Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue3.1997:

American higher education system: consumerism
versus professorialism

Steve O. M ichael
Assistant Pro fe sso r o f Highe r Educ atio n Administratio n, Graduate Sc ho o l o f
Educ atio n, Ke nt State Unive rsity, Ke nt, Ohio , USA
Suggests that institutions of
higher education in the USA
encounter problems that are
unique to the market environment. These problems include
competition for resources,
escalating costs, and resource
constraints. In response to
these problems, higher education systems within this
kind of environment tend to
borrow strategies from organizations operating under the
most competitive environment – the business sector.
Discusses specifi c strategies
adopted by institutions of
higher education in North
America. Examines how these

strategies have affected the
culture of higher education.
Discusses the shift occurring
between the consumerismprofessorialism continuum.
Calls for the need to understand the dual nature of
higher education so that
strategies can be selectively
adapted.

The author wishes to thank
Dr Michael Schwartz,
President Emeritus and Dr
Beverly Shaklee for their
useful comments.

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 ,3 [ 1997] 1 1 7 –1 3 0
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]

Introduction
In a ver y in ter estin g text, Bir n ba u m (1988)
obser ved th e r a th er pa r a doxica l n a tu r e of th e
Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system (p. 3). He
obser ved th a t, on on e h a n d, th e Am er ica n
h igh er edu ca tion system r em a in s th e en vy of
th e wor ld. At h om e, it con tin u es to en joy a
sizea ble favou r a ble ba la n ce of tr a de, m ea n in g
th a t th e n u m ber of for eign stu den ts en r ollin g
in US in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion fa r
ou tn u m ber s th e n u m ber of US stu den ts seek in g edu ca tion a br oa d. Abr oa d, th e Am er ica n
h igh er edu ca tion system con tin u es to a ttr a ct
th e a tten tion of sch ola r s, a s dem on str a ted by
th e la r ge n u m ber of for eign jou r n a ls fea tu r in g a r ticles a bou t th is system , a n d a s dem on str a ted by th e la r ge n u m ber of US sch ola r s
m a k in g pr esen ta tion s a t in ter n a tion a l con fer en ces a bou t th e pr oblem s a n d su ccesses of
th e system of h igh er edu ca tion in th e USA.
However, in spite of th is sizea ble favou r a ble
ba la n ce of tr a de, cr iticism of th e Am er ica n
h igh er edu ca tion system h a s been on th e

in cr ea se, m ost n ota bly in th e USA itself. It is
fa ir to say th a t n ever in th e h istor y of th e
system h ave th er e been so m a n y exper t a n d
n on -exper t pr on ou n cem en ts on h ow th e system h a s fa iled th e n a tion a n d on wh a t solu tion s to th is fa ilu r e th e lea der s of h igh er
edu ca tion sh ou ld a dopt to r ever se th e situ a tion . Th e Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system
is in cr ea sin gly seen a s a poor ly m a n a ged
en ter pr ise a n d, a s n oted by Keller (1983), it is
a m on g “th e lea st bu sin esslik e a n d [lea st] well
m a n a ged of a ll or ga n iza tion s” (p. 5).
Given th is pa r a dox, Bir n ba u m (1988) m a de
th r ee r a th er in ter estin g specu la tion s: per h a ps th e system is su ccessfu l beca u se it is
poor ly m a n a ged; per h a ps th e system is su ccessfu l bu t ca n be im pr oved w ith a better
m a n a gem en t; or per h a ps th e system is su ccessfu l in spite of its m a n a gem en t. He fu r th er
n oted th a t if th e fir st scen a r io h olds, a n
im pr ovem en t of th e m a n a gem en t of th e
Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system m ay be
cou n ter -pr odu ctive. If th e secon d scen a r io
h olds, im pr oved m a n a gem en t m ay en h a n ce
th e su ccess of th e system . If th e th ir d scen a r io h olds, im pr oved m a n a gem en t w ill h ave
n o bea r in g on th e su ccess of th e system a n d

th u s w ill con stitu te a w a ste of effor t.

A fou r th specu la tion is a lso possible: it is a
scen a r io u n der wh ich a ll th r ee of Bir n ba u m ’s
specu la tion s a r e tr u e. In th e fir st in sta n ce,
wh a t is seen a s “poor ly m a n a ged” m ay
depen d on th e en tr epr en eu r ia l len ses bein g
u sed to exa m in e th e h igh er edu ca tion system ,
a n d to th e exten t th a t th e system differ s fr om
th e bu sin ess sector, a w illy-n illy a doption of
bu sin ess str a te gies m ay becom e cou n ter pr odu ctive in h igh er edu ca tion . In th e secon d
in sta n ce, to con clu de th a t th er e is n o a spect of
th e Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system th a t
ca n ben efi t fr om im pr oved m a n a gem en t w ill
con stitu te a specia l a ca dem ic a r r oga n ce
(Sh a pir o cited in O’Br ien a n d Siya h i, 1989).
F in a lly, a s h a s been th e exper ien ce of m a n y
a dm in istr a tor s w ith in th is system , som e
m a n a gem en t str a te gies th a t h ave been
a dopted in h igh er edu ca tion h ave little

or n o effect on in stitu tion a l ou tcom es.
Con sequ en tly, th ese str a te gies m ay well be
seen a s a n exer cise in fu tility, especia lly a s fa r
a s th e a ca dem ic side of th e system is con cer n ed.
Adm in istr a tor s a n d stu den ts of Am er ica n
h igh er edu ca tion m u st con tin u e to exa m in e
th e n a tu r e of th eir or ga n iza tion s, beca u se it
is on ly w ith a good u n der sta n din g of h igh er
edu ca tion , a n d m ost especia lly its pecu lia r
cu ltu r e, th a t th ey ca n k n ow wh ich str a te gies
to a dopt a n d wh ich on es to r eject. It is w ith
th is pu r pose in m in d th a t th is pa per r eview s
m odels for cla ssifyin g h igh er edu ca tion system s, in a n effor t to sh ow differ en ces in th e
en vir on m en ts of h igh er edu ca tion . Th e pa per
a lso exa m in es con str a in ts th a t a r e com m on
to h igh er edu ca tion system s loca ted w ith in
en vir on m en ts th a t a r e iden tica l to th a t of th e
USA a n d iden tifies str a te gies th a t h ave been
a dopted in th e USA to r edu ce th ese
con str a in ts. F u r th er m or e, th e pa per

discu sses th e im plica tion s of str a te gies
a dopted for th e con su m er ism -“pr ofessor ia lism ” con tin u u m a n d con clu des w ith a
r em in der of th e du a lism of con tr ols in th e
Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system .

Models for classifying higher
education systems
Th e ter m “h igh er edu ca tion system ” is often
u sed to descr ibe a collection of post-secon da r y

[ 117 ]

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

[ 118 ]

in stitu tion s oper a tin g w ith in a defin ed geogr a ph ica l a r ea a n d u n der a specific “gover n m en t” a dm in istr a tion . In th is pa per, a sta te
h igh er edu ca tion r efer s to a post-secon da r y
edu ca tion system w ith in a pa r ticu la r sta te,
wh ile th e Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system
r efer s to th e a ggr e ga te of a ll th e sta te system s
a n d per h a ps sh ou ld h ave been ter m ed th e
“Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion su pr a system ”.
Bir n ba u m (1988) r em in ds u s th a t m odels
a r e m er ely r epr esen ta tion s of ph en om en a
u n der con sider a tion a n d th a t th ey ca n
n eith er be r igh t n or w r on g bu t ca n be m or e or
less in for m a tive. Good m odels, th er efor e,
pr ovide in sigh tfu l w ays to u n der sta n d com plex ph en om en a a n d h igh er edu ca tion system s (a s com plex ph en om en a ) w ill con tin u e
to ben efit fr om discu ssion s of m odels th a t a id
ou r u n der sta n din g of su ch system s. Th e
a u th or of th is pa per is well aw a r e of th e m a n y
cr iticism s su r r ou n din g a ttem pts to develop
m odels for cla ssifyin g h igh er edu ca tion system s. For exa m ple, it is le gitim a te to qu estion

th e n eed for th e exer cise given th e com plexity
of h igh er edu ca tion system s wor ldw ide. It is
a lso le gitim a te to be con cer n ed a bou t a n
a ttem pt to lu m p togeth er system s th a t a r e
seem in gly differ en t, on th e ba sis of on ly a few
fa ctor s. However, it is th e a u th or ’s view th a t
th e com plexity of a ta sk m u st n ot be a n
excu se to declin e fu r th er deliber a tion s. Models th a t pr ovide a ddition a l or a lter n a tive
w ays of look in g a t h igh er edu ca tion system s
deser ve th e a tten tion of sch ola r s.
Un der sta n din g h igh er edu ca tion system s
a n d th e politica l-econ om ic for ces sh a pin g
th em a r e cr u cia l to th e a ppr ecia tion of th e
dyn a m ics w ith in in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion . For exa m ple, h ow h igh er edu ca tion
r espon ds to th e qu estion of a ccou n ta bility (in
ter m s of wh a t per for m a n ce in dica tor s to
a dopt) w ill depen d on wh eth er th e system is
oper a tin g u n der a socia l dem a n d a ppr oa ch or
a m a n power a ppr oa ch , a n d wh eth er th e system is oper a tin g u n der a cen tr a lized or decen tr a lized a ppr oa ch . A few of th ese m odels a r e
discu ssed in th is pa per.

Sever a l m odels for cla ssifyin g h igh er edu ca tion system s exist in th e liter a tu r e. Som e of
th ese a ttem pt to iden tify com m on elem en ts
a m on g va r iou s h igh er edu ca tion system s
w ith th e a im of cla ssifyin g a n d ca te gor izin g
th em a ccor din gly. Oth er s seek to cla ssify
h igh er edu ca tion system s on th e ba sis of
politica l-econ om ic system s wh ich sh a pe th e
str u ctu r e of h igh er edu ca tion . For exa m ple,
th e level of econ om ic developm en t in flu en ces
th e type of h igh er edu ca tion a dopted fr om
cou n tr y to cou n tr y (E u r ich , 1981). Sim s (1982)
obser ved th a t h igh er edu ca tion system s
wou ld be in fl u en ced by a cou n tr y’s econ om ic
goa ls a n d a gen da .

However, E u r ich (1981) n oted th a t “per h a ps
even m or e for m a tive th a n econ om ic a spects
in in flu en cin g h igh er edu ca tion system s is
th e politica l str u ctu r e a n d sta n ce of th e gover n m en t” (p. 7) a n d th a t “h igh er edu ca tion
system s, in over a ll str u ctu r e, m ir r or th e

politica l for m of th eir cou n tr ies” (p. 28). On
th is n ote, Mayn a r d (1982) pr ovided a collective-liber a l con tin u u m m odel for cla ssifyin g
h igh er edu ca tion system s. Mayn a r d sta ted
th a t:
Wh ile th e objective of th e collective/ socia list ideology is to a lloca te th e sca r ce edu ca tion r esou r ces r e ga r dless of th e a bility a n d
th e w illin gn ess of th e r ecipien ts to pay, th e
objective of th e m a r k et/ liber a l ideology is to
a lloca te on th e ba sis of th e a bility a n d th e
w illin gn ess of th e r ecipien t to pay (p. 60).

In a n a ttem pt to cla ssify h igh er edu ca tion
system s a lon g th e cen tr a lized-decen tr a lized
con tin u u m m odel, Millett (1979) expla in ed
th a t:
th e m or e plu r a listic th e socio-politica l str u ctu r e, th e gr ea ter th e diver sity in th e or ga n iza tion a n d oper a tion of in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion . Th e m or e m on olith ic th e
socio-econ om ic str u ctu r e, th e m or e positive
a n d deter m in ed a r e th e th r u sts tow a r d
gover n m en ta l pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t.
Th e m or e eviden t th e u n ita r y or ga n iza tion a l a r r a n gem en t of th e n a tion , th e m or e

h igh ly cen tr a lized a r e th e pla n n in g pr a ctices a n d th e fewer th e eviden ces of in stitu tion a l a u ton om y. Th e m or e feder a lly or ga n ized th e n a tion , th e m or e pla n n in g pr a ctices a r e decen tr a lized a n d th e gr ea ter a r e
th e differ en ces in th e types of h igh er edu ca tion pla n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t pr a cticed
(pp. 14-15).

Th er efor e, th e m or e decen tr a lized th e politica l system is, th e m or e plu r a listic th e sociopolitica l str u ctu r e, a n d th e m or e diver se th e
or ga n iza tion a n d oper a tion of in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion w ill be. As n oted by Cla r k
(1983), cou n tr ies w ith h igh ly cen tr a lized
gover n m en ta l con tr ols su ch a s Ita ly, Spa in ,
a n d Sweden , a dopt a sin gle system of h igh er
edu ca tion , wh ile cou n tr ies w ith feder a l system s (i.e. decen tr a lized con tr ols) su ch a s
Ca n a da , Au str a lia , Mexico, a n d th e USA, ten d
to a dopt m u ltiple system s of h igh er edu ca tion . It is a lso gen er a lly tr u e th a t cou n tr ies
lea n in g tow a r ds a u th or ita r ia n ism ten d to be
h igh ly cen tr a lized, wh ile cou n tr ies lea n in g
tow a r ds dem ocr a cy ten d to a dopt a decen tr a lized a ppr oa ch .
Cla r k (1983) pr ovided a sta te-m a r k et m odel
for cla ssifyin g h igh er edu ca tion system s.
Th is m odel is ba sed on Lin dblom ’s expla n a tion (a s cited in Cla r k , 1983):
Histor ica lly, th e a lter n a tive to gover n m en ta liza tion of a n a tion a l politico-econ om ic
system h a s been th e m a r k et. An d ju st a s

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

h ier a r ch ica l, bu r ea u cr a tic, a n d gover n m en ta l system s a r ise fr om th e a u th or ity r ela tion , so m a r k et system s a r ise fr om th e sim ple exch a n ge r ela tion … N ot m er ely a
m eth od for r esh u fflin g th e possession of
th in gs, exch a n ge is a m eth od of con tr ollin g
beh aviou r a n d of or ga n izin g co-oper a tion
a m on g m en (p. 138).

Given th is u n der sta n din g, Cla r k (1983) pr oceeded to loca te six cou n tr ies on th e sta tem a r k et con tin u u m sh ow n in Ta ble I. Cla r k
(1983) a r gu ed th a t n a tion s often m ove a lon g
th is con tin u u m a n d Hexta ll (1988) obser ved
th a t Br ita in h a s sh ifted con sider a bly tow a r ds
th e m a r k et lin k a ge. Mich a el (1991) expla in ed
th a t “wh ile Ca n a da m ay be descr ibed a s a
decen tr a lized system a t th e n a tion a l level,
th er e is a con sider a ble bu r ea u cr a tic in fl u en ce on h igh er edu ca tion system s a t th e
pr ovin cia l level of gover n m en t” (p. 62). Th er efor e, a ttem pts to cla ssify h igh er edu ca tion
system s is often fr a u gh t w ith pr oblem s.
N ever th eless, Mich a el (1991) obser ved th a t
m ost of th e m odels in existen ce ten d to
descr ibe h igh er edu ca tion fr om th e su pply
side a n d a r gu ed for a m odel th a t descr ibes
both th e su pply a n d dem a n d sides of h igh er
edu ca tion . F igu r e 1 pr ovides a ba sis for cla ssifyin g types of h igh er edu ca tion system s

Table I
State -marke t c o ntinuum
Sweden
Franc e
State
administration

UK

Canada

Japan

USA
Market
linkage

Figure 1
Type s o f marke t syste ms o f highe r e duc atio n (adapte d fro m Mic hae l, 1 9 9 1 ,
p. 6 6 )

th a t ta k es in to con sider a tion both sides. Th e
fir st con tin u u m descr ibes th e exten t to wh ich
a h igh er edu ca tion system oper a tes u n der a
socia l dem a n d a ppr oa ch a n d a m a n power
pla n n in g a ppr oa ch . Un der th e socia l dem a n d
a ppr oa ch , dem a n d for pr ogr a m m es a n d
cou r ses deter m in es th eir ava ila bility. Un der
th e m a n power pla n n in g a ppr oa ch ,
pr ogr a m m e offer in gs w ill be ba sed on a pr edeter m in ed m a n power n eed for va r iou s pr ofession s. Th er efor e, if a cou n tr y decides th a t
X n u m ber of tea ch er s a n d Y n u m ber of m edica l doctor s n eed to be pr odu ced w ith in th e
n ext five yea r s, th e a lloca tion of r esou r ces
w ill r efl ect th is decision . Th e secon d con tin u u m descr ibes th e exten t to wh ich a h igh er
edu ca tion system is cen tr a lized or decen tr a lized. A cen tr a lized system im plies th a t a
cen tr a l co-or din a tin g a gen cy deter m in es
pr ogr a m m e offer in gs a n d r esou r ce a lloca tion s, wh ile a decen tr a lized system leaves
th is decision to ea ch in stitu tion .
Ba sed on th is m odel, h igh er edu ca tion
system s ca n be cla ssified a s oper a tin g u n der a
fr ee m a r k et (qu a dr a n t I), a pa r tia l m a r k et
(qu a dr a n t II), a con tr olled system (qu a dr a n t
III), a n d a con tr olled com petition (qu a dr a n t
IV). Per h a ps it is a ppr opr ia te to n ote a t th is
ju n ctu r e th a t econ om ists a r e in a gr eem en t
th a t a per fectly fr ee m a r k et is on ly a n a ca dem ic con cept sin ce th e con dition s of fr ee en tr y
a n d exit a n d per fect pr odu cer a n d con su m er
k n ow ledge of m a r k et a ctivities h a r dly exist in
r ea lity. However, th e u se of th e ter m “fr ee
m a r k et” does n ot pr esen t a n y ser iou s pr oblem s a m on g econ om ists, bu t th e lim ita tion of
th e ter m is well u n der stood a n d a pplies in
th is pa per.
Th e sh a ded por tion (qu a dr a n t I) r epr esen ts
h igh er edu ca tion system s ch a r a cter ized by
h igh com petition , gr ea ter pa r ticipa tion by
pr iva te in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion ,
gr ea ter fr eedom a n d ca pa city of poten tia l
stu den ts to ch oose a m on g su bstitu ta ble in stitu tion s, a gr ea ter r elia n ce on th e m a r k et
for ces to dr ive u p edu ca tion a l qu a lity, a n d a
gr ea ter in stitu tion a l a u ton om y a n d a ca dem ic
fr eedom . Th is qu a dr a n t r epr esen ts th e ca tegor y to wh ich Am er ica n a n d Ca n a dia n system s of h igh er edu ca tion a n d sever a l system s
in Wester n n a tion s belon g (per h a ps m or e for
th e Am er ica n system th a n th a t of Ca n a da ). It
is n o su r pr ise, th er efor e, to fi n d th a t system s
of h igh er edu ca tion in Wester n n a tion s a r e
str u gglin g w ith sim ila r pr oblem s, a lth ou gh
th e in ten sity a n d sever ity of ea ch pr oblem
differ s fr om cou n tr y to cou n tr y.

Constraints in American higher
education systems
Source : adapte d fro m Mic hae l, 1 9 9 1 , p. 6 6

Cer ta in pr oblem s a r e pecu lia r to h igh er edu ca tion system s loca ted w ith in th e sh a ded

[ 119 ]

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

por tion of F igu r e 1. Th ese con str a in ts or
pr oblem s in clu de com petition for stu den ts,
com petition for r esou r ces in gen er a l, fin a n cia l con str a in ts, in cr ea sed dem a n d for
a ccou n ta bility, a qu est for a m or e cu stom er or ien ted ser vice, con flictin g gover n m en t
a ction s/ in a ction , a n d pr oblem s a ssocia ted
w ith in ter n a l cost m a n a gem en t.

Competition for students
Th e la n dsca pe of th e Am er ica n h igh er edu ca tion system ch a n ged w ith th e pr ediction of
en r olm en t declin e. Sever a l w r iter s pr edicted
a sh or tfa ll in th e n u m ber of people seek in g
h igh er edu ca tion . For exa m ple, Gooda ll (1980)
a ttr ibu ted th e sh or tfa ll to “a dim in ish in g
pool of h igh -sch ool gr a du a tes” (p. 12).
Sch m idt (1989) pr edicted th a t “between 1988
a n d 1996, th e n u m ber of h igh sch ool gr a du a tes w ill dr op 12 per cen t fr om 2.76 m illion to
a 20-yea r low of 2.44 m illion ” (p. 367). E ven
in stitu tion s th a t h ave tr a dition a lly en joyed
excess dem a n d for a dm ission cou ld n ot tu r n a
dea f ea r to th ese pr ediction s.
As a r esu lt of th e blea k en r olm en t for eca sts,
w r iter s pr edicted k een com petition for stu den ts in h igh er edu ca tion . Th e 1980s a n d
ea r ly 1990s wer e pr edicted to be per iods in
wh ich in stitu tion a l su r viva l wou ld be th e
n u m ber on e con cer n of a dm in istr a tor s of
h igh er edu ca tion . Bu t in cr ea sed com petition
for stu den ts w a s goin g to h a ppen w ith or
w ith ou t th e pr ediction . An in cr ea sin g n u m ber of gover n m en ts wer e tyin g en r olm en t
sta tistics w ith fu n din g a n d, wh er e a n en r olm en t-dr iven bu dget w a s a dopted, a dm in istr a tor s of in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion wer e
a u tom a tica lly in du ced to becom e m or e com petitive for stu den ts.
Wh ile som e in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion in th e USA exper ien ced gr ow th in
th eir en r olm en ts, oth er in stitu tion s did
exper ien ce en r olm en t declin e a n d wh ile som e
pr ogr a m m es exper ien ced gr ow th , oth er pr ogr a m m es wer e discon tin u ed or r edu ced a s a
r esu lt of en r olm en t declin e. Cu r r en tly, som e
in stitu tion s a r e still exper ien cin g en r olm en t
declin e.
Changing demography of students
E n r olm en t for eca ster s wer e a ccu r a te a s to th e
dim in ish in g pool of h igh -sch ool gr a du a tes
a n d a s to th e in cr ea sed com petition for stu den ts in h igh er edu ca tion , bu t over a ll, en r olm en t sta tistics both in Ca n a da a n d in th e
USA did n ot declin e in th e m a n n er pr edicted.
Th e declin e in tr a dition a l coh or ts w a s offset
by a n in cr ea se in th e n u m ber of n on -tr a dition a l stu den ts en r ollin g in in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion in both cou n tr ies. For
exa m ple, Uh l a n d Ma cKin n on (1992) r epor ted
th a t:
[ 120 ]

pa r ticipa tion r a tes in cr ea sed con sider a bly
[in Ca n a da ] … in pa r t a s a r eflection of th e
desir e of m a n y people ou tside th e tr a dition a l 18-24 a ge gr ou p to follow colle ge or
u n iver sity cou r ses. In 1990, stu den ts 25
yea r s of a ge a n d older con stitu ted 24 per
cen t of a ll fu ll-tim e u n iver sity en r olm en ts
com pa r ed to 18 per cen t in 1975. Th eir n u m ber s gr ew fr om a bou t 70,000 in 1975 to n ea r ly
130,000 in 1990. In 1976, older stu den ts con stitu ted 12 per cen t of fu ll-tim e colle ge en r olm en ts com pa r ed to 16 per cen t in 1988, th eir
n u m ber s in cr ea sin g fr om 11,000 to 50,000. As
a r esu lt, th ese older stu den ts a r e becom in g
ver y m u ch a pa r t of th e u n iver sity a n d colle ge scen es (p. 48).

(Th e Ca n a dia n scen e m ay, h owever, be sh ow in g a ctu a l declin e in en r olm en t cu r r en tly.)
Sim ila r occu r r en ce w a s r epor ted in th e USA
by Webb (1993) wh o n oted th a t :
th e la te 1970s w itn essed th e be gin n in g of
sign ifica n t dem ogr a ph ic ph en om en a in
post-secon da r y edu ca tion . Th e bir th r a te in
th e Un ited Sta tes decr ea sed between 1965
a n d 1980, wh ich r esu lted in a decr ea se in th e
n u m ber of tr a dition a l colle ge-a ge (18-24)
stu den ts. Th is decr ea se h a s been offset by a n
in cr ea se in n on -tr a dition a l stu den ts. Th e
n on -tr a dition a l popu la tion in clu des wom en ,
m in or ity gr ou ps, im m igr a n ts, h a n dica pped
in dividu a ls, a n d older people (p. 205).

Also, P a r k er a n d Mor r ow -An der son (1989)
r epor ted th a t “colle ge pa r ticipa tion r a tes a n d
in cr ea sed n u m ber s of a du lts a tten din g colle ge h ave blu n ted th e a n ticipa ted im pa ct of
fewer 18-yea r -olds on colle ge en r olm en ts”
(p. 342). In a ddition , th e m a ssive u n em ploym en t a ssocia ted w ith th e econ om ic sh ift
(fr om in du str ia l to h igh tech n ology to in for m a tion -r ela ted jobs) in th e USA, r esu lted in
in cr ea sed dem a n d for h igh er edu ca tion .
Apa r t fr om th e in cr ea se in th e pa r ticipa tion r a tes of a du lt stu den ts, th e pr opor tion of
m in or ity stu den ts en ter in g in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion in th e USA in cr ea sed con sider a bly du r in g th e 1980s. Th e pr esen ce of
a du lt a n d m in or ity stu den ts in a la r ge n u m ber in Am er ica n in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion a ffected som e of th e ser vices pr ovided by
th ese in stitu tion s.

Competition for resources
As m en tion ed ea r lier, com petition is a m a jor
ch a r a cter istic of a n y h igh er edu ca tion system loca ted w ith in th e sh a ded a r ea of F igu r e
2. However, com petition for r esou r ces h a s
esca la ted for Am er ica n in stitu tion s of h igh er
edu ca tion . Un til r ecen tly, in tr a -sector a l com petition w a s th e m a in con cer n of colle ge a n d
u n iver sity a dm in istr a tor s. For exa m ple,
colle ges of sim ila r m ission s w ith in close
pr oxim ity a r e m or e lik ely to com pete for
r esou r ces a m on g th em selves th a n com pete

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
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Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

w ith in stitu tion s ou tside th e colle ge sector
even th ou gh th ey m ay be closer in pr oxim ity
(Mich a el, 1991).
However, a dm in istr a tor s h ave h a d to wor r y
n ot on ly a bou t com petition fr om oth er in stitu tion s w ith in a n d ou tside th eir sector s, bu t
fr om oth er n on -edu ca tion -r ela ted socia l ser vice sector s. For exa m ple, Sca n n ell (1993)
n oted th a t:
In 1982, N ew Yor k spen t $330 m illion for a
28,000-pr ison er popu la tion . In 1992, th e Sta te
of N ew Yor k spen t $1.3 billion , fou r tim es
wh a t w a s spen t in 1982, for a 61,000-pr ison er
popu la tion or a 270 per cen t in cr ea se in sta te
fu n din g in con sta n t dolla r s. Du r in g th a t
sa m e per iod of tim e, fu n din g for h igh er
edu ca tion in th is sta te fell 8 per cen t in
con sta n t dolla r s (p. 2).

In Oh io, fr om 1984-1985 to 1994-1995, th e pr opor tion of th e sta te gen er a l r even u e fu n d
a lloca ted to h igh er edu ca tion decr ea sed fr om
14.1 per cen t to 12.3 per cen t. With in th a t
per iod of tim e, th e pr opor tion goin g in to
Medica id ju m ped fr om 19.4 per cen t to 32.1
per cen t (P la in Dea ler s, 1995). In gen er a l,
J on es obser ved th a t:
econ om ic con dition s h ave for ced va r iou s
sta te pr ior ities in to sh a r per focu s a n d, a t
tim es, in to dir ect con flict. Often m a n da ted
by a le gisla tive sta tu te, sta te com m itm en ts
to elem en ta r y a n d secon da r y edu ca tion ,
welfa r e, a n d oth er pr ogr a m m es h ave been
m a in ta in ed a t th e expen se of h igh er edu ca tion . N ot on ly is th e fisca l pie gettin g
sm a ller in r ea l ter m s, th e sizes of th e pieces
a r e ch a n gin g (p. 6).

Given th e in cr ea sed com petition for
r esou r ces, th er efor e, a dm in istr a tor s of in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion h ave sou gh t a n d
con tin u e to sea r ch for r esou r ce a ttr a ction
str a te gies. Som e of th ese str a te gies a r e a im ed
a t politicia n s, wh ile oth er s a r e cr ea tive w ays
of a ttr a ctin g r esou r ces fr om pr iva te sou r ces.

Financial constraints in higher education
Closely a k in to th e pr oblem of in cr ea sed com petition for r esou r ces is th e pr oblem of fi n a n cia l con str a in ts in h igh er edu ca tion . Th er e
a r e sever a l fa ctor s r espon sible for fin a n cia l
con str a in ts in th is sector. Apa r t fr om cu ts in
gover n m en t a ppr opr ia tion s in som e pla ces or
bu dget in cr ea ses th a t a r e a t less th a n in fla tion a r y r a tes in oth er pla ces, in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion con tin u e to exper ien ce
con str a in ts du e to oth er fa ctor s.
Per h a ps ch ief a m on g th ese fa ctor s is in stitu tion a l in a bility to con ta in in ter n a l costs.
Most costs w ith in a n in stitu tion a r e fi xed. For
exa m ple, per son n el costs, wh ich often m a k e
u p a bou t 60-70 per cen t of oper a tin g costs, a r e
pr im a r ily fixed. Th is im plies th a t in stitu tion a l lea der s h ave little or n o con tr ol over

th ese costs, especia lly w ith in a sh or t-ter m
per iod. Com pou n din g th e pr oblem of per son n el costs is th e in cr ea sin g u n ion iza tion of
sta ff a n d fa cu lty on m a n y ca m pu ses. Som e
fa cu lty m em ber s h ave fou n d it con ven ien t to
tr a de pa r t of th eir a ca dem ic fr eedom for th e
pr otection of a u n ion . Un ion s dr ive u p costs
a n d lim it th e con tr ol of in stitu tion a l lea der s
on per son n el costs.
Also, costs of per iodica ls, jou r n a ls, a n d
pr in ted m a ter ia ls h ave con tin u ed to r ise
fa ster th a n th e in fl a tion a r y r a te. Th ese costs
a r e la r gely ou tside th e con tr ol of a dm in istr a tor s of h igh er edu ca tion . In a ddition , a s society pr esses for m or e a ccou n ta bility in h igh er
edu ca tion , in stitu tion s str ive to pu t for w a r d
pr ogr a m m es a im ed tow a r ds edu ca tion a l
excellen ce. E xcellen ce, in th ese ca ses, is m ea su r ed a s in pu ts to th e system . Ma n y of th ese
in pu ts – for exa m ple, in cr ea sin g libr a r y
ca pa city, h ir in g distin gu ish ed fa cu lty m em ber s, en su r in g a ccr edita tion , u pgr a din g
ava ila ble tech n ologies, to m en tion bu t a few –
for ce in stitu tion s to in cu r m or e expen ses.
Hen ce, a dm in istr a tor s of h igh er edu ca tion
a r e ca u gh t u p in a cir cle of sea r ch in g for
fu n ds to in cr ea se excellen ce (defin ed a s level
of in pu t) a n d excellen ce dr ivin g u p costs.

Increased demand for accountability
Accou n ta bility issu es in h igh er edu ca tion
ca n be divided in to two br oa d a r ea s: dem a n d
for in cr ea sed pr odu ctivity a n d dem a n d for
stew a r dsh ip. In th e USA, pu blic cr iticism
a ga in st fa cu lty pr odu ctivity h a s been on th e
r ise. Cr iticism r a n ges fr om fa cu lty m em ber s’
ligh t tea ch in g loa ds to poor tea ch in g sk ills;
fr om fa cu lty m em ber s’ fr ivolou s a n d in con sequ en tia l r esea r ch to con tr over sia l a n d ir r eleva n t pu blica tion s; a n d fr om fa cu lty m em ber s’
u n ava ila bility to a dvise stu den ts effectively
to pr ofessor s’ u n ava ila bility to pr ovide a dequ a te ser vices to th e w ider com m u n ity,
except for a few, of cou r se.
In ter m s of stew a r dsh ip, h igh er edu ca tion
h a s been cr iticized for its h igh costs, w a stefu l
m a n a gem en t, fa t fa cu lty a n d a dm in istr a tive
sa la r ies, a n d in a bility to r ela te costs to pr odu ctivity. As Bu r r u p a n d Br im ley (1982)
poin ted ou t, “m a n y ta xpayer s view pu blic
edu ca tion a s a n u n n ecessa r ily la r ge in du str y
wh ose h igh costs r esu lt in excessive ta x bu r den s on m a n y people a n d too la r ge a dr a in on
th e pu blic Tr ea su r y” (p. 2).
Sim ila r ly, Per ot (1989) cr iticized Am er ica n
edu ca tion a s r a n k in g “a t th e bottom of th e
in du str ia lized wor ld in ter m s of a ca dem ic
a ch ievem en t, [it is] spen din g $328 billion a
yea r on pu blic edu ca tion . It is payin g m or e
th a n a n y oth er n a tion on ea r th for edu ca tin g
ou r you n g people, a n d h a s th e lea st to sh ow
for it” (p. 14). Wh ile Per ot’s com m en t w a s
[ 121 ]

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

a im ed a t th e K-12 edu ca tion , sta tem en ts su ch
a s th is h ave som e effects on h igh er edu ca tion ,
especia lly in th e m in ds of th ose wh o fi n d it
difficu lt to sepa r a te th e h igh er fr om th e lower
level of edu ca tion .
To in cr ea se a ccou n ta bility, som e gover n m en ts h ave im plem en ted m a n da tor y pr ogr a m m e r eview s w ith a n a im to discon tin u e
som e of th e pr ogr a m m es th ey con sider
du plica tive. Also, ten u r e h a s been u n der
a tta ck in m a n y sta tes. In a ddition , sever a l
gover n m en ts a r e r eview in g th eir fa cu lty
wor k loa ds w ith th e a im of in cr ea sin g th e
n u m ber of h ou r s th a t fa cu lty tea ch per week .
Th e feder a l gover n m en t is cu r r en tly r eview in g h ow in stitu tion s ch a r ge in dir ect costs to
r esea r ch gr a n ts w ith th e a im of r edu cin g
th ese costs. In deed, th e dem a n d for a ccou n ta bility in h igh er edu ca tion h a s n ever been
h igh er th a n it is today.

Conflicting government actions
Du r in g th e r econ str u ction er a (a per iod
im m edia tely follow in g th e Secon d Wor ld
Wa r ), gover n m en ts of wester n n a tion s
a dopted th e ideology of in str u m en ta lism
tow a r ds th eir h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s.
To th is en d, h igh er edu ca tion w a s gen er ou sly
fu n ded a n d, in th e USA, for exa m ple, m a n y
n ew in stitu tion s wer e esta blish ed wh ile th e
existin g on es expa n ded th eir fa cilities
(Mich a el a n d Holdaw ay, 1992). Th is w a s n ecessa r y in or der to r espon d to th e u psu r ge in
dem a n d for h igh er edu ca tion . Ra pid expa n sion of h igh er edu ca tion con tin u ed for a little
less th a n two deca des w ith a ph ilosoph y of
r edu ction ism (Mich a el a n d Holdaw ay, 1992).
With th is ph ilosoph y ca m e a n oth er str a te gy
to m a k e in stitu tion s m or e en tr epr en eu r ia l.
Today, h igh er edu ca tion in stitu tion s a r e
a ctively in volved in cr ea tive r esou r ce gen er a tion a n d th eir gover n m en ts (le gisla tu r es a n d
gover n in g boa r ds) seem a ctively to su ppor t
su ch in itia tives. However, a dm in istr a tor s of
in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion a r e exper ien cin g con flictin g m essa ges fr om th ese gover n m en ts. On on e h a n d, th er e is th e m essa ge
th a t in stitu tion s sh ou ld becom e m or e pr oa ctive in gen er a tin g fu n ds on th eir ow n , th a t is,
becom e m or e en tr epr en eu r ia l; bu t on th e
oth er h a n d, gover n m en ts a r e a doptin g m ea su r es to con tr ol th ese in stitu tion s. For exa m ple, m a n da ted exter n a l pr ogr a m m e r eview
con du cted by th e gover n m en t of th e Sta te of
Oh io (USA) is con tr a r y to th e spir it of en tr epr en eu r ia lism . Sim ila r ly, th e a ttem pt to ca p
tu ition fees th a t in stitu tion s ca n ch a r ge (a t
lea st in th e USA) is a lso con tr a r y to th e
in ju n ction th a t r equ ir es th ese in stitu tion s to
self-gen er a te fu n ds. Ma n y gover n m en t
a ction s to in cr ea se efficien cy a r e com pa tible
w ith a system loca ted in qu a dr a n t III (F igu r e
[ 122 ]

1), yet th e pr esen t th r u st a n d ideology a r e
loca ted in qu a dr a n t I.

Constraints-reduction strategies
adopted
Dill (1991) poin ted ou t th a t:
If a ca dem ic in stitu tion s a r e en ga ged in a
com petitive m a r k et – com petin g for sca r ce
fin a n cia l r esou r ces fr om m u ltiple a n d sh iftin g su ppor ter s, com petin g for a ble stu den ts
a n d fa cu lty, com petin g for socia l pr estige –
th en it is a r gu ed th ey sh ou ld a dopt th e m a n a ger ia l tech n iqu es of m a r k et-ba sed bu sin ess: str a te gic pla n n in g, m a r k etin g, a n d
m a n a gem en t con tr ol (p. 183).

Th er efor e, in r espon se to th ese con str a in ts,
a dm in istr a tor s of in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion h ave sou gh t a n d a dopted sever a l
str a te gies, som e of wh ich a r e bu sin essr ela ted. Wh ile ea ch in stitu tion of h igh er
edu ca tion h a s differ en t exper ien ces or su ccesses w ith th ese str a te gies, a gen er a l
descr iption of th e im pa ct of th e str a te gies ca n
be pr ovided. Specific str a te gies im plem en ted
to r edu ce con str a in ts fr om th e en vir on m en t
of h igh er edu ca tion in clu de en r olm en t m a n a gem en t, m a r k etin g or r esou r ce a ttr a ction ,
str a te gic pla n n in g, a n d tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t, a n d sever a l effor ts to en su r e a ccou n ta bility.

Enrolment management
In r espon se to th e a ppa r en tly decr ea sin g pool
of th e 18-24 a ge gr ou p, in stitu tion s of h igh er
edu ca tion a cr oss N or th Am er ica (Am er ica n
con tin en t in clu din g Ca n a da ) a dopted r ecr u itm en t str a te gies. Wr iter s on h igh er edu ca tion
a dm in istr a tion pr edicted fi er ce com petition
a m on g in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion for
stu den ts, a n d in stitu tion s wer e a dvised to
a dopt a pr oa ctive a ppr oa ch to th e pr oblem s of
en r olm en t declin e. Con sequ en tly, m a n y in stitu tion s sta r ted to explor e str a te gies to con fr on t th ese pr oblem s, a n d a dm in istr a tor s
tu r n ed to th e bu sin ess sector for gu ida n ce.
Th e cor por a te wor ld w a s a lso qu ick in offer in g su ggestion s ba sed on lon g exper ien ce in
com petitive envir on m en ts. In itia lly, in stitu tion s wer e scolded for n ot pr oper ly m a r k etin g
th em selves. Th u s, sever a l con fer en ces wer e
or ga n ized to exa m in e h ow in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion ca n best m a r k et th eir ser vices w ith th e in ten t of m a in ta in in g th eir
m a r k et sh a r e a n d, pr oba bly, en h a n cin g th eir
en r olm en ts.
However, th e r ea liza tion th a t fa cu lty m em ber s wer e som ewh a t n e ga tive or
u n favou r a ble tow a r ds th e con cept of “m a r k etin g” led to a ch a n ge of ta ctics. Adm ission
sta ffs in m a n y in stitu tion s sta r ted ta lk in g of

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

en r olm en t m a n a gem en t, a con cept th a t, for
a ll in ten ts a n d pu r poses, descr ibes th e sa m e
fu n ction s of m a r k etin g a s fou n d in th e cor por a te wor ld. Hossler et a l. (1990), for exa m ple,
defin ed en r olm en t m a n a gem en t a s:
a n or ga n iza tion a l con cept a n d a system a tic
set of a ctivities design ed to en a ble edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s to exer t m or e in flu en ce
over th eir stu den t en r olm en ts. Or ga n ized by
str a te gic pla n n in g a n d su ppor ted by in stitu tion a l r esea r ch , en r olm en t m a n a gem en t
a ctivities con cer n stu den t colle ge ch oice,
tr a n sition to college, stu den t attr ition a n d
r eten tion , a n d stu den t ou tcom es (p. 5).

Th e a doption of m a r k etin g or en r olm en t
m a n a gem en t str a te gies in h igh er edu ca tion
h a s a lter ed th e dyn a m ics w ith in th ese in stitu tion s. N ew con cepts, su ch a s r ecr u itm en t,
per son a l sellin g, a dver tisin g, ta r getin g, se gm en ta tion , a n d so on , sta r ted to per cola te
a r ou n d th e ca m pu ses. Th e str u ctu r e of th e
offices r espon sible for a dm ission s wer e
ch a n ged – u p-gr a ded in m a n y ca ses to vicepr esiden t level; titles wer e a lso ch a n ged to
en r olm en t m a n a ger s in stea d of a dm ission
officer s.
In a ddition , in stitu tion s wer e a dvised to
a dopt a tota l-ser vice con cept. Th is con cept
im plies a com pr eh en sive a ppr oa ch to stu den t
ser vices r a n gin g fr om th e poin t of in itia l
con ta ct to a dm ission , fr om in str u ction a lr ela ted ser vices to n on -in str u ction a l-r ela ted
ser vices, a n d fr om exper ien ces on th e ca m pu s
to a fter -gr a du a tion con ta cts. F r om th is sta ge,
stu den ts wer e n o lon ger to be viewed a s “stu den ts” bu t r a th er “cu stom er s”.

Resource attraction strategies –
marketing
Va r iou s r esou r ce a ttr a ction str a te gies a r e
cu r r en tly in u se in h igh er edu ca tion . For
exa m ple, m a n y in stitu tion s h ave a lter ed th eir
or ga n iza tion a l str u ctu r es to pr ovide for
offices r espon sible for developm en t a n d fu n dr a isin g a ctivities. Th ese officer s em ploy
bu sin ess-lik e ta ctics su ch a s m a r k et r esea r ch ,
se gm en ta tion , a n d ta r getin g to pr ovide
desir ed r esu lts for th eir in stitu tion s.
In a ddition , m a n y in stitu tion s of h igh er
edu ca tion , in a bid to a ttr a ct cor por a te dolla r s, h ave set u p u n its to en ga ge in th e sa le of
in tellectu a l pr oper ties. Kn ow ledge cr ea tion
h a s, th er efor e, becom e a n a ttr a ctive m on eym a k in g ven tu r e for som e in stitu tion s. In
ter m s of th e im pa ct on th e cu ltu r e of h igh er
edu ca tion , a dm in istr a tor s a r e m or e lik ely to
en cou r a ge r esea r ch pr ojects th a t look a ttr a ctive to th e cor por a te wor ld th a n th ose wh ich
offer n o r ea dily defi n a ble ben efi ts. Adm in istr a tor s a r e in clin ed to sea r ch for w ays to
foster r ela tion sh ips w ith cor por a te lea der s
w ith th e sole in ten t of a ttr a ctin g r esou r ces

fr om th is sector. Con sequ en tly, a dm in istr a tor s a r e in cr ea sin gly a doptin g th e la n gu a ge
a n d ta ctics of th e bu sin ess wor ld in or der to
r ela te pr ofita bly w ith th a t en vir on m en t.
An oth er r esou r ce a ttr a ction str a te gy com m on ly fou n d on ou r ca m pu ses today is gover n m en t r ela tion s. In m a n y in stitu tion s in
th e USA, a n office is design a ted a n d ch a r ged
w ith th e r espon sibility of w a tch in g gover n m en t deliber a tion s w ith th e a im of iden tifyin g th e pr in cipa l a ctor s a n d a ttem ptin g to
in fl u en ce th em . Th e idea of in flu en cin g gover n m en t to th e a dva n ta ge of h igh er edu ca tion
m ay sou n d str a n ge to som e a n d oth er s m ay
a ctu a lly qu estion th e eth ica l ba sis for su ch a n
a ction . However, wh en on e con sider s th a t
politicia n s ba sica lly r espon d to pr essu r e
gr ou ps a n d th e ou tr a geou s n u m ber of pr essu r e gr ou ps existin g today, th e n eed for
h igh er edu ca tion to en su r e th a t th eir con cer n s a r e n ot lost in th e m a ze becom es obviou s. Th er efor e, h igh er edu ca tion ca n be pa r don ed for r espon din g to th e h igh er or der
n eed of th e society (discover in g k n ow ledge
a n d equ ippin g u s w ith k n ow ledge a n d sk ills)
by gettin g th eir h a n ds dir ty in ou r som etim es
pollu ted politica l pon ds.
Th e idea of k eepin g close to th e politicia n s,
befr ien din g a n d in flu en cin g th em for th e
ca u se of h igh er edu ca tion h a s som e r a m ifica tion s. In som e sta tes, in stitu tion s a ppr oa ch
politicia n s in dividu a lly, th er eby cr ea tin g
u n n ecessa r y com petition a m on g th ese in stitu tion s. Secon d, to develop a n d m a in ta in
effective gover n m en t r ela tion s in in stitu tion s
of h igh er edu ca tion is expen sive. Th ir d,
m a in ta in in g effective gover n m en t r ela tion s
w ith ou t a ppea r in g pa r tisa n is a da u n tin g
ta sk . F in a lly, ch a n ges in politica l offices
m ea n th a t developin g gover n m en t r ela tion s
is a n ever -en din g ta sk .
In su m m a r y, in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion a r e in cr ea sin gly u tilizin g a com pr eh en sive m a r k etin g a ppr oa ch to a ttr a ct r esou r ces
su ch a s stu den ts, fa cu lty a n d sta ff, desir a ble
im a ge, don a tion s, a n d politica l su ppor t. As
expr essed by Mich a el (1991), pu blic colle ges
a n d u n iver sities fu n ded solely by on e sou r ce
(gover n m en t) a r e in va r ia bly ca ptive to th e
sou r ce; diver sified fu n din g sou r ces a r e th er efor e a n exten sion of in stitu tion a l a u ton om y
a n d, u ltim a tely, a ca dem ic fr eedom .

Total quality management
In du str ia l ou tpu t is m ea su r ed in ter m s of its
qu a n tity a n d qu a lity. Wh ile th e qu a n tita tive
eva lu a tion of pr odu ction is sim ple a n d
str a igh tfor w a r d, th e qu a lita tive a spect pr esen ts som e pr oblem s. To m in im ize w a ste a n d
in cr ea se pr odu ctivity, bu sin ess m a n a ger s
a dopt sever a l qu a lity con tr ol tech n iqu es.
Ch ief a m on g th ese tech n iqu es is wh a t is
[ 123 ]

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Ame ric an highe r e duc atio n
syste m: c o nsume rism ve rsus
pro fe sso rialism
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 1 7 –1 3 0

w idely k n ow n today a s tota l qu a lity m a n a gem en t (TQM).
Wh ile differ en t a u th or s defi n e TQM in
differ en t w ays, a ll a gr ee th a t it is a tech n iqu e
of w a ste r edu ction by focu sin g on con tin u ou s
im pr ovem en t of th e pr ocess of pr odu ction
w ith th e a im of a ch ievin g th e h igh est qu a lity
possible. Th er efor e, TQM is a lso k n ow n a s
CQI or con tin u ou s qu a lity im pr ovem en t
(Seym ou r, 1993). Wh ile th e bu sin ess sector
h a s a lon g exper ien ce w ith TQM, its a r r iva l to
h igh er edu ca tion is r ecen t (Ma r ch ese, 1993).
Sh er r a n d Lozier (1991) obser ved th a t:
TQM is a style of m a n a gem en t th a t h a s
wor k ed for sever a l deca des over sea s a n d is
r eceivin g gr ow in g a tten tion in th e Un ited
Sta tes. N ow som e colle ges a n d u n iver sities
a r e be gin n in g to r ecogn ize th a t TQM va lu es
a r e m or e com pa tible w ith h igh er edu ca tion
th a n m a n y existin g m a n a gem en t system s
(p. 3).

DeCosm o et a l. (1991) sta ted th a t th e n eed to
con ser ve r esou r ces, im pr ove effectiven ess,
ca ptu r e th e qu a lity n ich e a n d in cr ea se
pa r ticipa tion in decision m a k in g n ecessita ted th e a doption of TQM in in stitu tion s of
h igh er edu ca tion . Focu sin g on th e exper ien ce
of Delaw a r e Cou n ty Com m u n ity Colle ge
(DCCC), th e a u th or s a ck n ow ledged th a t:
th e execu tive sta ff a t DCCC is con vin ced
th a t TQM is wor th ever y effor t we h ave
m a de. Th e colle ge is on th e lea din g edge of a
m a n a gem en t r evolu tion design ed to pr ovide
h igh er qu a lity to k eep th e Un ited Sta tes
com petitive. Su ccess in im plem en tin g TQM
w ill a llow DCCC to con tin u e to m eet th e
n eeds of its sta k eh older s well in to th e n ext
cen tu r y (pp. 22-3).

Sh er r a n d Lozier (1991) expla in ed th a t TQM
is a bou t a ch ievin g con tr olled pr ocesses, n ot
con tr olled people. To do th is, th ey posited th a t
th e con tin u ou s pr ocess im pr ovem en t tech n iqu e u tilizes five ba sic elem en ts: h on esty
(a ck n ow ledgin g th e pr esen ce of a pr oblem );
sh a r ed vision (sta ff u n der sta n din g a n d a ccepta n ce of th e idea th a t pr ocesses ca n be
im pr oved); pa tien ce (th er e is n o m a gic w a n d,
th e tech n iqu e en ta ils stu dy a n d tim e); com m itm en t (th e in volvem en t a n d su ppor t of a ll
levels of per son n el); a n d TQM th eor y (pp. 6-7).
Accor din g to th ese a u th or s, th er e a r e m a n y
pr in ciples of TQM, bu t th ose of pa r ticu la r
in ter est to h igh er edu ca tion m a n a gem en t a r e
m ission a n d cu stom er focu s, system a tic
a ppr oa ch to oper a tion s, vigor ou s developm en t of h u m a n r esou r ces, lon g-ter m th in k in g, a n d com m itm en t (pp. 7-9). Sim ila r ly,
Ma r ch ese (1993) n oted th a t TQM in h igh er
edu ca tion im plies focu sin g on cu stom er s,
a doptin g a con tin u ou s im pr ovem en t ph ilosoph y, m a n a gin g by fa ct, u sin g ben ch m a r k in g
(th a t is, “system a tic sea r ch for best pr a ctice”,

[ 124 ]

p. 12), em ph a sizin g people, a n d a doptin g
a ppr opr ia te str u ctu r es (pp. 10-13).
To r eca pitu la te, TQM a ttem pts to focu s on
th e pr ocess th a t a im s a t im pr ovin g cu stom er
sa tisfa ction a n d or ga n iza tion a l efficien cy.
Am on g its goa ls is to en a ble em ployees to
develop a “Ka izen “ a ttitu de (DeCosm o et a l.,
1991), a n a ttitu de th a t, if a dopted, is expected
to tr a n sfor m h igh er edu ca tion . Bu t a s Ma r ch ese (1993) a dm itted, wh a t TQM m ea n s to
h igh er edu ca tion is yet to be fu lly u n der stood:
On a lm ost a n y ca m pu s, th in a s th e k n ow ledge m ay yet be, people a r e a lr ea dy stou tly
for tota l qu a lity or deeply sceptica l of it.
Wh a t th e qu ick -to-ju dge m iss – wh a t th e
ea r ly, tr iu m ph a list w r itin g a bou t TQM in
h igh er edu ca tion a lso m isses – is th a t tota l
qu a lity is com plica ted, im por ta n t, difficu lt
to im plem en t, a n d fa r fr om figu r ed ou t.
Con tr a r y to th e tool-dr iven , seven -step wor k sh ops th a t con su lta n ts a r e bu sily sellin g,
we’r e yea r s aw ay fr om k n ow in g wh a t a ca dem ic ver sion s of TQM w ill a ppr opr ia tely look
lik e (p. 10).

Strategic planning techniques
Th e 1980s w itn essed a w idespr ea d a doption of
str a te gic pla n n in g tech n iqu es in in stitu tion s
of h igh er edu ca tion in N or th Am er ica . Th e
tech n iqu es a r e h igh ly pr a ised in th e liter a tu r e for h elpin g to en su r e su r viva l a n d
gr ow th of th ou sa n ds of en ter pr ises in th e
bu sin ess wor ld. F a ced w ith dw in dlin g
r esou r ces a n d in cr ea sin g com petition , a n d
per h a ps in a bid to a ssu r e th e society of its
r espon siven ess to th e ch a n gin g envir on m en t,
in stitu tion s of h igh er edu ca tion in N or th
Am er ica tu r n ed to str a te gic pla n n in g.
Accor din g to Br yson (1988), str a te gic pla n n in g m ay be defin ed a s “a disciplin ed effor t to
pr odu ce fu n da m en ta l decision s a n d a ction s
th a t sh a pe a n d gu ide wh a t a n or ga n iza tion
(or oth er en tity) is, wh a t it does, a n d wh y it
does it” (p. 5). Th e pla n n in g tech n iqu e pr ovides in stitu tion s w ith th e oppor tu n ity of
iden tifyin g th eir sta k eh older s, developin g
m ission sta tem en ts, exa m in in g str en gth s,
wea k n esses, th r ea ts, a n d oppor tu n ities, a n d
developin g a ppr opr ia te str a te gies to a ch ieve
specific goa ls a n d objectives. Br yson (1988)
poin ted ou t th a t:
At its best, str a te gic pla n n in g r equ ir es
br oa dsca le in for m a tion ga th er in g, a n explor a tion of a lter n a tives, a n d a n em ph a sis on
th e fu tu r e im plica tion s of pr esen t decision s.
It ca n fa cilita te com m u n ica tion a n d pa r ticipa tion , a ccom m oda te diver gen t in ter ests
a n d va lu es, a n d foster or der ly decision
m a k in g a n d su ccessf