denial of
human rights. Under this view, it is unacceptable to let any human being
live in conditions of degrading deprivation, as neither their physical wellbeing nor their human dignity is protected.
However, these approaches has important practical implications for
the way in which public policies and programmes are designed to address
human rights within the context of poverty reduction strategies. hese
approaches is the growing understanding that “It is the poorest people
in society - those with low incomes, education, insecure health, and
political power - who are most vulnerable to severe abuses of their human
rights.” Whether poverty itself is a violation of human rights depends
on how we deine ‘human rights’ and ‘poverty’; then the relationship
24
Sociology and Welfare Development
with poverty will be framed in a very diferent way than if human rights
are understood to include the full range of rights, including economic
and social rights. Similarly, when the deinition of poverty is broadened
to include the deprivation of capabilities, then its relationship with the
negation of human rights, especially economic and social rights, becomes
clearer. Many have argued that it is simplistic to suggest that all people
living in poverty have sufered from a human rights violation. his would
be problematic because it again simply conlates poverty and human
rights, treating them as one and the same thing.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE?
Urgency of Social Policy Approach
Social policy is especially pertinent, indeed critical, for achievement
of the social development. Kohler & Keane (2006) mentioned that
if it addresses these multiple roles, social policy can be considered
transformative. Transformative social policy aims to enable all people to
equally access their fundamental entitlements, secure and sustain a decent
quality of life, and realize their full potential. It addresses the root causes
and multidimensionality of poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
Transformative social policy is based on the human rights principles of
universalism, equality and non-discrimination, inter-dependence and
interrealatedness, accountability and the rule of law, participation and
inclusion, and indivisibility. A human right base approach to social policy
strengthens the capacities of rights-holders to claim their entitlement
and duty bearers to fulill their obligations, and is therefore empowering
(Makmur Sunusi, 2012).
Social capital is an urgent component in social development. Putnam
(2000) deines social capital refers to connections among individuals –
social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that
arise from them. Grootaert and Narayan (2000) deines social capital
as formal and informal institutions of society, where norms, networks
and social interaction enable people to synchronize action and achieve
preferred goals. While Putnam’s analysis mainly focuses on ‘horizontal’
organizations, in which members related to each other on an equal
basis, Coleman (1988) suggests that it should also include ‘vertical’
organizations, in which the relationships are hierarchical and power is
distributed unequally among members.
Poverty and Social Development
25
Social development have some objectives to social justice and social
welfare. Deacon (2006) argues that altruism can contribute to social
justice and social welfare in a country by the way: reduce social inequalities
- which is a prerequisite to the formation of a common culture and also
to the formation of a harmonious social relations and prosperous in the
country. DuBois and Miley (2005) deine social welfare as those social
provisions and processes directly concerned with the prevention and
treatment of social problems, the development of human resources and
the improvement of quality of life. Both deinitions basically delineate that
social welfare is an institution or a ield of activities involving organized
activities carried out by government and private institutions aimed to
preventing and addressing social problems as well as at improving the
quality of life of individuals, groups, and society. However, redistribution
can and must be achieved through social services are not discriminated
members of society, but rather, can / able to instill a sense of belonging.
Welfare system to regulate or tightly managed by the government
through a rigid case management system known as paternalistic welfare.
Paternalistic welfare is illustrated by the following ive characteristics
government orders, responsibility of the government to the welfare of
its people live, good citizens, embedding social obligations along with
political rights - to form a civil society. Government to act as enforcement
agents, agents make a direction and drive-way (direction) and monitoring
(Siti Hajar Abubakar Ah, Abd. Hadi Zakaria, Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin,
2012).
Social Welfare in Indonesia:
What Goes Wrong & What Should be Done ?
Edi Soeharto (2009) argued that the term social welfare in Indonesia
can be found in Law No. 11 of 2009 concerning “Social Welfare”. he
rate of poverty between 2002 and 2009 tends to decrease, the absolute
number is still considerably high. his gloomy picture of Indonesian
welfare will even look worse if it includes those categorized as “people with
social problems”, dubbed by the Ministry of Social Afairs as “Penyandang
Masalah Kesejahteraan Sosial (PMKS)”, comprising of millions of people,
such as neglected child (3.9 millions), neglected child under ive years (1.5
millions), disabled (3.1 millions), neglected elderly (2.7 miilions) and
other disadvantaged groups (homeless people, beggars, prostitute, persons
with HIV/AIDS, remote traditional community, street children, child
26
Sociology and Welfare Development
labor, etc) accounting for more than 11 millions people (MOSA, 2009).
However, amid the on‐going progress, the progress of other countries
is faster than Indonesia (Husodo, 2006; Suharto, 2008). As a country
with remarkable natural resources and the potentials of comparative
advantages, the downside of Indonesia’s development should make us
aware that something is wrong in the development and the management
of this country. In short and with reference to the Indonesia’s development
strategy and the issues of social welfare development, there is a number
of factors explaining why the country still faces serious and multifaceted
social problems. he mainstream approach of national development in
Indonesia relies heavily on economic growth and foreign debt within the
context of neoliberalism policy interventions. While it lacks of strategies
that have direct impacts on poverty, the economy is often vulnerable due
to “debt trap” and global crisis.
What Goes Wrong ?
Poverty alleviation programmes
are dominated by “project‐oriented” interventions employing ad‐hoc, partial and residual
methods.
Poverty reduction programmes
such as Family Hope Program
(Program Keluarga Harapan/
PKH), Rice for the Poor (Beras
Miskin/Raskin), and National
Program of Community Empowerment (Program Nasional
Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat/
PNPM) are targeted to the poor.
his approach cannot prevent
people from becoming poor since
beneiciaries should be poor irst
before receiving the anti‐poverty
programmes.
What Should be Done ?
he result of development
should beneits all people
In the past, the results of
development beneited only a
small portion of community
which caused socio‐ economic
gap. Now, we need to reform the
process of development to make
it more poor people‐oriented
by providing chances to people
with social problems to get an
access to development resources,
including easy access to capital,
social services and sustainable
social protection schemes. he
poverty reduction programmes
that have afect on direct income
distributions to the poor need to
be expanded, not be down‐sized.
Poverty and Social Development
27
Public policy is mainly concerned with state administration and bureaucracy afairs. It
lacks of responding social policy issues concerned with such
welfare strategies as social rehabilitation, social security, social
empowerment and social protection which are administered
in institutionalised and sustainable ways.
For example, cash transfer
programs such as Unconditional
Cash Transfer or BLT and Family
Hope Program or PKH need
to be integrated into National
Social Security System (Sistem
Jaminan Sosial Nasional/SJSN)
schemes so that the poor and
other citizens can be protected
by the institutionalized social
protection schemes.
State commitment and obliga- he strategies of development
tion towards the fulillment of need to considers human being
citizen’s social rights are low.
as subject of development
Indonesia notes very good progress
over the past two years in reallocating spending (from ineicient
subsidies) towards pro‐poor programmes. However, this country is
still considered under‐spending in
key sectors, such as infrastructure
and health. For example, the level
of spending on the infrastructure
and health sectors, accounting for
10.2 percent and 4.2 percent of
total expenditures respectively, is
rather low by most international
standards (World Bank, 2007).
Decentralization tends to limit
the responsibility and capacity
of local government in dealing
with social problems.
he paradigm of development
in the past focused more on
economic growth and physical
development, and considered
human being as objects, so
it caused dehumanization in
development. he existence of
people with social problems
as objects of social welfare
development had positioned
them as passive recipients of
social assistance which was given
as charity.
he approaches of development
need to relect on local potentials
and culture
In the past, development
When receiving the allocation of tended to standardize models of
power from central governement, development and hence to ignore
local potentials and culture.
many local governments,
28
Sociology and Welfare Development
especially at district level (kabupaten/kota), are applying the principle of “functions follow money”
rather than “money follow functions.” Moreover, in terms of local
regulations (PERDA), decentralisation has produced a number of
PERDAs that are “not pro‐poor”.
Lessons Learned
Economic development is necessary for the improvement of quality of life in a country. In order
to be equitable and sustainable,
economic development should be
done fairly and in accordance with
the development of social welfare.
Social welfare is an important element in social policy strategies for
eradicating poverty and reducing
multidimensional
deprivation.
But social welfare is not the only
approach of poverty reduction
initiatives. In order to have sustainable and efective results, it
needs to be implemented in combination with other approaches
within the overall context of socio‐economic development. Social welfare policies should be put
integrativelly within a broader set
of policies on macro‐economic
development, employment programs, and education and health
policies and be established to reduce risks and deprivation as well
as to encourage growth with equity and sustainability.
As a result, people with social
problems become dependent
upon external assistance. he
improvement of wellbeing of
people with social problems
need to involve active role, care
and capacity of the people in
accordance with their potentials
and culture.
Basic social services are
provided for all citizens
In the past, basic social services
could only be enjoyed by the
wealthy people or by selected poor
(narrow targeting approach).
Accessibility to basic social
services should be open to all
people (universal approach),
including people with social
problem who so far have been
marginalized.
Empowerment
of
people
with social problems become
joint‐commitment between the
central government and local
government
During the centralistic era, poverty
eradication was the responsibility
of
central
government.
Following the decentralization
of development, the policies
and programs of empowerment
should be the responsibility of
both central government and
local government.
Poverty and Social Development
29
he relationship between central
and local government is no
longer structural but functional.
Local governments need to have
strong political will in designing
and implementing social welfare
programmes for their citizens.
Empowerment of people with
social problems is done on
individual, family, group and
community basis, and in an
integrated way
In the past, the emphasis of
intervention of people with
social problems was on group
approach. Assistance was in
uniform in the form of objects/
tools. Empowerment of people
with social problems should not
be done by group approach only,
but also by individual, family,
group and community approach.
he facilities to be provided
should also be in various forms
in accordance with the potentials
and needs of people with social
problems, including access to
inancial assistance.
Source: adopted and modiied from Edi Soeharto, 2009
30
Sociology and Welfare Development
Poverty Eradication in Indonesia: a glimpse
In the context of Indonesia, the above deinitions and concepts
clearly match yet some are not it in. It was undeniable that poverty
in Indonesia is one of serious problem which government and society
concerned about. However, refer to the current situation in Indonesia
government also taking into account this problem seriously through
some programmes especially in health and education subsidies. In Jakarta
the Indonesian capital city for instance, the local authority launched
namely Kartu Jakarta Sehat (Jakarta’s Health Card) and Kartu Jakarta
Pintar (Jakarta’s Smart Card) to assist people who categorized as low
economic family to obtain health and education facilities. In the national
level, Indonesian government hardly struggle to arrange programmes and
subsidies in order to eradicate poverty.
he funding to assist poor groups in Indonesia seen signiicantly
enlarge notably when government decided to increase oil prices which
indirectly afected basic needs prices automatically at the end of President
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono term. As mentioned before the programmes
launched were Unconditional Cash Transfer or BLT (Bantuan Langsung
Tunai) and Family Hope Program or PKH (Program Keluarga Harapan)
and National Social Security System (Sistem Jaminan Sosial Nasional/
SJSN) (Edi Suharto, 2009). Public hospitals also provided free treatment
for poor family through Public Health Insurance or Jaminan Kesehatan
Masyarakat (JAMKESMAS) and local governments provided Region
Public Health Insurance or Jaminan Kesehatan Daerah (JAMKESDA).
However, at the implementation some poor family did not know if
they have health insurance due to the minimum publication from local
or district authority. Fortunately, some public hospitals make it easier
where as long as the application is endorsed by Ministry of Social Afairs
they will obtain all services free of charge. In order to accelerate villages
development, Indonesian government launched a programme namely
National Empowerment of Independent Villages Society Program or
PNPM Mandiri Perdesaan (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat
Mandiri Perdesaan). For urban poor society government launched similar
programme to PNPM Mandiri Perdesaan so-called PNPM Mandiri
Perkotaan (Paket Informasi 2012 – 2013).
Of course, there were existed some weaknesses in the policy
implementation, yet at least government along with all stake holders
and society has made a successful joint cooperation. Some criticized that
Poverty and Social Development
31
Indonesia’s progress relatively slow and other countries make faster progress.
Furthermore, some initiatives suspected as caused of chronic corruption,
collusion and nepotism (KKN) and inequality between rich and the poor
(Edi Suharto, 2009). Nevertheless, as Edi Suharto (2009) recognized
that the progresses of programs are very slowly. However, having some
initiatives and programs it indicates that poor people obtained serious
attention by Indonesian government. here were actually far from socalled “human rights abuses” at the poverty phenomena in Indonesia. After
the reformasi (reformation) in 1998 Indonesian government demanded
by society to take serious attention concerning poverty problem. hus,
in this context the concept so-called “social exclusion” is not suitable to
apply in Indonesian poverty phenomena. Conversely, there were existed
some so-called “togetherness” among society due to all people realized
that problems could not be resolved individually. hese phenomena
existed due to the local culture and wisdom so-called “gotong-royong”
or togetherness as a special heritage embedded in all level of society in
Indonesia.
hese phenomena in Indonesia are not about violence and not
about human right abuses. It is about government performance and
bureaucracy. As long as government can perform clean and accountable
administration it is believe that poverty can be resolved quickly. It can
be seen that this discussion are not airm in relation to the so-called
“violence” regarding the main theme of this conference. Violence is
close correlation with insecurity situation. Some scholars gave argument
regarding human security. In the context of socio-political life, human
security is very connected to the basic rights of the citizens and the impact
of the government’s public policies towards social life. Not surprisingly
“he literature on these subjects is rich not only in analysis of particular
problems and causes, but also in implications for public policy (Hampson
2008, 230). At times, this will mean that human security should operate
less as a policy agenda within existing political structures and discourses
than as a radical critique of those practices (Bellamy and McDonald
2002, 376).
Whereas, Kanti Bajpai (2000) explicitly highlights that security
is symbolized by the protection from the threat of disease, hunger,
unemployment, crime, social conlict, political repression, and
environmental hazards. Simply, in treating human security as a policy
agenda, most criticisms of this approach have departed from the way
security is constituted and operates in the international system: they
32
Sociology and Welfare Development
necessarily obscure the political nature of security (2000, 283). hus,
McDonald (2002) suggested that researchers have to turn against
government’s policy implementation and its impact towards human
security. McDonald also pointed out that “one of alternative security
policy agendas is competing for policymakers’ attention, and subsequent
implementation“ (2002, 284).
Once policy makers have been targeted, the challenge for analysts
addressing prescriptive approaches to security is to outline why a particular
discourse is consistent with the interests of tha
DEVELOPMENT
Edited by:
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
Foreword by:
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
SOCIOLOGY AND WELFARE DEVELOPMENT
© 2015 Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin et. al.
First Published May, 2015
Published By
Centre for Socioglobal Studies
Padjadjaran University
In Cooperation With
Penerbit Samudra Biru (Member of IKAPI)
Jomblangan Gg. Ontoseno Blok B No 15 Rt 12/30
Banguntapan Bantul Yogyakarta Indonesia 55198
Telp. (0274) 9494 558
E-mail/FB: psambiru@gmail.com
ISBN: 978-602-9276-56-5
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
ii
Sociology and Welfare Development
CONTENTS
Contents ...................................................................................
iii
List of Contributors .................................................................
v
Acknowledgement ....................................................................
ix
Foreword ..................................................................................
xi
Introduction .............................................................................
xiii
Welfare Development: Meanings, Issues and
Challenges
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................
1
Poverty and Social Development
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, Ali Maksum, Indri
Indarwati ........................................................
19
The Emergence of Jakarta-Bandung MegaUrban Region and Its Future Challenges
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen,
Forina Lestari and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ....
39
Development for Urban Poor Housing
Mohd Haizzan Yahaya, Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Hery Wibowo and Mohd Tauik
Mohammad .....................................................
69
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Sociology and Welfare Development
iii
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
iv
Baitul Mal wat Tamwil: a Sociological
and Social Welfare Movement ?
Hery Wibowo & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........
Environmental Participation among Youth:
Challenges, Issues and Motivating Factors
Lim Jen Zen & Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .........
79
97
Indonesian Workers Health Condition:
A Sociological Analysis
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, Desi Yunita
and Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin ........................... 125
he Delivery System of Education Programs
Mahathir Yahaya, Ali Maksum,
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and Azlinda Azman ... 135
Child Brides, Not Our Pride:
Looking Into Child Marriage Incidences in
Malaysia
Mitshel Lino, Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin and
Azlinda Azman ................................................
143
Concluding Remarks
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin .................................. 151
Sociology and Welfare Development
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Agung Mahesa Himawan Dorodjatoen, is a PhD candidate at West
Australia University, Perth – Australia. He is a Planning Staf, Directorate
of Spatial Planning and Land Afairs, Indonesia National Development
Planning Agency (Bappenas). He is a Best Graduate Student in Regional
and Planning Department, Bandung Institute of Technology (2006)
and Utrecht Excellence Scholarships Awardee 2007-2009 on Research
Master Human Geography & Planning, Faculy of Geoscience, Utrecht
University.
Ali Maksum, is a Ph.D candidate at the Centre for Policy Research
and International Studies (CenPRIS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
His current project is about the Indonesia-Malaysia relations from
defensive realism perspective. He has written articles have been published
in such publisher as Kajian Malaysia: Journal of Malaysian Studies,
Springer (ISI), Indonesia national newspapers and conferences.
Azlinda Azman, Ph.D is an Associate Professor and Head of Social
Work Programme at the School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia. She is also the Convenor of the
AIDS Action and Research Group (AARG), USM. She was a Fulbright
Scholar and obtained her Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) degree in Clinical
Social Work from New York University. Her ields of expertise include
social work education and practice, theory and methods in social work
and social work research. Her areas of research interest include poverty,
Sociology and Welfare Development
v
HIV/AIDS and drug related issues.
Bintarsih Sekarningrum, a leturer at Social Welfare Departement
in Social and Political Sciences Faculty, University of Padjadjaran. She
obtained Bachelor degree, master degree and Doctoral degree from
University of Padjadjaran. Some scientiic papers had been published
at national or international level. Currently, he is focusing on waste
management problem in society who life near the Cikapundung river at
Bandung City.
Desi Yunita, oicially join the Departemen of Sociology at Social
and Political Science Faculty University of Padjadjaran since 2014. She
got Magister degree in Sociology also from University of Padjadjaran and
focusing the research on development and environmental problem.
Forina Lestari, obtained B.Sc.Eng. (ITB, 2006), MSc in Housing,
School of Housing, Building and Planning, University of Science Malaysia
(USM, 2008). Lecturer at Indonesian Institute of Technology (ITI). She
has published a book: Alam Takambang Jadi Guru: Merajut Kearifan
Lokal dalam Penanggulangan Bencana di Sumatera. Consultant and
expertise at Directorate of Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National
Development Planning Agency (Bappenas) and Directorate General of
Spatial Planning, Ministry of Public Works (2013), Directorate General
of Regional Development Assistance, Ministry of Home Afairs and
Expert, Deputy of the Area Development, Ministry of Public Housing
(2012), Expert Staf, Commission V (Infrastructure), he Indonesian
House of Representatives (DPR, 2011). Junior Expert, Directorate of
Rural and Urban Afairs, Indonesia National Development Planning
Agency (Bappenas, 2010).
Hery Wibowo, S.Psi, MM, PhD is a leturer at Departement of Social
Welfare Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran University.
Indri Indarwati, is PhD candidate in Social Work at Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM). Since 1999 she has been attached as a civil servant in
the Ministry of Social Afairs. Her research areas are study of social work,
gender and community development.
vi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Mitshel Lino is a Master of Social Sciences (Psychology) candidate
under the supervision of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Intan Hashimah Mohd
Hashim from the Department of Social Work, Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Her research interest surrounds the ield of Social Psychology. She was
a Graduate Assistant, serving as a Psychology tutor in the university.
She was invited to the Golden Key International Honour Society for
academic excellence and awarded Second Upper Class Honours from her
undergraduate. Her past researches included the area of Multicultural
Psychology and Child Marriage in Malaysia, collaboration project with
UNICEF.
Mohd. Haizzan Yahaya MSW is Ph.D scholars from University
Sains Malaysia. He is currently researching on Urban Poor Housing
and being supervised by. Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, PhD and associate
professor Azlinda Azman, PhD
Mohd Tauik Mohammad is a Ph.D scholar at the Social Work
Programme, School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia. His
current Ph.D studies regarding on Specialization Social Work, Forensic
Social Work/Victims’ Studies/Restorative Justice, being supervised by
associate professor Azlinda Azman, PhD.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, MA and Ph.D. from University of
Malaya. He is a leturer at Departement of Social Welfare (1982-2011)
and Departement of Sociology (2011-present), Head Departement
of Sociology in Faculty of Social and Political Science, Padjadjaran
University (2014- present). Visiting Associate Professor at University
of Malaya (2008) and Visiting Associate Professor at Univerisiti Sains
Malaysia (2012- present).
Tia Devianty, S.IP., MPA, is a PhD candidates at Universitas
Padjadjaran, and a master’s degree graduate from Public Policy, Faculty
of Public Policy and Management, Flinders University, Australia. Now,
a lecturer at Ahmad Yani University, Bandung - from september 1996
– present Teaching, Researching, and Public Servicing. Current Researches
are mainly about Capacity Building For Decentralization (2008-now).
Sociology and Welfare Development
vii
Current Public Services are Facilitator, Comprehensive Maternal Village
Program in West Java, West Java Province Health Department (2006 –
2008), Facilitator for Sustainable Capacity Building for Decentralization
(SCBD) Project in Bau-bau City and Buton Regency (2008 – 2012),
District Advisory Team Capacity Building Program Minimum Service
Standard Basic Education at Sorong West Papua (2014-2016), tdevianty@
rocketmail.com.
Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, S.Ip MA is a researcher at the Department of
International and Strategic Studies, Universiti Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
He is activist in Art Movement in Malaysia.
viii
Sociology and Welfare Development
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah. hanks to Allah SWT, whom with His willing
giving me the opportunity to complete this book entitled Sociology and
Welfare Development. he publication of this book would not have
been possible without the guidance and knowledge wich I have acquired
from my honourable professors; Professor A.D Saefullah - University of
Padjadjaran and Professor Abd. Hadi Zakaria - University of Malaya. I
would also like to dedicate this book to my beloved wife, Tuty Tohri and
our lovely children Tofan Rakhmat Zaky, Forina Lestari, Fitaha Aini and
Tamal Arief Ihsan - their support in my life.
he publication of this book would not be possible without the
assistance and cooperation that we have received over the years from
the many individuals and organization in various parts of the world.
In particular, we wish to thank our team, all authors - Department of
Sociology Padjadjaran University and Universiti Sains Malaysia. Specially
thanks especially to Ali Maksum for his excellent assistance during the
editorial process of this book. Dr. Arry Bainus the Dean of Faculty of
Social and Political Sciences, Padjadjaran University. All of my MastersPhD students and colleagues at Padjadjaran University as well as USM
whom I would like to thanked for providing continuous support towards
my success.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
Sociology and Welfare Development
ix
x
Sociology and Welfare Development
FOREWORD
Dr. Afriadi Sjahbana Hasibuan, MPA, M.Com (Ec)
Head of Research & Development
Ministry of Home Afairs, Republic of Indonesia
First of all, I am honored to write this foreword and to give my
warm endorsement to this book edited by my colleague Muhamad Fadhil
Nurdin, Ph.D. In my point of view, Indonesian harmony is urgent and
should be achieved soon. he government and all stakeholders are pushed
to react and formulate a strong policy to reach the national goals.
his book provides a comprehensive assessment regarding sociology
and welfare development discourses with a new paradigm and approaches
to build Indonesian future. his compilation chapter divided into ifteen
chapters, conclusion and also given constructive policy recommendations.
Although, all authors in this book are depart from various background
and issues, yet they produce and extent some challenges should become
serious attention especially the government. I can argue that this book is
very multidisciplinary and discussed from various angle.
Personally, as practitioner and based on my professional experiences,
I am strongly recommend this book to be read speciically by civil servant,
professional, academicians and those who engage in the social welfare
tasks. One of the important recomendation given by this book is a good
public policy totally need tough cooperation among individuals, groups,
and institutions. I am also impressed that this book which emphasized on
Sociology and Welfare Development
xi
welfare development discourses is smartly promoting the ideas of “spiritual
development” which in some extent isolated from main discussion. his
is important and also to alerting as well as to underscore that Indonesia
is a religious country.
Finally, I am pleased to congratulate to Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin,
PhD which successfully publish this book and demonstrated that he
is a productive scholar. As academician, lecturer and researcher he has
more than thirty years professional experiences in the ield of social and
political sciences in Indonesia as well as recognized in the broad. I hope,
the collaboration between the agency of research and development in
the Ministry of Home Afairs of the Republic Indonesia with the Centre
for Socioglobal Studies - Padjadjaran University become more efective,
fruitful and sustain in the future.
hank you and Wassalam.
Jakarta, 2014
xii
Sociology and Welfare Development
INTRODUCTION
In the Name of God, the Most Gracioeus, the Most Merciful
his book provides a thematic issues and challenges in the new era,
sociology to develop human welfare. he main objective of the Sociology
and Welfare Development is to present an integrated analysis of how
the discipline of sociology can contribute to our wider understanding
of the variety of welfare development issues, practices and institutions
approachs, policies and philosophy wich exist in our society and countries.
his explanatory chapters expected to examine and understand as well as
ofer choices for human beings in the dinamics world to build a human
welfare.
his book depart from the point of view that sociology is as applied
social science can contribute to the development of human life through
many perspectives. he various theme have been selected are discussed
from philosophy to policy models. Each chapter attempt to understand
with a core idea namely welfare development.
In the irst chapter, the main theme related to welfare development
is regarding the global presence in knowledge body. In this chapter
demonstrate that there have gap and diferences between modern and
spiritual concept of welfare development. Chapter two focus on poverty
phenomena in Indonesia as a serious problem. Some have observed
that poor family are marginalized and obtain small attention, while
many also has seen that the problems are the policy makers. It has to
recognized that some assistants and stimulus packages has given by
government to the poor family. However, it has to recognized also that
there were existed some problems regarding inefective management,
Sociology and Welfare Development
xiii
policy implementation, bureaucracy and corruption. Yet, all indicates
that Indonesian government has taken a serious strategic action in order
to struggle to eradicate poverty as well as eradication policy against
chronic of corruption. Related with poverty phenomena, in the chapter
nine, concern on historical and inherited problems such as the disabled
people, the pursuit of full employment in urban areas and overstaing
in the public sector, were important causes for urban poverty. However,
these historical problems did not result in serious poverty under the well
planned economic system. he number of poor people inherited from
the previous period was also relatively small.
In the third chapter focus on human geography and planning as part
of human life. Sociologically, this study concludes that the relationships
between two adjacent metropolitan centres are two geographical
phenomena occurred in the Jakarta-Bandung Mega-Urban Region
(JBMUR). However, a rapid urbanization process has also been occurring
in the corridor area between both metropolitan centers. here are both
direct and indirect relations between these two geographical phenomena
which inally lead to the emergence of the Jakarta-Bandung mega-urban
region. In the fourth chapter, that in addition, the struggle of urban poor
communities in Malaysia for housing and land rights is closely related
to the development and history of the country. After the British colonial
period, Malaysia’s priority was to develop its economy by focusing on
the manufacturing and export industry in urban areas. his resulted
when people from rural areas migrating from village to the city, in search
of opportunities and to ill the workforce demand. Most of the urban
migrants would build their own house near the manufacturing factories,
because the surrounding lands were unoccupied and unused. With hard
work and their own resources they would clean the area (wilderness) and
build houses; this would encourage the development in the area and
hence they are known as urban pioneers.
In the ifth chapter the author analyzes the social-welfare fund
called Baitul Mal wat Tamwil (BMT). he authors believe that BMT in
particular and microinance institutions in general is one of the social
welfare movement, getting stronger if you see the development of BMT
in Indonesia, as have been reported by Reuters. he growth of Islamic
microinance institutions (LKMS) in Indonesia is increasingly signiicant.
he main objective of the micro and super micro which is generally being
located in rural areas, LKMS transformed into a small people mover a
tough economy. Currently, there are about three million customers who
xiv
Sociology and Welfare Development
obtained inancial assistant from micro LKMS or BMT.
Chapter six examines the environmental destruction of young
generation to protect and conserve the natural environment. As such,
the key actors in engaging youth participation in environmental action,
be it the government, non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) or
the community, should address the multi-dimensional issues that are
obstacles towards the involvement of the young and come up with
strategies to develop a more intrinsically-motivated participation.
Generally, environmental awareness among youth worldwide is at an
adequate level but it is the translation into action that is still lacking. A
review of the implementation strategies of current environmental action
programs involving youth should be done by the respective organizers
in order to create programs that are fun, hands-on and allows as well
as entrusts youth to apply their environmental knowledge and personal
skills to make key decisions for the future of then environment which
they shall inherit from the present. Hence, there is a need to move
beyond the present, traditional top-down institutionalized approach of
implementing programs towards a more dynamic and lexible approach
in which youth are viewed stakeholders, knowledge sharers and leaders,
and not mere passive participants who carry out the aims dictated by the
organizers.
concentrates on socio-cultural diferences between
hometown and destination areas of Indonesian migrant workers and the
impact towards their health condition. It involves the diferences physical
environment, social, and culture. he diferences of physical environment
involve climate change as well as socio-culture between hometown (Peteuy
Condong Village) and destination (Saudi Arabia). hese diferences
inluence towards the workers health condition related job. Social
diferences are related with social economic status between employers
and workers, that impact to the mental depression of the workers.
Culture diferences are cultures diferentiation between hometown and
destination country. Arabian cultures are introvert and over protected. It
emerge diiculties to access health services. While in the chapter eight,
discuss speciic theme about how to develop any rural community it can
be achieve through the dissemination on the importance of education to
all family members in the rural area. his method is expected to transform
the communities towards appreciating education better. he recognition
of society towards education only, is not enough to enhance the living
standards. Yet, it should be incorporated a the positive attitudes of the
Chapter seven
Sociology and Welfare Development
xv
rural community towards education as a strategy for improving life. At
the same time, the delivery system of the education programs must be
enhanced and it is all depend on the commitment of the school and
teachers of the rural schools as well.
Finally, the last chapter focus on the incidences of child marriage are
no longer pertinent only for less developed country; it actually happens
extensively in diferent parts of the world. Due to psychological and
biological immaturity, children are insuiciently mature to make an
informed decision about a life partner.
his book examines the welfare development issues in the broader
“sociology of welfare development” perspective. It is compiled from
travelers and knowledge experiences in international seminars, talks and
forum of researchers, supervisions and other discussion with my PhD and
Master students. hat experiences, together with their personal values and
interests extremely inluence to all authors in this book. Personally, I hope
that those who engage and read this book will obtain fruitful knowledge.
All errors are the author’s responsibility.
Wassalam.
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin
xvi
Sociology and Welfare Development
Chapter
Poverty
and Social
Development
2
Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin, Ali Maksum,
Indri Indarwati
Readers guide
his chapter explains the wider concepts
of poverty and the role of social development in
Indonesia. Poverty reduction in Indonesia is still
a top priority as part of the holistic programme in
poverty eradication eforts. Nevertheless, poverty
at the same time connotes social exclusion and a
deprivation of the basic human rights in getting
a decent life. his marginalized population is
often excluded from the mainstream society.
he Indonesian government regards social
development as dependent on the development
of the whole person. his chapter focuses on
the poverty dynamics and the signiicant social
changes in the process of development of the
nation. However, social development programme
by itself is comprehensive has changed the poverty
alleviation policies from a macro top-down
Poverty and Social Development
19
approach to a community or household participatory approach. he existence
of the current social development with efective social capital and enforcement
of human rights and social security are expected to improve the social justice
and social welfare of the people in Indonesia.
Introduction
Poverty in Indonesia is recognized internationally, and has been an
area where many practitioners, policy makers, international donors and
scholars interested in. Most of the poverty research in Indonesia generally
has acknowledged that poverty is a dynamic phenomenon since the
poor is a human being that is growing and changing over time. Social
development programme by the government of Indonesia itself has
changed the poverty alleviation policies from a macro top-down approach
into a community or household participatory approach (Villanger and
Enes, 2004). Below are illustration regarding the development of poverty
eradication policies in Indonesia.
MACRO POVERTY DATA
20
Sociology and Welfare Development
MICRO POVERTY DATA
Targetting
Household (HH)
2005 (PSE 05)
2008 (PPLS 2008)
000 HH
%
000 HH
%
Very Poor
3.894,3
20,4
2.989,9
17,1
Poor
8.237,0
43,1
6.828,8
39,1
NEAR POOR
6.969,6
36,5
7.665,3
43,8
TOTAL
19.100,9
100,0
17.484,0
100,0
Poverty
Alleviation
Programme in
Indonesia
Source:
National Socioeconomic Survey (Susenas), conducted every March, number of sampel
68,000 HH Kecuk Suhariyanto, Director Of Statistical Analysis And Development,
Bps-Statistics Indonesia 2011
he two pictures above shows, irst that data macro the x-axis is the
development of the problem of poverty. Trend of the problem of poverty
has declined from 2006 to 2014. he cause is the presence of several
Poverty and Social Development
21
programs and activities organized by the various ministries. Besided that
data micro; the claim targets addressing poverty in Indonesia implemented
by various government sectors. he main target is the poor, near-poor
and very poor.
In the last 10 years, the government has innovated and implemented
several policies to alleviate chronic poverty such as educational subsidy
(Bantuan Operasional Sekolah), scholarships, conditional cash transfers,
community empowerment programmes (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat), credits for small-medium enterprises (microinance) and
infrastructure development projects (Program Pengembangan Kecamatan).
In addition, Government also provides social safety nets to protect the
poor from some external shocks through distributing subsidized rice
(RASKIN), cash transfers (Bantuan Langsung Tunai) and health insurance
targeted to the poor (ASKESKIN). hose policies are deliberated to
cope with transient poverty. Sparrow, Suryahadi and Widyanti (2010)
using the Susenas panel 2005 and 2006 showed that health insurance
targeted to the poor (ASKESKIN) improves access to healthcare in that it
increases utilization of outpatient healthcare among the poor. hus, this
policy would potentially protect households falling into the transitory
poor category due to health shocks.
Development strategy in Indonesia is pro-growth, pro-job and propoor, However, the efectiveness of these policies in alleviating poverty is
still need to re-scrutinized. Evaluating the impact of poverty alleviation
policies in the static term or short period can be diicult since for some
policies there is a lag between policy implementation and the results of
the policy emerging. Further, it is generally acknowledged that the impact
of human capital investment such as education and health on household
welfare cannot be investigated immediately.
POVERTY DYNAMIC AND ITS IMPLICATION
Poverty, Social Exclusion and Human Rights?
Poverty is a contested concept; at a basic level it is about income
(economic). he meanings of poverty has a strong correlation to a broader
level (social exclusion and human rights) and taking into account to security,
autonomy, self-esteem and well-being (De Haan and Maxwell, 1998).
he concept of absolute poverty expressed only in terms of the minimum
needs was considered inappropriate. It is argued that even the needs
22
Sociology and Welfare Development
of food vary from one group to another and it is linked to the context
in which one lives (Townsend, 2008). De Haan and Maxwell (1998)
raise issue for the need for two concepts. “So then why do we need the
concept of social exclusion? Our existing concepts of poverty are broad enough
to encompass the multi-dimensional concerns of the social exclusion school:
and our explanations of poverty certainly cover much of the same territory”.
In answering the query raised, three key issues are identiied. Firstly the
exclusion ofers a framework which includes the institutional processes
causing deprivation. Secondly the exclusion embodies the issues of social
justice which would be a useful tool to investigate the issues connected to
the poverty in developed world. Finally it would help to open up grounds
for a new dialogue, as exclusion will provide opportunities to discuss the
comparisons, convergence and connections.
Poverty has traditionally been deined as low income. Amartya Sen, has
pushed for an understanding of poverty that moves away from an incomebased measure towards a broader conception of human development
(Vizard, 2006). However, poor people generally see poverty through its
diferent manifestations of deprivation: “hunger, undernutrition, illiteracy,
lack of access to basic health services, social discrimination, physical insecurity
and social and political exclusion”. hey are also acutely aware of their
lack of voice and power that leaves them are open to be exploitated and
humiliation. Poverty means “deiciency in necessary properties or desirable
qualities” and it is thus not limited to being in a state of need or lack of
means of subsistence (situations which determine the extent of inancial need
of a person / group). Being impoverished is more than lacking inancial
means. It is inadequacy, destitution and deprivation of economic,
political, and social and human resources. In broader perspective shows
that poverty is multidimensional.
Since the poverty incidence can change over time, it is important
to conduct the dynamic analysis to distinguish between poverty, social
exclusion, human right problems and also to evaluate the efectiveness of
government policies on changing poverty status in Indonesia. here has
been very few analysis in poverty dynamics in Indonesia, i.e. investigating
the welfare movements of a set of households over time; most studies
analyse changes in the poverty incidence, depth and severity of poverty
at a point in time. Dercon and Shapiro (2007) surveyed that the impact
of risks and shocks on poverty mobility has received relatively limited
attentions in the literature of poverty dynamics. Hence, analysis of
poverty dynamics provides intuitions into the efects of socio-economic
Poverty and Social Development
23
and anti-poverty policies and can help policy makers identify policies
that efectively help households to move away from poverty.
Is Poverty A Human Rights Violation?
Poverty is an assault on human dignity, but it can also relected a
violation of human rights when it is the direct consequence of government
policy or is caused by the failure of governments to act. A human rights
approach to poverty calls for a paradigm shift in how we understand
and address poverty. Poverty is a cause and consequence of human rights
violations, while others contend that “Poverty is itself a violation of Human
Rights”. hese arguments, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive,
suggest that violations of human rights can be cause, consequence or
constitutive element of poverty (CESR Human Rights Insights (2008) :
• Cause: his suggests that poverty causes human rights violations – those
living in extreme poverty are not treated as human beings worthy of human
rights, and are discriminated against, often exploited, marginalized and
stigmatized, and denied access to rights and resources on the basis of their
poverty.
• Consequence: his suggests that poverty is a consequence of human
rights violations or in other words, that human rights violations cause
poverty. Violations of human rights e.g. forced eviction from homes or
land, or the destruction or denial of access to productive resources can
clearly cause poverty.
• Constitutive: his argument suggests that poverty, especially extreme
poverty, is in itself a negation of human dignity and therefore a denial of
human rights. Under this view, it is unacceptable to let any human being
live in conditions of degrading deprivation, as neither their physical wellbeing nor their human dignity is protected.
However, these approaches has important practical implications for
the way in which public policies and programmes are designed to address
human rights within the context of poverty reduction strategies. hese
approaches is the growing understanding that “It is the poorest people
in society - those with low incomes, education, insecure health, and
political power - who are most vulnerable to severe abuses of their human
rights.” Whether poverty itself is a violation of human rights depends
on how we deine ‘human rights’ and ‘poverty’; then the relationship
24
Sociology and Welfare Development
with poverty will be framed in a very diferent way than if human rights
are understood to include the full range of rights, including economic
and social rights. Similarly, when the deinition of poverty is broadened
to include the deprivation of capabilities, then its relationship with the
negation of human rights, especially economic and social rights, becomes
clearer. Many have argued that it is simplistic to suggest that all people
living in poverty have sufered from a human rights violation. his would
be problematic because it again simply conlates poverty and human
rights, treating them as one and the same thing.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE?
Urgency of Social Policy Approach
Social policy is especially pertinent, indeed critical, for achievement
of the social development. Kohler & Keane (2006) mentioned that
if it addresses these multiple roles, social policy can be considered
transformative. Transformative social policy aims to enable all people to
equally access their fundamental entitlements, secure and sustain a decent
quality of life, and realize their full potential. It addresses the root causes
and multidimensionality of poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
Transformative social policy is based on the human rights principles of
universalism, equality and non-discrimination, inter-dependence and
interrealatedness, accountability and the rule of law, participation and
inclusion, and indivisibility. A human right base approach to social policy
strengthens the capacities of rights-holders to claim their entitlement
and duty bearers to fulill their obligations, and is therefore empowering
(Makmur Sunusi, 2012).
Social capital is an urgent component in social development. Putnam
(2000) deines social capital refers to connections among individuals –
social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that
arise from them. Grootaert and Narayan (2000) deines social capital
as formal and informal institutions of society, where norms, networks
and social interaction enable people to synchronize action and achieve
preferred goals. While Putnam’s analysis mainly focuses on ‘horizontal’
organizations, in which members related to each other on an equal
basis, Coleman (1988) suggests that it should also include ‘vertical’
organizations, in which the relationships are hierarchical and power is
distributed unequally among members.
Poverty and Social Development
25
Social development have some objectives to social justice and social
welfare. Deacon (2006) argues that altruism can contribute to social
justice and social welfare in a country by the way: reduce social inequalities
- which is a prerequisite to the formation of a common culture and also
to the formation of a harmonious social relations and prosperous in the
country. DuBois and Miley (2005) deine social welfare as those social
provisions and processes directly concerned with the prevention and
treatment of social problems, the development of human resources and
the improvement of quality of life. Both deinitions basically delineate that
social welfare is an institution or a ield of activities involving organized
activities carried out by government and private institutions aimed to
preventing and addressing social problems as well as at improving the
quality of life of individuals, groups, and society. However, redistribution
can and must be achieved through social services are not discriminated
members of society, but rather, can / able to instill a sense of belonging.
Welfare system to regulate or tightly managed by the government
through a rigid case management system known as paternalistic welfare.
Paternalistic welfare is illustrated by the following ive characteristics
government orders, responsibility of the government to the welfare of
its people live, good citizens, embedding social obligations along with
political rights - to form a civil society. Government to act as enforcement
agents, agents make a direction and drive-way (direction) and monitoring
(Siti Hajar Abubakar Ah, Abd. Hadi Zakaria, Muhamad Fadhil Nurdin,
2012).
Social Welfare in Indonesia:
What Goes Wrong & What Should be Done ?
Edi Soeharto (2009) argued that the term social welfare in Indonesia
can be found in Law No. 11 of 2009 concerning “Social Welfare”. he
rate of poverty between 2002 and 2009 tends to decrease, the absolute
number is still considerably high. his gloomy picture of Indonesian
welfare will even look worse if it includes those categorized as “people with
social problems”, dubbed by the Ministry of Social Afairs as “Penyandang
Masalah Kesejahteraan Sosial (PMKS)”, comprising of millions of people,
such as neglected child (3.9 millions), neglected child under ive years (1.5
millions), disabled (3.1 millions), neglected elderly (2.7 miilions) and
other disadvantaged groups (homeless people, beggars, prostitute, persons
with HIV/AIDS, remote traditional community, street children, child
26
Sociology and Welfare Development
labor, etc) accounting for more than 11 millions people (MOSA, 2009).
However, amid the on‐going progress, the progress of other countries
is faster than Indonesia (Husodo, 2006; Suharto, 2008). As a country
with remarkable natural resources and the potentials of comparative
advantages, the downside of Indonesia’s development should make us
aware that something is wrong in the development and the management
of this country. In short and with reference to the Indonesia’s development
strategy and the issues of social welfare development, there is a number
of factors explaining why the country still faces serious and multifaceted
social problems. he mainstream approach of national development in
Indonesia relies heavily on economic growth and foreign debt within the
context of neoliberalism policy interventions. While it lacks of strategies
that have direct impacts on poverty, the economy is often vulnerable due
to “debt trap” and global crisis.
What Goes Wrong ?
Poverty alleviation programmes
are dominated by “project‐oriented” interventions employing ad‐hoc, partial and residual
methods.
Poverty reduction programmes
such as Family Hope Program
(Program Keluarga Harapan/
PKH), Rice for the Poor (Beras
Miskin/Raskin), and National
Program of Community Empowerment (Program Nasional
Pemberdayaan
Masyarakat/
PNPM) are targeted to the poor.
his approach cannot prevent
people from becoming poor since
beneiciaries should be poor irst
before receiving the anti‐poverty
programmes.
What Should be Done ?
he result of development
should beneits all people
In the past, the results of
development beneited only a
small portion of community
which caused socio‐ economic
gap. Now, we need to reform the
process of development to make
it more poor people‐oriented
by providing chances to people
with social problems to get an
access to development resources,
including easy access to capital,
social services and sustainable
social protection schemes. he
poverty reduction programmes
that have afect on direct income
distributions to the poor need to
be expanded, not be down‐sized.
Poverty and Social Development
27
Public policy is mainly concerned with state administration and bureaucracy afairs. It
lacks of responding social policy issues concerned with such
welfare strategies as social rehabilitation, social security, social
empowerment and social protection which are administered
in institutionalised and sustainable ways.
For example, cash transfer
programs such as Unconditional
Cash Transfer or BLT and Family
Hope Program or PKH need
to be integrated into National
Social Security System (Sistem
Jaminan Sosial Nasional/SJSN)
schemes so that the poor and
other citizens can be protected
by the institutionalized social
protection schemes.
State commitment and obliga- he strategies of development
tion towards the fulillment of need to considers human being
citizen’s social rights are low.
as subject of development
Indonesia notes very good progress
over the past two years in reallocating spending (from ineicient
subsidies) towards pro‐poor programmes. However, this country is
still considered under‐spending in
key sectors, such as infrastructure
and health. For example, the level
of spending on the infrastructure
and health sectors, accounting for
10.2 percent and 4.2 percent of
total expenditures respectively, is
rather low by most international
standards (World Bank, 2007).
Decentralization tends to limit
the responsibility and capacity
of local government in dealing
with social problems.
he paradigm of development
in the past focused more on
economic growth and physical
development, and considered
human being as objects, so
it caused dehumanization in
development. he existence of
people with social problems
as objects of social welfare
development had positioned
them as passive recipients of
social assistance which was given
as charity.
he approaches of development
need to relect on local potentials
and culture
In the past, development
When receiving the allocation of tended to standardize models of
power from central governement, development and hence to ignore
local potentials and culture.
many local governments,
28
Sociology and Welfare Development
especially at district level (kabupaten/kota), are applying the principle of “functions follow money”
rather than “money follow functions.” Moreover, in terms of local
regulations (PERDA), decentralisation has produced a number of
PERDAs that are “not pro‐poor”.
Lessons Learned
Economic development is necessary for the improvement of quality of life in a country. In order
to be equitable and sustainable,
economic development should be
done fairly and in accordance with
the development of social welfare.
Social welfare is an important element in social policy strategies for
eradicating poverty and reducing
multidimensional
deprivation.
But social welfare is not the only
approach of poverty reduction
initiatives. In order to have sustainable and efective results, it
needs to be implemented in combination with other approaches
within the overall context of socio‐economic development. Social welfare policies should be put
integrativelly within a broader set
of policies on macro‐economic
development, employment programs, and education and health
policies and be established to reduce risks and deprivation as well
as to encourage growth with equity and sustainability.
As a result, people with social
problems become dependent
upon external assistance. he
improvement of wellbeing of
people with social problems
need to involve active role, care
and capacity of the people in
accordance with their potentials
and culture.
Basic social services are
provided for all citizens
In the past, basic social services
could only be enjoyed by the
wealthy people or by selected poor
(narrow targeting approach).
Accessibility to basic social
services should be open to all
people (universal approach),
including people with social
problem who so far have been
marginalized.
Empowerment
of
people
with social problems become
joint‐commitment between the
central government and local
government
During the centralistic era, poverty
eradication was the responsibility
of
central
government.
Following the decentralization
of development, the policies
and programs of empowerment
should be the responsibility of
both central government and
local government.
Poverty and Social Development
29
he relationship between central
and local government is no
longer structural but functional.
Local governments need to have
strong political will in designing
and implementing social welfare
programmes for their citizens.
Empowerment of people with
social problems is done on
individual, family, group and
community basis, and in an
integrated way
In the past, the emphasis of
intervention of people with
social problems was on group
approach. Assistance was in
uniform in the form of objects/
tools. Empowerment of people
with social problems should not
be done by group approach only,
but also by individual, family,
group and community approach.
he facilities to be provided
should also be in various forms
in accordance with the potentials
and needs of people with social
problems, including access to
inancial assistance.
Source: adopted and modiied from Edi Soeharto, 2009
30
Sociology and Welfare Development
Poverty Eradication in Indonesia: a glimpse
In the context of Indonesia, the above deinitions and concepts
clearly match yet some are not it in. It was undeniable that poverty
in Indonesia is one of serious problem which government and society
concerned about. However, refer to the current situation in Indonesia
government also taking into account this problem seriously through
some programmes especially in health and education subsidies. In Jakarta
the Indonesian capital city for instance, the local authority launched
namely Kartu Jakarta Sehat (Jakarta’s Health Card) and Kartu Jakarta
Pintar (Jakarta’s Smart Card) to assist people who categorized as low
economic family to obtain health and education facilities. In the national
level, Indonesian government hardly struggle to arrange programmes and
subsidies in order to eradicate poverty.
he funding to assist poor groups in Indonesia seen signiicantly
enlarge notably when government decided to increase oil prices which
indirectly afected basic needs prices automatically at the end of President
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono term. As mentioned before the programmes
launched were Unconditional Cash Transfer or BLT (Bantuan Langsung
Tunai) and Family Hope Program or PKH (Program Keluarga Harapan)
and National Social Security System (Sistem Jaminan Sosial Nasional/
SJSN) (Edi Suharto, 2009). Public hospitals also provided free treatment
for poor family through Public Health Insurance or Jaminan Kesehatan
Masyarakat (JAMKESMAS) and local governments provided Region
Public Health Insurance or Jaminan Kesehatan Daerah (JAMKESDA).
However, at the implementation some poor family did not know if
they have health insurance due to the minimum publication from local
or district authority. Fortunately, some public hospitals make it easier
where as long as the application is endorsed by Ministry of Social Afairs
they will obtain all services free of charge. In order to accelerate villages
development, Indonesian government launched a programme namely
National Empowerment of Independent Villages Society Program or
PNPM Mandiri Perdesaan (Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat
Mandiri Perdesaan). For urban poor society government launched similar
programme to PNPM Mandiri Perdesaan so-called PNPM Mandiri
Perkotaan (Paket Informasi 2012 – 2013).
Of course, there were existed some weaknesses in the policy
implementation, yet at least government along with all stake holders
and society has made a successful joint cooperation. Some criticized that
Poverty and Social Development
31
Indonesia’s progress relatively slow and other countries make faster progress.
Furthermore, some initiatives suspected as caused of chronic corruption,
collusion and nepotism (KKN) and inequality between rich and the poor
(Edi Suharto, 2009). Nevertheless, as Edi Suharto (2009) recognized
that the progresses of programs are very slowly. However, having some
initiatives and programs it indicates that poor people obtained serious
attention by Indonesian government. here were actually far from socalled “human rights abuses” at the poverty phenomena in Indonesia. After
the reformasi (reformation) in 1998 Indonesian government demanded
by society to take serious attention concerning poverty problem. hus,
in this context the concept so-called “social exclusion” is not suitable to
apply in Indonesian poverty phenomena. Conversely, there were existed
some so-called “togetherness” among society due to all people realized
that problems could not be resolved individually. hese phenomena
existed due to the local culture and wisdom so-called “gotong-royong”
or togetherness as a special heritage embedded in all level of society in
Indonesia.
hese phenomena in Indonesia are not about violence and not
about human right abuses. It is about government performance and
bureaucracy. As long as government can perform clean and accountable
administration it is believe that poverty can be resolved quickly. It can
be seen that this discussion are not airm in relation to the so-called
“violence” regarding the main theme of this conference. Violence is
close correlation with insecurity situation. Some scholars gave argument
regarding human security. In the context of socio-political life, human
security is very connected to the basic rights of the citizens and the impact
of the government’s public policies towards social life. Not surprisingly
“he literature on these subjects is rich not only in analysis of particular
problems and causes, but also in implications for public policy (Hampson
2008, 230). At times, this will mean that human security should operate
less as a policy agenda within existing political structures and discourses
than as a radical critique of those practices (Bellamy and McDonald
2002, 376).
Whereas, Kanti Bajpai (2000) explicitly highlights that security
is symbolized by the protection from the threat of disease, hunger,
unemployment, crime, social conlict, political repression, and
environmental hazards. Simply, in treating human security as a policy
agenda, most criticisms of this approach have departed from the way
security is constituted and operates in the international system: they
32
Sociology and Welfare Development
necessarily obscure the political nature of security (2000, 283). hus,
McDonald (2002) suggested that researchers have to turn against
government’s policy implementation and its impact towards human
security. McDonald also pointed out that “one of alternative security
policy agendas is competing for policymakers’ attention, and subsequent
implementation“ (2002, 284).
Once policy makers have been targeted, the challenge for analysts
addressing prescriptive approaches to security is to outline why a particular
discourse is consistent with the interests of tha