Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue6.1998:

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1998] 2 5 0 –2 5 9 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Unlocking the culture for quality schools:

reengineering

L. David Weller

The Unive rs ity o f Ge o rgia, Athe ns , Ge o rgia, USA

Successful school reform requires a paradigm shift which begins with unlocking the school’s existing culture before attempts are made to integrate reform variables. Reengineering, and rethink-ing and radical redesign of internal processes calls for discarding current practices and reinventing better ways to supply products and ser-vices. Holistic thinking, cross-sectional confi gurations, proactive behavior patterns, reward for innovation and creativity, and the demise of traditional infrastructures are essential for facilitating fl uid social, economic and political trends into the 21st century. Educators must think differ-ently about the purpose of schools and their delivery and redesign infrastructures which are built on shared values and beliefs, multiple interacting linkages and teamwork. School leaders are the catalysts for change and, working with the school’s power agents and modeling expected behaviors, motivate teachers to replace the old culture with new processes of schooling. Shared ownership of case values, realistic and achievable goals and collabo-ration places the responsibil-ity for creating a

reengineered delivery system on teachers themselves.

T h e in t er n a t ion a l ed u ca t ion a l r efor m m ove-m en t of t h e 1990s eove-m p h a sizes sch ool r efor ove-m a n d r est r u ct u r in g. T h is m ovem en t ’s con ce p -t u a l fr a m ewor k ca lls for sch ool lea d er s -t o m a k e a p a r a d igm sh ift in t h eir v iew of sch ool gover n a n ce by r et h in k in g, r econ ce p t u a lizin g, a n d r ea ssessin g t h e n a t u r e of sch oolin g. Ma n y sch ool lea d er s, h ow ever, h ave fa iled in t h eir effor t s t o r est r u ct u r e a n d r efor m t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r ocess a n d , d issa t isfi ed , bla m e t h e m et h od of ch a n ge t h ey select ed t o a ccom -p lish t h e t a sk s. Weller a n d H a r t ley (1994), Weller (1996a ), a n d E n glish (1994) n ot e, for exa m p le, d isillu sion m en t a n d cr it icism of sch ool r efor m m od els su ch a s sit eb a sed m a n -a gem en t , t ot -a l q u -a lit y m -a n -a gem en t (TQM), a n d t h e effect ive sch ools m od el on t h e p a r t of som e ed u ca t or s in t h e USA, Ca n a d a , UK a n d Au st r a lia w h o h ave a t t em p t ed t o r efor m t h eir sch ools w it h on e or m or e of t h e a b ove ca t a -ly st s for ch a n ge a n d h ave fa iled in t h eir effor t s. Yet , t h e lit er a t u r e is r e p let e w it h sch ools a n d sch ool sy st em s w h ich h ave a d op t ed t h ese r efor m m od els a n d h ave en joyed su ccess (Mu r ga t r oyd a n d Mor ga n , 1993; Sch m ok er a n d Wilson , 1993; Sh or t a n d Gr eer, 1997; Sq u ir es et a l., 1984; Weller, 1996b ; Weller a n d H a r t ley, 1994). T h e su ccess r a t e for p a r a d igm sh ift s fa r exceed s t h e fa ilu r e r a t e a n d t h e p osit ive ou t com es of t h ese ch a n ge m od els in clu d e im p r oved st u d en t a ch ieve-m en t on st a n d a r d ized a ch ieveieve-m en t t est s, in cr ea sed st u d en t self-est eem , a n d in cr ea sed t ea ch er m or a le a n d self-con fi d en ce. T h e q u es-t ion is w h y som e sch ools su cceed a es-t sch ool r efor m a n d ot h er s d o n ot . T h e p r im a r y a n sw er lies in t h e com m it m en t of t h e sch ool’s lea d er t o “u n lock ” t h e sch ool’s exist in g cu l-t u r e b efor e m a k in g l-t h e a l-t l-t em p l-t l-t o in l-t r od u ce a n ew on e. Un d er st a n d in g w h y t h is is im p or -t a n -t a n d h ow i-t ca n b e a ccom p lish ed ca n b e fou n d in t h e bu sin ess con ce p t of r een gin eer -in g.

Reen gin eer in g is a con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k w h ich ca n h elp u s r et h in k t h e con t ext in w h ich w e wor k , h ow wor k is d on e, a n d h ow ou t p u t s a r e sh a p ed by in p u t s. As d efi n ed by H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995), “Reen gin eer in g is t h e fu n d a m en t a l r et h in k in g a n d r a d ica l r ed esign of bu sin ess p r ocesses t o b r in g a b ou t d r a m a t ic im p r ovem en t s in p er for m a n ce” (p. 3). T h is d efi n it ion p oin t s t o m a jor

p er for m a n ce im p r ovem en t s r esu lt in g in a d r a m a t ic b r ea k t h r ou gh in a ch iev in g p r ed e-t er m in ed ou e-t com es. T h e e-t er m r a d ica l ca lls for t h e id en t ifi ca t ion a n d er a d ica t ion of r oot p r oblem s r a t h er t h a n t h e in d iscr im in a t e a t t a ck on sy m p t om s; it m ea n s d isca r d in g t h e cu r r en t w ay of d oin g bu sin ess a n d r ein ven t -in g a n ew a n d b et t er w ay t o p r od u ce p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices. P r ocess is t h e b est r esu lt of t h e r een gin eer in g ven t u r e, t h e r ed esign of h ow wor k is d on e, w h ich t a k es in t o a ccou n t t h e va lu e wor k h a s for t h e em p loyee; t h e r oles a n d t y p es of em p loyees n eed ed in t h e n ew wor k p r ocess; t h e a t t it u d es, b eliefs, a n d cu l-t u r a l n or m s n eed ed l-t o su p p or l-t l-t h e p r ocess; a n d t h e k in d s of eva lu a t ion m ea su r es u sed t o a ssess p er for m a n ce ou t com es. T h er efor e, r een gin eer in g is m or e t h a n a r est r u ct u r in g of t h e cu r r en t st r u ct u r e in a n or ga n iza t ion ; it is m or e t h a n r ea r r a n gin g h ier a r ch ica l m a n a ge-m en t a n d t h e sp ecia liza t ion of ege-m p loyee job s–it is t h e w ay wor k is p er for m ed a n d t h e va lu es, a t t it u d es, a n d set of b eliefs t h a t d r ive t h e p er for m a n ce of t h ose p r od u cin g t h e wor k (Ch a p lin , 1996). In essen ce, t h e p r ocess b ecom es t h e ca t a ly st t o r evolu t ion ize t h e p r od u ct ion of t h e p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices t h e or ga n iza t ion p r ov id es t o it s cu st om er s. As H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) st a t e:

Reen gin eer in g is n ot a b ou t im p r ov in g w h a t a lr ea dy exist s. Ra t h er, it is a b ou t t h r ow in g it aw ay a n d st a r t in g over ; b e gin n in g w it h t h e p r over b ia l clea n sla t e a n d r ein ven t in g h ow you d o you r wor k . [It ] is a p r ocess of r ela t ed t a sk s t h a t t oget h er cr ea t e va lu e for a cu s-t om er (p. 4).

For ed u ca t or s, r een gin eer in g h a s r ea l va lu e a n d h igh p ot en t ia l a s w e en t er t h e 21st cen -t u r y. Reen gin eer in g, a s a con ce p -t u a l fr a m e-wor k , for ces ed u ca t or s t o r et h in k , t o r ea ssess t h e cu r r en t ed u ca t ion a l d eliver y sy st em a n d a d ju st t h is t h in k in g t o t h e d em a n d s of t h e glob a l econ om y w it h it s in cr ea sin gly com p et -it ive m a r k et s for q u a l-it y p r od u ct s a n d -it s p r essu r es for coop er a t ion a n d in t er d e p en -d en ce. T h e k n ow le-d ge a n -d sk ills n ecessa r y t o su cceed in t h is en v ir on m en t a r e cen t r a l t o t h e m ission of sch oolin g. Dav is a n d E llison (1997) m a in t a in t h a t sch ools t od ay a r e exp er i-en cin g a w id i-en in g ga p b et w ei-en w h a t sh ou ld b e a n d w h a t is p r ov id ed in sch ools t o m eet t h e p r oject ed d em a n d s of t h e 21st cen t u r y.

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

Mor eover, t h ey st a t e t h a t t h e essen t ia l k n ow l-ed ge a n d sk ills n ecessa r y t o su ccel-ed in t h ese fu t u r ist ic com p et it ive m a r k et s a n d t h e ed u ca -t ion a l d eliver y sy s-t em n ecessa r y -t o

a d eq u a t ely p r e p a r e st u d en t s for t h is en v ir on -m en t r est w it h ed u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip. To a d eq u a t ely p r e p a r e for t h e fu t u r e, lea d er s m u st m a k e d ecision s fr om t h r ee p er sp ect ives. T h ese p er sp ect ives a r e t h e n eed s a n d exp ect a -t ion s of a glob a l econ om y, -t h e d esign of a n or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r e or p r ocess t o d eliver t h ese r eq u ir em en t s, a n d t h e in d iv id u a l’s r ole w it h in t h e con t ext of t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s d eliv -er y sy st em . T h e la t t -er p -er sp ect ive h a s t wo m a jor com p on en t s: t h ose in volved in t h e d eliver y sy st em a n d t h ose r eceiv in g t h e p r od -u ct s of t h e sy st em it self.

Con ley (1993) r ela t es t h a t for or ga n iza t ion s t o su r v ive in t h e fu t u r e t h ey w ill h ave t o b e fl u id , en v ir on m en t a lly r esp on sive b od ies w h ich ca n a d a p t q u ick ly t o ch a n gin g glob a l-ized d em a n d s. T h e con st a n t is “con st a n t ch a n ge” w it h su ccess a n d su r v iva l d e p en d in g on t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s r esp on se t im e a n d t h e n eed t o a d a p t su ccessfu lly t o t h ese con st a n t ch a n ges. Sh ift in g econ om ic, socia l, a n d p olit ica l t r en d s a n d t h eir em er gin g com p lex in t er -r ela t ed n ess w ill b e com p ou n d ed by a n in cr ea sin g d e p en d en cy on t ech n ology a n d t h e a b ilit y t o r esp on d q u ick ly t o it s r a p id in n ova -t ion s. T h ese p r ojec-t ed sh if-t s a n d a cceler a -t ed ch a n ges ca ll for a la b or for ce w it h n ew sk ills a n d k n ow led ge, a n ew wor k in g en v ir on m en t , a n d a n ew w ay t o p r ocess p r od u ct s. In cr em en -t a l -t h in k in g w i-t h h igh ly d e p a r -t m en -t a lized wor k st r u ct u r es w ill b e r e p la ced by h olist ic t h in k in g a n d cr oss-sect ion a l con fi gu r a t ion s w h ich em p h a size t ea m wor k a n d u n it y of v ision , m ission , a n d p u r p ose.

T h e secon d p er sp ect ive, t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s d eliver y sy st em , w ill h ave t o b e fl exible en ou gh t o a d eq u a t ely r esp on d t o t h ese vola t ile ext er n a l t r en d s. E st a blish in g p r oa c-t ive p a c-t c-t er n s of b eh av ior ; c-t h in k in g in b r oa d , con t ext u a l fr a m ewor k s; a n d p r e p a r in g t h e wor k for ce for in n ova t ion s yet t o com e a r e bu t a few of t h e sk ills lea d er s of t h e fu t u r e w ill h ave t o p ossess. P er h a p s t h e m ost p r essin g d em a n d on fu t u r e lea d er s w ill b e t h e a b ilit y t o a d a p t t o n ew w ay s of t h in k in g a n d wor k in g so a s “t o p r e p a r e t h e or ga n iza t ion for t h a t w h ich h a s yet t o b e cr ea t ed ; t o m a k e sen se of fu t u r e r ea lit ies for t h e m em b er s of t h eir or ga -n iza t io-n s” (Dav ies a -n d E lliso-n , 1997, p. 12).

T h e t h ir d p er sp ect ive, t h a t of t h e in d iv id -u a l, ca lls for lea d er s t o r et h in k t h e r ole of t h e p r od u cer a n d t h e con su m er of t h eir p r od u ct s. T h e r ea l ch a llen ge h er e lies in id en t ify in g t h e “cor e cu st om er ” a n d t h en d evelop in g a d eliv -er y p r ocess w h ich is d ir ect ly r esp on sive t o cor e cu st om er s’ n eed s a n d exp ect a t ion s. Ch a m py (1995) n ot es t h e im p or t a n ce of su ch

id en t ifi ca t ion sin ce com p et it ion a m on g or ga -n iza t io-n s i-n t h e fu t u r e w ill i-n cr ea se b ot h t o m a in t a in a n d a t t r a ct a gr ea t er m a r k et sh a r e t h r ou gh h igh er q u a lit y p r od u ct s a n d ser -v ices. H a m m er a n d Ch a m py (1993) n ot e t h a t glob a l com p et it ion h a s a lr ea dy in t r od u ced cu st om er s t o h igh er q u a lit y p r od u ct s a t low er p r ices a n d cu st om er s a r e n ow exp ect in g t h is a s st a n d a r d ou t p u t . H igh q u a lit y -p r od u cin g or ga n iza t ion s, w it h t h e low est p r ices a n d b est ser v ice, w ill su r v ive a n d exp a n d t h eir cu s-t om er b a ses w h ile com p es-t is-t or s p r od u cin g on ly a d eq u a t e or good p r od u ct s w ill d isa p p ea r a s t h e st a n d a r d s of cu st om er exp ect a -t ion s r ise. On e in d ex of -t h is fu -t u r e -t r en d a lr ea dy exist s in n ew or ga n iza t ion s w h ich a r e u sin g a dva n ced t ech n ology t o d esign t h eir cor p or a t e in fr a st r u ct u r es fr om t h e gr ou n d u p w it h n o “t r a d it ion a l b a gga ge” of p r e-exist in g st r u ct u r es a n d cost s. An ot h er in d ex of t h e fu t u r e is t h e gr ow in g t r en d of “n ich e t a r get in g” w h ich ca lls for a ca r efu l a n d clea r id en t ifi ca t ion of sp ecifi c t a r get p op u la t ion s a n d t h e p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices n eed ed a n d exp ect ed by t h ese p op u la t ion s.

Cor e cu st om er s a r e q u ick ly em er gin g fr om t h eir ow n self-select ion p r ocess. Dav ies a n d E llison (1997) con t r ibu t e t h is t o b et t er in for -m a t ion a b ou t ava ila ble p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices w h ich a llow s cu st om er s t o ch oose t h ose p r od -u ct s a n d ser v ices w it h q -u a lit y r e p -u t a t ion s; t h e exp a n d in g le ga l r igh t s of cu st om er s t h r ou gh con su m er r igh t s gr ou p s a n d favor a ble lit iga t ion d ecision s for cu st om er p la in -t iffs; a n d -t h e k n ow led ge -t h a -t p r od u c-t s a r e in p len t ifu l su p p ly a n d t h a t t h e cu st om er ca n b e m or e select ive. T h e issu e of id en t ify in g t h e cor e cu st om er for t h e fu t u r e b ecom es a m a t -t er of econ om ic su r v iva l for a n y or ga n iza -t ion p r od u cin g a n y p r od u ct or ser v ice. An or ga n iza t ion seek in g t o su r v ive in t h e fu t u r e’s com -p et it ive m a r k et -p la ce w ill h ave t o r ed esign or r een gin eer it s d eliver y sy st em t o in cr ea se it s q u a lit y ou t p u t s a n d r ed u ce it s p r od u ct cost t o su st a in a n d in cr ea se it s cor e cu st om er p op u la t ion .

For ed u ca t ion , t h ese t h r ee p er sp ect ives h ave d ir ect im p lica t ion s. T h e glob a l m a r k et -p la ce w it h it s h igh em -p h a sis on com -p et it ion , a dva n ced t ech n ology, t ea m wor k , a n d in n ova -t ion w ill ca ll for sch ools em p h a sizin g cr i-t ica l a n d h igh q u a lit y t h in k in g sk ills, t h e u se of a n d in st r u ct ion in t h e la t est t ech n ology, t h e u se of t ea m s a n d coop er a t ive lea r n in g st r a t e-gies t o solve p r oblem s a n d m a k e d ecision s, a n d t h e a b ilit y t o a d a p t a n d wor k in fl u id , ch a n gin g en v ir on m en t s. Sch ools, t h em selves, w ill h ave t o d evelop d eliver y p r ocesses w h ich ca n a d ju st t o t h e ch a n gin g d em a n d s of t h e cu st om er a n d t h e fl u id socia l, econ om ic, a n d p olit ica l t r en d s a n d p r essu r es of t h e fu t u r e. N ew sk ills a n d k n ow led ge w ill h ave t o b e

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

t a u gh t a n d d eliver ed by a sy st em t h e focu s of w h ich is h olist ic, n ot cen t er ed a r ou n d in cr e-m en t a l t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g st a ges. Sch ool lea d er s w ill h ave t o b e cr ea t ive en gin eer s of t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d in st r u ct ion a l d eliver y p r ocess, b e p r oa ct ive, u se b r oa d b a sed t h in k -in g, a n d -in volve t h e sch ool’s con st it u en t s -in it s gover n a n ce p r oced u r es a n d p olicy -m a k in g effor t s. An d , fi n a lly, t h e cor e con su m er w ill h ave t o b e id en t ifi ed a n d t h e r een gin eer in g p r ocess st r u ct u r ed in su ch a w ay a s t o p r o-v id e t h e cor e cu st om er w it h p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices t o m eet t h eir sp ecifi c n eed s a n d exp ect a t ion s. For ed u ca t or s, t h e cor e cu s-t om er ca n b e n o os-t h er p op u la s-t ion s-t h a n s-t h a s-t of t h e st u d en t . T h e p r ov id er s of t h e p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices a r e t h e t ea ch er s w h o wor k t h r ou gh a n ew d eliver y p r ocess w h ich is su p p or t ed , m od elled , a n d fa cilit a t ed by t h e p r in -cip a l. In t h e fi n a l a n a ly sis, t h e cor e cu st om er r e p r esen t s w h a t sch ools a r e for : ed u ca t in g st u d en t s, n ot em p loy in g t ea ch er s a n d a d m in -ist r a t or s.

In t h is con t ext , ed u ca t or s h ave t o t h in k d iffer en t ly a b ou t t h e p u r p ose of sch ools a n d t h e k in d of d eliver y sy st em t h a t w ill m eet t h e n eed s a n d exp ect a t ion s of t h e cor e cu st om er. Reen gin eer in g in ed u ca t ion is a b ou t d evelop -in g a d eliver y p r ocess w h ich is coh er en t a n d p r ogr essive in scop e in or d er t o m a xim ize t h e lea r n in g exp er ien ces of st u d en t s. Sin ce r een gin eer in g focu ses on coh er en t p r ocesses, n ot st r u ct u r es, it n e ga t es t h e p er p et u a t ion of t y p ica l ed u ca t ion a l st r u ct u r es, su ch a s d e p a r t m en t s in h igh sch ools, a n d focu ses m or e on seq u en t ia l, p r ogr essive lea r n in g t h r ou gh t h e r ea r r a n gem en t of t h e cu r r icu -lu m a n d in st r u ct ion t o a d d r ess t h e goa ls of coh esion a n d p r ogr ession . In essen ce, p r ocess follow s t h e st r a t e gy for t h e r een gin eer in g of sch oolin g. H a m m er a n d Ch a m py (1993) r ela t e t h a t r een gin eer ed bu sin esses p la n t h eir p r ocess st r a t e gy fi r st , t ea r d ow n t h eir exist in g or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r es, a n d t h en im p le-m en t t h eir p r ocesses w it h le-m a n y p r ocesses cr ossin g m a n y or ga n iza t ion a l b ou n d a r ies. Bou n d a r ies, a s op p osed t o st r u ct u r es, a r e fl exible u n it s t h a t a llow for give a n d t a k e, in t er d e p en d en cy, in t er r ela t ed n ess a n d in t e-gr a t ion . In r een gin eer ed cor p or a t ion s, t h e em p h a sis is on p r ocess con t in u it y w h ich is d r iven by h olist ic t h in k in g a n d p la n n in g.

In ed u ca t ion , t h e b ou n d a r y con ce p t ca n b est b e illu st r a t ed by t h e Am er ica n m id d le sch ool w h ich em p h a sizes t h e t ea m a p p r oa ch t o in st r u ct ion a n d cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t eit h er a cr oss or w it h in gr a d es six t h r ou gh eigh t . In t er d iscip lin a r y t ea ch er t ea m s of b ot h cor e a n d elect ive su b ject s d evelop t h em a t ic u n it s w h ich a r e seq u en ced a n d t a u gh t by ea ch t ea ch er t ea m m em b er. For exa m p le, a t h em e su ch a s t h e “a ge of exp lor a t ion ” wou ld

d om in a t e in st r u ct ion in t h e cor e cou r ses of la n gu a ge a r t s, m a t h em a t ics, socia l st u d ies, a n d scien ce a n d t h e elect ive cou r ses st u d en t s t a k e su ch a s m u sic, a r t , a n d p h y sica l ed u ca -t ion . Wh ile k n ow led ge a n d sk ills a r e -t a u gh -t w it h in ea ch of t h ese con t en t a r ea s, t h ey a r e d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o t h e r esp ect ive t h em es w it h in t h e cu r r icu lu m . In t h is w ay, lea r n in g is h olist ic, coh esive, seq u en ced , a n d m ea n in g-fu l sin ce st u d en t s ca n see a n d exp er ien ce con n ect ion s b et w een a n d a cr oss con t en t a r ea s. Block sch ed u lin g, a llow in g for la r ger block s of t im e for in st r u ct ion , is a r r a n ged by t ea ch er t ea m s a n d a ccom m od a t es b ot h sm a ll a n d la r ge gr ou p in st r u ct ion . T h is fl exible sch ed u lin g con fi gu r a t ion is p r ocess-or ien t ed a n d fa cilit a t es coh er en ce in st u d en t lea r n in g p r ov id ed by t h e t h em a t ic cu r r icu lu m .

“Br ea k t h r ou gh t h in k in g,” n ew, d a r in g, r a d ica l t h in k in g, a llow s for t h e com p let e t r a n sfor m a t ion of t h e or ga n iza t ion a n d is a t t h e h ea r t of t h e r een gin eer in g p r ocess sin ce t h e a ct of r een gin eer in g n e ga t es t h e in cr e-m en t a l ch a n ges fost er ed by in cr ee-m en t a l t h in k in g a n d lea d s t o a r esh a p in g of t h e exist -in g st r u ct u r e. P er for m a n ce im p r ovem en t a n d r est r u ct u r in g d o n ot len d t h em selves t o t h e con ce p t of r een gin eer in g sin ce t h ese effor t s la ck cr oss-fu n ct ion a l, r esu lt s-or ien t ed p r ocesses a n d p ossess p r e-exist in g h ier a r ch a l st r u ct u r es su ch a s d e p a r t m en t s. Ta sk or ien t ed t h in k in g m u st b e r e p la ced by t h in k -in g w h ich is gea r ed t ow a r d fi n a l ou t com es or goa ls. H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) r ela t e t h a t lea d er s h ave t h e p r im a r y r esp on sib ilit y of cr ea t in g a n en v ir on m en t w h er e n on -t r a d i-t ion a l i-t h in k in g b ecom es i-t h e n or m , w h er e b r a in st or m in g is a d a ily a ct iv it y, a n d w h er e p eop le feel sa fe in “d r ea m in g,” in t h in k in g t h e n ew a n d exp r essin g n on -t r a d it ion a l t h ou gh t s. T h is en v ir on m en t ca n b est b e d evel-op ed by lea d er s w h o m od el t h is b eh av ior t h em selves a n d con st a n t ly en cou r a ge a n d t a k e p a r t in “t h in k t a n k ” session s w it h a n d a m on g em p loyees. Sin ce ea ch or ga n iza t ion h a s it s ow n “u n d er gr ou n d cu lt u r e” w h ose p op u la t ion h a s p r ogr essive a n d n ew id ea s, en v ir on m en t s w h ich en cou r a ge a n d su p p or t t h is k in d of t h in k in g a llow t h ese id ea s t o b e b r ou gh t in t o t h e op en . N ew a n d cr ea t ive id ea s a r e essen t ia l sin ce r een gin eer in g d oes n ot b e gin w it h d et a iled sp ecifi ca t ion s or a p r ed et er m in ed p la n for or ga n iza et ion a l et r a n sfor m a -t ion . Reen gin eer in g m ea n s s-t a r -t in g over, b e gin n in g w it h a clea n sla t e. It is a b ou t r eject -in g con ven t ion a l w isd om a n d a ssu m p t ion s of t h e p a st a n d sea r ch in g for n ew m od els for or ga n izin g wor k . T h e n ew p r ocess, in essen ce, m u st p r ov id e a “b est fi t ” sit u a t ion for b ot h m a n a gem en t a n d t h e wor k for ce a n d m u st b e b a sed on t h e va lu es a n d b eliefs m a n a gem en t w a n t s t o in st ill. Reen gin eer in g’s p r im a r y in t en t is t o r eor ga n ize t h e st r u ct u r e

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

a n d ch a n ge or m od ify t h e cu lt u r e w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion . T h is ca lls for cr ea t ive, b r oa d -b a sed t h in k in g fr om ever yon e en ga ged in t h e r een gin eer in g p r ocess.

Ch a m py (1995) em p h a sizes t h e im p or t a n ce of m a n a gem en t ’s r ole in r esh a p in g t h e or ga -n iza t io-n ’s cu lt u r e. I-n su ccessfu l,

r een gin eer ed or ga n iza t ion s, t ea m wor k a n d em p loyee d ecision m a k in g a r e h igh ly va lu ed . T h is is b a sed on t h e id ea t h a t em p loyees w ill a ssu m e ow n er sh ip in t h eir wor k a n d h ave a vest ed in t er est in t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s su ccess w h en t h ey sh a r e in t h e p r oblem -solv in g a n d d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess. T h e va lu es a n d b eliefs m ost com m on ly h eld in r een gin eer ed cor p or a t ion s sh ift t h e r ole of t h e em p loyee fr om n a r r ow, t a sk -or ien t ed fu n ct ion s t o m u l-t id im en sion a l job fu n cl-t ion s. H a m m er a n d Ch a m py (1993) a n d Ch a m py (1995) p oin t ou t t h a t cer t a in va lu es a n d b eliefs p r eva il a m on g su ccessfu lly r een gin eer ed cor p or a t ion s. T h ey em p h a size t h a t a ch a n ge in or ga n iza t ion a l va lu es m u st exist p r ior t o su ccessfu l r een gi-n eer igi-n g a gi-n d t h a t m a gi-n a gem egi-n t m u st d isca r d t h e t r a d it ion a l r ole of t h e a u t h or it a r ia n , t h e exp er t in a ll a r ea s, a n d b ecom e lea d er s w h o fa cilit a t e t h e wor k p r ocess a n d st r ive t o a d d va lu e t o t h e wor k of ot h er s. T h ey a r gu e t h a t lea d er s, n ot m a n a ger s, k n ow t h a t q u a lit y ou t p u t d e p en d m or e on t h e em p loyees’ a t t i-t u d es, va lu es, a n d k n ow led ge/ sk ills, a n d less on p olicies, p r oced u r es, a n d p r escr ip t ed w ay s of p er for m in g wor k . Lea d er s a r e t h ose w h o ca n in fl u en ce b eh av ior a n d r ein for ce em p loyee va lu es by t h eir ow n wor d s a n d d eed s. Va lu es a n d b eliefs cen t r a l t o su ccessfu l cor p or a t ion s a r e a s follow s:

• Tea m wor k w it h t ea m m em b er s w h o a r e em p ow er ed t o solve p r oblem s a n d m a k e d ecision s a n d w h o a r e fr ee of m a n a gm en t ’s t igh t , r est r ict ive p olicies a n d p r e-scr ip t ed d ir ect ives.

• Tea m s w h ich ca n fu n ct ion a cr oss or ga n iza -t ion a l b ou n d a r ies a n d b e collec-t ively r esp on sible for t h e q u a lit y of p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices p r ov id ed .

• Rew a r d s b a sed on a ch ievem en t a n d n ot t h e a m ou n t of t im e sp en t on n a r r ow ly d efi n ed t a sk s. N ew a n d in cr ea sed r esp on sib ilit ies a r e b a sed on a b ilit y a n d over a ll con t r ibu -t ion s -t o -t h e or ga n iza -t ion .

• E m p loyees a n d lea d er s w h o a r e cu st om er -cen t er ed a n d wor k t o sa t isfy t h e cu st om er sin ce cu st om er sa t isfa ct ion a ch ieves t h e goa ls of t h e or ga n iza t ion .

• Con t in u ou s t r a in in g for em p loyees t o k ee p u p w it h a dva n cem en t s in t h eir job -r ela t ed k n ow led ge a n d sk ills a r ea . Reen gin eer ed or ga n iza t ion s r ew a r d in d iv id u a l in it ia t ive t o im p r ove t h e q u a lit y of wor k a n d con t r ibu t e t o t h e over a ll efficien cy of t h e or ga -n iza t io-n .

Wh en n ew va lu es a n d a t t it u d es com p et e w it h exist in g b eh av ior s, con fl ict a r ises b ot h w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion a n d in d iv id u a ls t h em selves. Weller (1996b ) r ela t es t h a t w h en n ew id ea s or p a t t er n s of b eh av ior a r e r eq u ir ed , a n d t h e old a cce p t ed w ay s of d oin g t h in gs a r e n ot fu lly d isca r d ed , t r a d it ion a l p r a ct ices oft en w in ou t . Fea r of t h e u n k n ow n , t h r ea t s t o in d iv id u a l p ow er a n d in fl u en ce, in secu r it y a b ou t lea r n in g n ew sk ills, a n d t h e n eed t o p er for m t a sk s d iffer en t ly w it h d iffer -en t st a n d a r d s t h r ea t -en t h eir com for t zon es – t h e secu r it y p eop le d er ive fr om wor k r ou t in e. Re ga r d less of t h e d e gr ee of t h eir d issa t isfa c-t ion w ic-t h c-t h eir cu r r en c-t job or c-t h e w ay c-t h e or ga n iza t ion fu n ct ion s, ch a n ge is seen a s a t h r ea t . H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) st a t e t h a t “w h en n ew p r ocess va lu es com p et e w it h old p r ocess va lu es, t h e r esu lt is [em p loyee] fr u s-t r a s-t ion , con fu sion , cy n icism , a n d cogn is-t ive d isson a n ce” (p. 158). Ch a p lin (1996) n ot es t h a t w h en r een gin eer in g fa ils, it is u su a lly t h e r esu lt of a la ck of a lign m en t b et w een t h e va lu es a n d b eliefs h eld by m a n a gem en t a n d t h ose of t h e wor k er a n d m a n a gem en t ’s in a b il-it y t o m ove t h e wor k for ce t o a cce p t t h ese n ew va lu es a n d a t t it u d es. Wh en r een gin eer in g fa ils, lit t le if a n y r esid u e of t h e ch a n ge p r ocess w ill su r v ive. T h e va lu es a n d a t t it u d es of t h e old p r ocess w ill b ecom e even m or e em b ed d ed a n d fu t u r e a t t em p t s a t ch a n ge m or e d ifficu lt .

For m a n a gem en t t o b e su ccessfu l in in st ill-in g a n ew cu lt u r e, t wo p h en om en a a ssocia t ed w it h ch a n ge h ave t o b e u n d er st ood . F ir st , ever y or ga n iza t ion con sist s of em p loyees en ga ged in m u lt ip le in t er a ct in g lin k a ges w h ich , w h en t a k en t oget h er, com p r ise t h e t ot a l wor k for ce of t h e or ga n iza t ion . Secon d , t h e dy n a m ics of ch a n ge a r e b a sica lly d ich ot o-m ou s: on e for ce is d r iv in g for ch a n ge w h ile t h e ot h er for ce is r esist in g ch a n ge (Lew in , 1951). Lew in ’s for ce-fi eld t h eor y h old s t h a t p r ior t o ch a n ge a st a t e of eq u ilib r iu m exist s w h ich b a la n ces t h e d r iv in g for ces a n d r esist -in g for ces. Ch a n ge a gen t s, t o b e su ccessfu l, m u st a ssess t h e d e gr ee of p ow er a m on g t h ese t wo for ces a n d p r om ot e ch a n ge by in cr ea sin g t h e d r iv in g for ces, r ed u cin g t h e r esist in g for ces, a n d / or d evelop in g n ew d r iv in g for ces, a ll w it h in t h e con t ext of t h e exist in g m u lt ip le in t er a ct in g lin k a ges. Ar gy r is (1993) m a in -t a in s -t h a -t -t h e fi r s-t s-t e p -t o la s-t in g ch a n ge is t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of t h ose “p ow er a gen t s” exist in g w it h in t h e in for m a l p ow er gr ou p n et wor k a m on g t h e wor k for ce. T h ese in for -m a l lea d er s exer t p ow er a n d in fl u en ce over t h eir p eer gr ou p s t h r ou gh com p et en ce a n d k n ow led ge, p er son a lit y, in t er p er son a l sk ills, r ew a r d s a n d favor s, or coh esion . By wor k in g w it h a n d t h r ou gh t h ese in for m a l p ow er a gen t s, m a n a ger s h ave a gr ea t er p r ob a b ilit y

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

of a ch iev in g t h eir d esir ed ou t com es–r ed u cin g r esist a n ce t o ch a n ge a m on g t h e wor k for ce. Re p la cin g t h e exist in g cu lt u r e is p a r t of r een gin eer in g sin ce t h e n ew va lu es a n d exp ect ed p a t t er n s of b eh av ior w ill r eq u ir e n ew or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r es, p olicies, a n d gr ou p n or m s.

N ext , t o h ave t h e wor k for ce in t er n a lize t h e n ew va lu es a n d a t t it u d es d esir ed by m a n a ge-m en t , a p r ogr a ge-m of in for ge-m a t ion -giv in g is n ecessa r y. Com m u n ica t in g in clea r a n d con -cise t er m s w h y t h e old va lu es a n d b eh av ior s a r e n o lon ger a cce p t a ble is essen t ia l t o con -v in cin g em p loyees t h a t ch a n ge is n eed ed . F a ct s, b a sed on r esea r ch , b ecom e t h e m ost p ow er fu l p er su a sive t ool, esp ecia lly w h en t h ese fa ct s in d ica t e t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s fi sca l d eclin e. Com m u n ica t ion m u st b e com p r eh en -sive a n d em p h a size t h e p osit ive ou t com es of ch a n ge, t h e sp ecifi c r ea son s for ch a n ge, a n d exa ct ly h ow ch a n ge w ill im p a ct a n d b en efi t em p loyees. To fu r t h er r ed u ce ch a n ge a n xiet y, w id e p a r t icip a t ion is n eed ed in p la n n in g, d esign in g, a n d im p lem en t in g ch a n ge. Du r in g t h is st a ge, p a r t icip a n t s bu ild ow n er sh ip a n d com m it m en t by exp r essin g id ea s a n d in cor -p or a t in g t h em in t o t h e ch a n ge -p r ocess. E m p loyees w ill b e m or e t oler a n t of t h e n ew p r ocess w h en t h ey h ave a vest ed in t er est in it s su ccess. Wh en a n ew p r ocess is h olist i-ca lly a ssim ila t ed , t h e job of m a n a gem en t b ecom es ea sier sin ce t h e wor k for ce h elp s p la n , d esign , a n d im p lem en t t h e p r ocess, va lu es a n d b eh av ior s d esir ed by m a n a gem en t w h ich h ave b ecom e t h ose d esir ed by em p loy -ees. H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) ca u t ion a ga in st t h e u se of coer cion in t h e r een gin eer -in g p r ocess s-in ce t h is im p lies t h r ea t s or r e p r isa ls a n d ca u ses u n d u e fr u st r a t ion , fea r, a n d a lien a t ion a m on g t h e wor k for ce. Resis-t a n ce ca u sed by coer cion ca n r esu lResis-t in r even ge, p oor p er for m a n ce, h igh t u r n over r a t es, a n d cover t a ct iv it ies.

T h e q u est ion for t h ose p r ogr essive sch ools w h ich a n t icip a t e m eet in g t h e d em a n d s a n d ch a llen ges of t h e 21st cen t u r y b ecom es on e of eit h er r een gin eer in g or r est r u ct u r in g. As p r ev iou sly st a t ed , r est r u ct u r in g m ea n s m a n y t h in gs t o m a n y p eop le a n d “t h e t er m is a s n ot a ble for it s a m b igu it y a s for it s m ea n in g” (Con ley, 1993, p. 7). Usu a lly, Con ley a d d s, r est r u ct u r in g is a r a p id a d a p t a t ion of fr a g-m en t ed p r ogr a g-m s or p r a ct ices t o g-m a in t a in or r e ga in com p et it iven ess. Oft en , w h a t is ca lled r est r u ct u r in g is a ct u a lly sch ool r en ew a l or r efor m w it h im p or t a n t d ist in ct ion s b et w een t h e t wo: “Ren ew a l focu ses on a ct iv it ies t h a t h elp t h e or ga n iza t ion t o d o b et t er a n d / or m or e efficien t ly t h a t w h ich it is a lr ea dy d oin g” (Con ley, 1993, p. 7), w h ile r efor m “a t t em p t s t o a lt er exist in g p r oced u r es, r u les a n d r eq u ir em en t s t o a llow t h e or ga n iza t ion t o

a d a p t t h e w ay it fu n ct ion s t o n ew cir cu m -st a n ces or r eq u ir em en t s” (Con ley, 1993, p. 8). N eit h er of t h ese p r ocesses a d d r esses t h e fu n -d a m en t a l a ssu m p t ion s of sch oolin g, n or -d o t h ey p la ce em p h a sis on t h e p r im a r y exist en ce for sch ools – t o p r om ot e a n d d em on st r a t e st u d en t lea r n in g. N eit h er p r ocess a d d r esses t h e fu t u r e, t h a t is, b ein g p r oa ct ive in d esign . Bot h a r e h igh ly r ea ct ive t o cu r r en t p r essu r es for ch a n ge w h ich p r im a r ily com e fr om ext er n a l sou r ces r a t h er t h a n fr om in t er n a l d iscon -t en -t w i-t h -t h e s-t a -t u s q u o. T h e b a sic p r oblem s w it h sch ool r est r u ct u r in g, say s Con ley (1993, p. 9), a r e “t h e la ck of a clea r a n d gen er a lly a cce p t ed d efi n it ion of w h a t r est r u ct u r in g r ea lly is, t h e u n w illin gn ess or in a b ilit y t o exa m in e t h e u n d er ly in g a ssu m p t ion , va lu es, b eliefs, p r a ct ices, a n d r ela t ion sh ip s of q u a l-it y -p r od u cin g sch ools, a n d t h e a b st r a ct a n d u n clea r goa ls t h a t p er m ea t e ed u ca t ion ”. F u lla n (1991, p. 28), a lso a d d r essin g t h e fu n d a -m en t a l p r oble-m a ssocia t ed w it h sch ool r est r u ct u r in g, st a t es t h a t “t h e in cen t ive sy st em of p u blic sch ools w ist h ist s la ck or p er for -m a n ce scr u t in y a n d a n on co-m p et it ive -m a r k et m a k es it m or e p r ofi t a ble p olit ica lly a n d bu r ea u cr a t ica lly t o ‘in n ova t e’ w it h ou t r isk -in g t h e cost s of r ea l ch a n ge”. All of t h is p o-in t s t o a gen er a l la ck on t h e p a r t of ed u ca t or s t o em b r a ce r a d ica l ch a n ge, t o m a k e d r a st ic sh ift s in a ssu m p t ion s, b eliefs, a n d p r a ct ices w it h ou t sign ifi ca n t ext er n a l p r essu r e t o ch a n ge t h e n a t u r e of sch oolin g. T h e fea r of volu n t a r y, in t er n a l ch a n ge com es fr om t h e t h r ea t s of d ow n sizin g, r ea ssign m en t , a n d r et r a in in g w h ich is im p licit in t h e gen er a l con ce p t of fu n d a m en t a l, r a d ica l ch a n ge (Con -ley, 1993).

Sen ge (1990) b elieves t h e p r oblem s fa cin g t r u e sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion lie in t h e cu r r en t p r ocess of sch oolin g it self a n d t h e h ist or ica l a r t ifa ct s of t h e p a st . Am on g t h e m ost d et r i-m en t a l in h ib it or s of sch ool t r a n sfor i-m a t ion a r e t h e isola t ion of t ea ch er s in self-con t a in ed cla ssr oom s, gr a d e levels, or d e p a r t m en t s: t h e in cr em en t a l m en t a l m od els t h a t d om in a t e ou r w ay s of t h in k in g; t h e t a r get in g of sy m p -t om s r a -t h er -t h a n r oo-t ca u ses for r efor m a n d r esea r ch ; t h e sea r ch for “q u ick fi xes” a n d t h e m od ifi ca t ion of exist in g p r ogr a m s; a n d d isen -ch a n t m en t w it h n ew r efor m p r ogr a m s w h i-ch offer p a n a cea s bu t , lik e t h eir p r ed ecessor s, fa il t o m a k e good on t h eir p r om ises a n d leave t ea ch er s fr u st r a t ed a n d leer y of a n y r efor m m ovem en t .

Tot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t (TQM) is p r ocess t h in k in g; it is sy st em s t h in k in g w it h a h olis-t ic m en olis-t a l m od el b a sed on sh a r ed a n d join olis-t ly d evelop ed v ision , m ission , a n d goa ls w h ich a r e fu t u r eor ien t ed . TQM em p h a sizes t ea m -wor k , com m it m en t t o t h e p u r p ose of m eet in g cu st om er n eed s a n d exp ect a t ion s, a n d

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

in t er n a l fl exib ilit y a n d p r ocess r ev ision w it h a n em p h a sis on con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t a cr oss or ga n iza t ion a l b ou n d a r ies (Weller, 1996a ). Bon st in gl (1992) n ot es t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e et h os k a iz en, a sy st em -w id e (p r ocess) coven a n t of in d iv id u a ls h elp in g on e a n ot h er t o p u r su e excellen ce on a d a ily b a sis. Accor d -in g t o Bon st -in gl (1992), “Wer e sch ools t o a d op t t h is p r ocess, t h ey wou ld t r a n sfor m ” t h eir sch ools in t o n ew im a ges a n d n ew st r u ct u r es w it h q u a lit y p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices sp ecifi ca lly a d d r essin g st u d en t n eed s a n d exp ect a -t ion s. Bon s-t in gl a gr ees w i-t h Sen ge (1990) on t h e im p or t a n ce of a sy st em s a p p r oa ch t o sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion (Sen ge’s fi ft h d isci-p lin e) a n d n ot es t h a t a h olist ic isci-p r ocess, a n ew sy st em w h ich is bu ilt fr om t h e gr ou n d u p, is essen t ia l t o m eet t h e ch a llen ges a n d d em a n d s of t h e fu t u r e. In essen ce, b ot h Bon st in gl a n d Sen ge ca ll for r een gin eer ed sch ools, sch ools st a r t in g w it h a clea n sla t e, a n d TQM p r ov id es t h e essen t ia l in gr ed ien t s n ecessa r y for com -p let e sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion .

Sch ools w h ich h ave a d op t ed t h e TQM p r in -cip les of Dem in g (1986) h ave u n d er gon e m or e t h a n a p a r a d igm sh ift : t h ey h ave t r a n sfor m ed t h e m et h od of sch oolin g (E n glish , 1994). Dav ies (1994) p oin t s ou t t h a t in TQM sch ools, t ea ch er s’ m in d set s a n d t h eir t h in k in g a n d wor k h ave u n d er gon e a fu n d a m en t a l ch a n ge a n d it is t h is ch a n ge t h a t is t h e fi r st , t h e m ost n ecessa r y, st e p n eed ed t o ch a n ge t h e sch ool’s cu lt u r e. E n glish (1994) a n d Dav ies (1994) st r ess t h e im p or t a n ce of p r in cip a ls in in it ia t in g sch ool ch a n ge, bu t st r ess t h a t t ea ch er bu y -in is essen t ia l for cu lt u r a l ch a n ge, a t r u e sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion . Mon k (1993), Mu r ga t r oyd a n d Mor ga n (1993), Sch m ok er a n d Wilson (1993), a n d Weller a n d H a r t ley (1994) d ocu m en t t h e p osit ive ou t com es of TQM a s a sch ool t r a n s-for m a t ion a l p r ocess. T h ese in clu d e st u d en t ga in s on t est s of a ch ievem en t , im p r oved st u -d en t self-est eem a n -d in cr ea se-d t ea ch er m or a le. T h ese sch ools h ave v ision , a m ission , a n d em p ow er ed t ea ch er t ea m s w h o p a r t ici-p a t e in sch ool gover n a n ce. T h eir con st a n cy of p u r p ose is t o im p r ove con t in u ou sly a n d t h ey t a k e p r id e in t h eir wor k a s t h ey st r ive t o a ch ieve q u a lit y p er for m a n ce for t h em selves a n d t h eir st u d en t s.

H ow t h en d o sch ools r een gin eer t h em selves in t o q u a lit y -or ien t ed a n d q u a lit y -p r od u cin g sch ools? T h e lea d er (p r in cip a l) m u st m a k e t h e fi r st d ecision – t h e sch ool n eed s t o b e t r a n sfor m ed t h r ou gh a n ew set of va lu es a n d b eliefs, a n ew p r ocess t o p r od u ce q u a lit y p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices. N ext , a n d a ga in cen -t r a l -t o b o-t h r een gin eer in g a n d TQM, is -t h e n eed for st r on g lea d er s t o em b r a ce t h e va lu es a n d b eliefs t h ey w a n t im p lem en t ed by m od el-in g t h ese b eh av ior s. T h ir d is t h e d est r u ct ion of t h e sch ool’s cu r r en t cu lt u r e, t h e cu r r en t

p r ocess of d oin g t h in gs. Reen gin eer in g, r em a r k s Ch a m py (1995), n ecessit a t es t h e “t ea r in g d ow n ” of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e, d is-ca r d in g t h e old p r ocess a n d m in d set s, a n d em b r a cin g a n ew w ay of t h in k in g, a n ew w ay of b eh av in g in t h e con t ext of wor k a n d wor k ou t com es. Ch a n ge, in t h e TQM p r ocess, r eq u ir es a n ew w ay of t h in k in g, a n d n ew w ay of va lu in g, a n d a n ew wor k et h ic. Lik e en gi-n eer igi-n g, TQM ca gi-n gi-n ot b e a ccom p lish ed q u ick ly, sim p ly, or p a in lessly. Bot h a r e t r a n s-for m a t ion a l p r ocesses.

Dislod gin g old b eliefs a n d wor k p a t t er n s a n d in fu sin g n ew va lu es is n ot ea sy. E a ch or ga n iza t ion h a s it s ow n cu lt u r e con sist in g of m y t h s, cer em on ies, r it u a ls, a n d t a cit a ssu m p -t ion s a n d b eliefs a b ou -t -t h e p u r p ose a n d n a t u r e of wor k . H oy a n d Misk el (1996) em p h a -size t h a t or ga n iza t ion a l va lu es in cor p or a t e t h ese cu lt u r a l com p on en t s w h ich com p r ise d esir a ble a n d a cce p t a ble b eh av ior p a t t er n s w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion . In fa ct , Ou ch i (1981) fou n d t h a t t h e cu lt u r e of a n or ga n iza t ion r ela t es d ir ect ly t o it s su ccess a n d t h a t su c-cessfu l or ga n iza t ion s sh a r e t h e va lu es of t r u st , coop er a t ion , t ea m wor k , a n d e ga lit a r i-a n ism . Wh en vi-a lu es i-a r e sh i-a r ed , w h en em p loyees wor k coop er a t ively t ow a r d t h e sa m e goa ls, w h en em p loyees a r e cu st om er -or ien t ed a n d fr ee t o in n ova t e, w h en t h ey h ave d ecision -m a k in g a u t on om y, t h e or ga n iza t ion h a s a p r ocess t h a t p r om ot es efficien t a n d effect ive p r od u ct s. Dea l a n d Ken n edy (1984) fou n d sim ila r va lu es a n d cu lt u r a l p r a ct ices in h igh -a ch iev in g sch ools a n d r ela t e t h a t va lu es, cu st om s, t a cit a ssu m p t ion s, a n d m y t h s d r ive t h e p r ocess of sch oolin g. T h e r ole of t h e p r in -cip a l, t h ey m a in t a in , in cr ea t in g n ew va lu es a n d cu lt u r a l a r t ifa ct s p r eclu d es t h e in fu sion of t h e n ew p r ocess w h ich w ill b e u sed t o t r a n sfor m t h e ou t com es of sch oolin g. Dea l a n d Ken n edy (1984) a lso fou n d t h a t su ccessfu l cu lt u r e ch a n ge is a sy st em a t ic, n ot a

se gm en t ed , p r ocess. Ch a n ge m u st b e p la n n ed a n d w ell-or ga n ized if it is t o b e effect ive in r e p la cin g cor e va lu es in sch ools.

In ch a n gin g a n or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e, t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e lea d er ca n n ot b e over em -p h a sized . Bot h H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) a n d Ch a m py (1995) em p h a size lea d er m od el-in g a s t h e p r im a r y, m ost cr u cia l b eh av ior for cu lt u r a l ch a n ge. Beca u se t r a n sfor m ed or ga -n iza t io-n s d e p e-n d o-n -n ew p r ocess i-n fu sio-n a n d n ew p r ocesses d e p en d on em p loyees em b r a cin g a n d p r a ct icin g n ew va lu es a n d b eliefs, t h e m od elin g of exp ect ed b eh av ior s by t h e lea d er b ecom es a llim p or t a n t . T h ese w r it er s m a in t a in t h a t em p loyees m u st b e con -v in ced t h a t t h e n ew p r ocess, a n d t h e con se-q u en ces of t h is p r ocess, a r e a t t a in a ble a n d r ea list ic, a n d som et h in g t h ey t h em selves ca n va lu e a n d p r a ct ice. Sch ein (1985), w h o d id

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

r esea r ch on p r in cip a ls a n d ch a n gin g a sch ool’s cu lt u r e, fou n d t h a t su ccessfu l sch ool lea d er s h ave a sy st em a t ic p la n for cu lt u r a l ch a n ge a n d t h a t t h eir m od elin g of d esir ed va lu es a n d b eh av ior s is essen t ia l in sh a p in g t h e cu lt u r e of t h e fu t u r e. St r on g p r in cip a ls d ed ica t ed t o ch a n ge r ea lize t h a t a sch ool’s cu lt u r e p r ov id es t h e sch ool w it h it s ow n u n iq u e im a ge w h ich con vey s t o t h e st u d en t s a n d t h e ext er n a l p u blic w h a t t h e sch ool r e p r e-sen t s, w h a t it s m ission is. Con ley (1993) a d d s t h a t t h e cu lt u r e of a sch ool d et er m in es w h a t a n d h ow st u d en t s lea r n , h ow t h ey b eh ave, a n d w h a t t h ey b elieve a n d va lu e. Beca u se t ea ch er s d eliver t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d , in som e sch ools, d evelop t h e cu r r icu lu m , w h a t t h e cu r r icu lu m com p r ises a n d h ow t h e cu r r icu -lu m is t a u gh t d ir ect ly r efl ect s t h e b eliefs, va lu es, a n d b eh av ior s of t h e t ea ch in glea r n -in g p r ocess. Sh e-in (1985) r efer s t o t h e cu lt u r e of a sch ool a s it s “h id d en cu r r icu lu m ” a n d su ggest s t h a t w h a t is lea r n ed by a n d exp ect ed of st u d en t s on a d a ily b a sis a r e fa r m or e a ccu -r a t e -r efl ect ion s of t h e sch ool’s cu -r -r icu lu m t h a n a n y m ea su r e a ssessin g in st r u ct ion a l con t en t . Con ley n ot es t h a t b eca u se cu lt u r e is su ch a p ow er fu l in fl u en ce on lea r n in g, t r a n sfor m ed sch ools m u st t a k e ca r e t o r id t h em -selves of a n y vest iges of t h e old cu lt u r e so a s n ot t o h ave com p et in g id ea s a n d loya lt ies over t h e cor e va lu es w h ich gu id e exp ect a t ion s a n d b eh av ior s.

Lu n en bu r g a n d Or n st ein (1996) n ot e t h e im p or t a n ce of m od elin g by lea d er s t o ch a n ge p r ocesses in sch ools, bu t a d d t h a t w in n in g t h e a p p r ova l a n d su p p or t of in for m a l p ow er a gen t s w it h in t h e sch ool’s cu lt u r e is eq u a lly im p or t a n t t o su ccessfu l ch a n ge. T h ese in for -m a l lea d er s h ave p eer loya lt y, t r u st , a n d r esp ect a s a r esu lt of t h eir k n ow led ge, sk ills, p er son a lit ies, a n d t h e r ew a r d s t h ey ca n p r o-v id e. P eer s follow t h ese lea d er s by ch oice, fr ee of coer cion , b eca u se t h ey b elieve t h a t con -sen t w ill y ield p er son a l ga in for t h em w it h in t h e sch ool. Ma n y sch ools h ave sever a l in for -m a l gr ou p s w h ich h ave t h eir ow n “gr ou p lea d er ” a n d w h ose in fl u en ce over t h eir p eer s is given by gr ou p con sen su s. T h ese gr ou p lea d er s a r e p ow er a gen t s in sch ools a n d t h eir a ct ion s sp ea k for t h eir gr ou p m em b er sh ip. T h ey r et a in p ow er a s lon g a s t h ey a ct in a ccor d a n ce w it h t h e n or m s a n d va lu es h eld by t h eir follow in g a n d t h ey ca n p r ov id e p er -son a l b en efi t s or r ew a r d s t o t h eir follow in g. P r in cip a ls w h o ga in t h e t r u st a n d con fi d en ce of t h ese in fl u en t ia ls fi n d t h e p a t h t o ch a n ge ea sier a n d m or e su ccessfu l sin ce t h e in for m a l lea d er ’s w illin gn ess t o t r y n ew p r ocess(es) or in n ova t ive p r ogr a m s w ill b e m a d e k n ow n t o t h eir follow er s, t h er eby r ed u cin g t h e level of cogn it ive d isson a n ce.

In for m a t ion w h ich is a ccu r a t e a n d fa ct -b a sed is a p ow er fu l a n d p er su a sive t ool t o in it ia t e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge. Da t a w h ich a r e ea sy t o r ea d a n d u n d er st a n d a ble (gen er a lly fr ee of com p lica t ed r esea r ch d esign a n d st a t ist ics) p la n t seed s of d ou b t a b ou t t h e exist in g w ay of d oin g t h in gs a n d ch a llen ge em p loyees t o t h in k b eyon d t h e cu r r en t p r od u ct ion p r ocesses (Ch a m py, 1995). Lit er a t u r e a b ou t su ccessfu l r een gin eer ed sch ools a n d t h eir su ccess w it h TQM sp a r k s in t er est a n d t r ig-ger s q u est ion s. H er e, t h e p r in cip a l b ecom es a r esou r ce p er son , a su p p lier of a d d it ion a l in for m a t ion , a n d loca l exp er t . P oin t in g t o t h eir ow n m od elin g b eh av ior s, t h ese p r in cip a ls n ot e t h a t t h eir b eh av ior cip a t t er n s coin -cid e w it h t h e n ew p r ocess t h ey w a n t t o in fu se in t o t h eir sch ools. As a r esu lt , t ea ch er s w ill b e gin t o q u est ion t h e b en efi t s of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e a n d t o a n a ly ze t h e p osit ive a n d n e ga t ive a sp ect s of ch a n ge. N ot a ll t ea ch er s, h ow -ever, w ill q u est ion t h e va lu es, m y t h s, a n d n or m s of t h e sch ool’s cu lt u r e. Som e w ill look a t ch a n ge a s a t h r ea t t o t h e secu r it y of t h eir job fu n ct ion s, t h eir r ela t ion sh ip s a m on g p eer s, a n d t h eir wor k p a t t er n s. P eer lea d er s w h o a r e r esp ect ed m ay ch a llen ge t h ose w h o a r e r elu ct a n t t o ch a n ge t o look a t t h e d a t a ob ject ively a n d t o r e p la ce m or a l ju d gm en t s w it h ob ject ive a n a ly sis. Som e t ea ch er s w ill r eject t h ese a p p ea ls for op en -m in d ed n ess a n d w ill r efu se t o b e p er su a d ed by t h e p r in cip a l, t h eir p eer s, or t h e lit er a t u r e, w h ile ot h er s w ill a t t em p t t o b e in t ellect u a lly h on est . For r elu ct a n t t ea ch er s, t h e TQM p r a ct ice of b en ch m a r k in g b ecom es a n im p or t a n t p a r t in t h e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge p r ocess.

Ben ch m a r k in g, t h e p r a ct ice of a llow in g em p loyees t o v iew fi r st -h a n d exem p la r y p r o-gr a m s a n d p r a ct ices, lessen s cogn it ive d isso-n a isso-n ce a isso-n d r esist a isso-n ce t o ch a isso-n ge by a llow iisso-n g t ea ch er s t o see t a n gible con seq u en ces of r een gin eer in g. Mor eover, in ed u ca t ion , n ot h -in g h a s m or e va lid it y for a t ea ch er t h a n t h e wor d of a n ot h er t ea ch er. Allow in g a ll t ea ch -er s, t h ose b ot h ea g-er a n d r elu ct a n t , t o exp lor e t h e p osit ive a n d n e ga t ive effect s of TQM a s a p r ocess for sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion fu r t h er r ed u ces r esist a n ce t o ch a n ge a n d a n sw er s m a n y p r a ct ica l q u est ion s n ot a d d r essed in t h e lit er a t u r e. Ca r e sh ou ld b e t a k en t o exp lor e b ot h t h e p r ocess a n d t h e r esu lt s of t h e

p r ocess, n ot ju st t h e in d iv id u a l p r a ct ices t h em selves. Ben ch m a r k in g’s r ea l va lu e lies in it s a b ilit y t o p r ov id e a m od el t o cr it iq u e, a st im u lu s for n ew id ea s, n ot a st r u ct u r e for d ir ect in fu sion . T h e p r im a r y r ole of t h e p r in -cip a l is t o select t h ose sch ools w h ich b est exem p lify t h e p r ocess d esign m ost lik ely t o y ield t h e ou t com es t a r get ed for t h e sch ool.

Focu s gr ou p s p r ov id e t h e n ext st e p in t h is sy st em a t ic ch a n ge p r ocess. La r ge a n d sm a ll

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

of a ch iev in g t h eir d esir ed ou t com es–r ed u cin g r esist a n ce t o ch a n ge a m on g t h e wor k for ce. Re p la cin g t h e exist in g cu lt u r e is p a r t of r een gin eer in g sin ce t h e n ew va lu es a n d exp ect ed p a t t er n s of b eh av ior w ill r eq u ir e n ew or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r es, p olicies, a n d gr ou p n or m s.

N ext , t o h ave t h e wor k for ce in t er n a lize t h e n ew va lu es a n d a t t it u d es d esir ed by m a n a ge-m en t , a p r ogr a ge-m of in for ge-m a t ion -giv in g is n ecessa r y. Com m u n ica t in g in clea r a n d con -cise t er m s w h y t h e old va lu es a n d b eh av ior s a r e n o lon ger a cce p t a ble is essen t ia l t o con -v in cin g em p loyees t h a t ch a n ge is n eed ed . F a ct s, b a sed on r esea r ch , b ecom e t h e m ost p ow er fu l p er su a sive t ool, esp ecia lly w h en t h ese fa ct s in d ica t e t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s fi sca l d eclin e. Com m u n ica t ion m u st b e com p r eh en -sive a n d em p h a size t h e p osit ive ou t com es of ch a n ge, t h e sp ecifi c r ea son s for ch a n ge, a n d exa ct ly h ow ch a n ge w ill im p a ct a n d b en efi t em p loyees. To fu r t h er r ed u ce ch a n ge a n xiet y, w id e p a r t icip a t ion is n eed ed in p la n n in g, d esign in g, a n d im p lem en t in g ch a n ge. Du r in g t h is st a ge, p a r t icip a n t s bu ild ow n er sh ip a n d com m it m en t by exp r essin g id ea s a n d in cor -p or a t in g t h em in t o t h e ch a n ge -p r ocess. E m p loyees w ill b e m or e t oler a n t of t h e n ew p r ocess w h en t h ey h ave a vest ed in t er est in it s su ccess. Wh en a n ew p r ocess is h olist i-ca lly a ssim ila t ed , t h e job of m a n a gem en t b ecom es ea sier sin ce t h e wor k for ce h elp s p la n , d esign , a n d im p lem en t t h e p r ocess, va lu es a n d b eh av ior s d esir ed by m a n a gem en t w h ich h ave b ecom e t h ose d esir ed by em p loy -ees. H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) ca u t ion a ga in st t h e u se of coer cion in t h e r een gin eer -in g p r ocess s-in ce t h is im p lies t h r ea t s or r e p r isa ls a n d ca u ses u n d u e fr u st r a t ion , fea r, a n d a lien a t ion a m on g t h e wor k for ce. Resis-t a n ce ca u sed by coer cion ca n r esu lResis-t in r even ge, p oor p er for m a n ce, h igh t u r n over r a t es, a n d cover t a ct iv it ies.

T h e q u est ion for t h ose p r ogr essive sch ools w h ich a n t icip a t e m eet in g t h e d em a n d s a n d ch a llen ges of t h e 21st cen t u r y b ecom es on e of eit h er r een gin eer in g or r est r u ct u r in g. As p r ev iou sly st a t ed , r est r u ct u r in g m ea n s m a n y t h in gs t o m a n y p eop le a n d “t h e t er m is a s n ot a ble for it s a m b igu it y a s for it s m ea n in g” (Con ley, 1993, p. 7). Usu a lly, Con ley a d d s, r est r u ct u r in g is a r a p id a d a p t a t ion of fr a g-m en t ed p r ogr a g-m s or p r a ct ices t o g-m a in t a in or r e ga in com p et it iven ess. Oft en , w h a t is ca lled r est r u ct u r in g is a ct u a lly sch ool r en ew a l or r efor m w it h im p or t a n t d ist in ct ion s b et w een t h e t wo: “Ren ew a l focu ses on a ct iv it ies t h a t h elp t h e or ga n iza t ion t o d o b et t er a n d / or m or e efficien t ly t h a t w h ich it is a lr ea dy d oin g” (Con ley, 1993, p. 7), w h ile r efor m “a t t em p t s t o a lt er exist in g p r oced u r es, r u les a n d r eq u ir em en t s t o a llow t h e or ga n iza t ion t o

a d a p t t h e w ay it fu n ct ion s t o n ew cir cu m -st a n ces or r eq u ir em en t s” (Con ley, 1993, p. 8). N eit h er of t h ese p r ocesses a d d r esses t h e fu n -d a m en t a l a ssu m p t ion s of sch oolin g, n or -d o t h ey p la ce em p h a sis on t h e p r im a r y exist en ce for sch ools – t o p r om ot e a n d d em on st r a t e st u d en t lea r n in g. N eit h er p r ocess a d d r esses t h e fu t u r e, t h a t is, b ein g p r oa ct ive in d esign . Bot h a r e h igh ly r ea ct ive t o cu r r en t p r essu r es for ch a n ge w h ich p r im a r ily com e fr om ext er n a l sou r ces r a t h er t h a n fr om in t er n a l d iscon -t en -t w i-t h -t h e s-t a -t u s q u o. T h e b a sic p r oblem s w it h sch ool r est r u ct u r in g, say s Con ley (1993, p. 9), a r e “t h e la ck of a clea r a n d gen er a lly a cce p t ed d efi n it ion of w h a t r est r u ct u r in g r ea lly is, t h e u n w illin gn ess or in a b ilit y t o exa m in e t h e u n d er ly in g a ssu m p t ion , va lu es, b eliefs, p r a ct ices, a n d r ela t ion sh ip s of q u a l-it y -p r od u cin g sch ools, a n d t h e a b st r a ct a n d u n clea r goa ls t h a t p er m ea t e ed u ca t ion ”. F u lla n (1991, p. 28), a lso a d d r essin g t h e fu n d a -m en t a l p r oble-m a ssocia t ed w it h sch ool r est r u ct u r in g, st a t es t h a t “t h e in cen t ive sy st em of p u blic sch ools w ist h ist s la ck or p er for -m a n ce scr u t in y a n d a n on co-m p et it ive -m a r k et m a k es it m or e p r ofi t a ble p olit ica lly a n d bu r ea u cr a t ica lly t o ‘in n ova t e’ w it h ou t r isk -in g t h e cost s of r ea l ch a n ge”. All of t h is p o-in t s t o a gen er a l la ck on t h e p a r t of ed u ca t or s t o em b r a ce r a d ica l ch a n ge, t o m a k e d r a st ic sh ift s in a ssu m p t ion s, b eliefs, a n d p r a ct ices w it h ou t sign ifi ca n t ext er n a l p r essu r e t o ch a n ge t h e n a t u r e of sch oolin g. T h e fea r of volu n t a r y, in t er n a l ch a n ge com es fr om t h e t h r ea t s of d ow n sizin g, r ea ssign m en t , a n d r et r a in in g w h ich is im p licit in t h e gen er a l con ce p t of fu n d a m en t a l, r a d ica l ch a n ge (Con -ley, 1993).

Sen ge (1990) b elieves t h e p r oblem s fa cin g t r u e sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion lie in t h e cu r r en t p r ocess of sch oolin g it self a n d t h e h ist or ica l a r t ifa ct s of t h e p a st . Am on g t h e m ost d et r i-m en t a l in h ib it or s of sch ool t r a n sfor i-m a t ion a r e t h e isola t ion of t ea ch er s in self-con t a in ed cla ssr oom s, gr a d e levels, or d e p a r t m en t s: t h e in cr em en t a l m en t a l m od els t h a t d om in a t e ou r w ay s of t h in k in g; t h e t a r get in g of sy m p -t om s r a -t h er -t h a n r oo-t ca u ses for r efor m a n d r esea r ch ; t h e sea r ch for “q u ick fi xes” a n d t h e m od ifi ca t ion of exist in g p r ogr a m s; a n d d isen -ch a n t m en t w it h n ew r efor m p r ogr a m s w h i-ch offer p a n a cea s bu t , lik e t h eir p r ed ecessor s, fa il t o m a k e good on t h eir p r om ises a n d leave t ea ch er s fr u st r a t ed a n d leer y of a n y r efor m m ovem en t .

Tot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t (TQM) is p r ocess t h in k in g; it is sy st em s t h in k in g w it h a h olis-t ic m en olis-t a l m od el b a sed on sh a r ed a n d join olis-t ly d evelop ed v ision , m ission , a n d goa ls w h ich a r e fu t u r eor ien t ed . TQM em p h a sizes t ea m -wor k , com m it m en t t o t h e p u r p ose of m eet in g cu st om er n eed s a n d exp ect a t ion s, a n d

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in t er n a l fl exib ilit y a n d p r ocess r ev ision w it h a n em p h a sis on con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t a cr oss or ga n iza t ion a l b ou n d a r ies (Weller, 1996a ). Bon st in gl (1992) n ot es t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e et h os k a iz en, a sy st em -w id e (p r ocess) coven a n t of in d iv id u a ls h elp in g on e a n ot h er t o p u r su e excellen ce on a d a ily b a sis. Accor d -in g t o Bon st -in gl (1992), “Wer e sch ools t o a d op t t h is p r ocess, t h ey wou ld t r a n sfor m ” t h eir sch ools in t o n ew im a ges a n d n ew st r u ct u r es w it h q u a lit y p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices sp ecifi ca lly a d d r essin g st u d en t n eed s a n d exp ect a -t ion s. Bon s-t in gl a gr ees w i-t h Sen ge (1990) on t h e im p or t a n ce of a sy st em s a p p r oa ch t o sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion (Sen ge’s fi ft h d isci-p lin e) a n d n ot es t h a t a h olist ic isci-p r ocess, a n ew sy st em w h ich is bu ilt fr om t h e gr ou n d u p, is essen t ia l t o m eet t h e ch a llen ges a n d d em a n d s of t h e fu t u r e. In essen ce, b ot h Bon st in gl a n d Sen ge ca ll for r een gin eer ed sch ools, sch ools st a r t in g w it h a clea n sla t e, a n d TQM p r ov id es t h e essen t ia l in gr ed ien t s n ecessa r y for com -p let e sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion .

Sch ools w h ich h ave a d op t ed t h e TQM p r in -cip les of Dem in g (1986) h ave u n d er gon e m or e t h a n a p a r a d igm sh ift : t h ey h ave t r a n sfor m ed t h e m et h od of sch oolin g (E n glish , 1994). Dav ies (1994) p oin t s ou t t h a t in TQM sch ools, t ea ch er s’ m in d set s a n d t h eir t h in k in g a n d wor k h ave u n d er gon e a fu n d a m en t a l ch a n ge a n d it is t h is ch a n ge t h a t is t h e fi r st , t h e m ost n ecessa r y, st e p n eed ed t o ch a n ge t h e sch ool’s cu lt u r e. E n glish (1994) a n d Dav ies (1994) st r ess t h e im p or t a n ce of p r in cip a ls in in it ia t in g sch ool ch a n ge, bu t st r ess t h a t t ea ch er bu y -in is essen t ia l for cu lt u r a l ch a n ge, a t r u e sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion . Mon k (1993), Mu r ga t r oyd a n d Mor ga n (1993), Sch m ok er a n d Wilson (1993), a n d Weller a n d H a r t ley (1994) d ocu m en t t h e p osit ive ou t com es of TQM a s a sch ool t r a n s-for m a t ion a l p r ocess. T h ese in clu d e st u d en t ga in s on t est s of a ch ievem en t , im p r oved st u -d en t self-est eem a n -d in cr ea se-d t ea ch er m or a le. T h ese sch ools h ave v ision , a m ission , a n d em p ow er ed t ea ch er t ea m s w h o p a r t ici-p a t e in sch ool gover n a n ce. T h eir con st a n cy of p u r p ose is t o im p r ove con t in u ou sly a n d t h ey t a k e p r id e in t h eir wor k a s t h ey st r ive t o a ch ieve q u a lit y p er for m a n ce for t h em selves a n d t h eir st u d en t s.

H ow t h en d o sch ools r een gin eer t h em selves in t o q u a lit y -or ien t ed a n d q u a lit y -p r od u cin g sch ools? T h e lea d er (p r in cip a l) m u st m a k e t h e fi r st d ecision – t h e sch ool n eed s t o b e t r a n sfor m ed t h r ou gh a n ew set of va lu es a n d b eliefs, a n ew p r ocess t o p r od u ce q u a lit y p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices. N ext , a n d a ga in cen -t r a l -t o b o-t h r een gin eer in g a n d TQM, is -t h e n eed for st r on g lea d er s t o em b r a ce t h e va lu es a n d b eliefs t h ey w a n t im p lem en t ed by m od el-in g t h ese b eh av ior s. T h ir d is t h e d est r u ct ion of t h e sch ool’s cu r r en t cu lt u r e, t h e cu r r en t

p r ocess of d oin g t h in gs. Reen gin eer in g, r em a r k s Ch a m py (1995), n ecessit a t es t h e “t ea r in g d ow n ” of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e, d is-ca r d in g t h e old p r ocess a n d m in d set s, a n d em b r a cin g a n ew w ay of t h in k in g, a n ew w ay of b eh av in g in t h e con t ext of wor k a n d wor k ou t com es. Ch a n ge, in t h e TQM p r ocess, r eq u ir es a n ew w ay of t h in k in g, a n d n ew w ay of va lu in g, a n d a n ew wor k et h ic. Lik e en gi-n eer igi-n g, TQM ca gi-n gi-n ot b e a ccom p lish ed q u ick ly, sim p ly, or p a in lessly. Bot h a r e t r a n s-for m a t ion a l p r ocesses.

Dislod gin g old b eliefs a n d wor k p a t t er n s a n d in fu sin g n ew va lu es is n ot ea sy. E a ch or ga n iza t ion h a s it s ow n cu lt u r e con sist in g of m y t h s, cer em on ies, r it u a ls, a n d t a cit a ssu m p -t ion s a n d b eliefs a b ou -t -t h e p u r p ose a n d n a t u r e of wor k . H oy a n d Misk el (1996) em p h a -size t h a t or ga n iza t ion a l va lu es in cor p or a t e t h ese cu lt u r a l com p on en t s w h ich com p r ise d esir a ble a n d a cce p t a ble b eh av ior p a t t er n s w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion . In fa ct , Ou ch i (1981) fou n d t h a t t h e cu lt u r e of a n or ga n iza t ion r ela t es d ir ect ly t o it s su ccess a n d t h a t su c-cessfu l or ga n iza t ion s sh a r e t h e va lu es of t r u st , coop er a t ion , t ea m wor k , a n d e ga lit a r i-a n ism . Wh en vi-a lu es i-a r e sh i-a r ed , w h en em p loyees wor k coop er a t ively t ow a r d t h e sa m e goa ls, w h en em p loyees a r e cu st om er -or ien t ed a n d fr ee t o in n ova t e, w h en t h ey h ave d ecision -m a k in g a u t on om y, t h e or ga n iza t ion h a s a p r ocess t h a t p r om ot es efficien t a n d effect ive p r od u ct s. Dea l a n d Ken n edy (1984) fou n d sim ila r va lu es a n d cu lt u r a l p r a ct ices in h igh -a ch iev in g sch ools a n d r ela t e t h a t va lu es, cu st om s, t a cit a ssu m p t ion s, a n d m y t h s d r ive t h e p r ocess of sch oolin g. T h e r ole of t h e p r in -cip a l, t h ey m a in t a in , in cr ea t in g n ew va lu es a n d cu lt u r a l a r t ifa ct s p r eclu d es t h e in fu sion of t h e n ew p r ocess w h ich w ill b e u sed t o t r a n sfor m t h e ou t com es of sch oolin g. Dea l a n d Ken n edy (1984) a lso fou n d t h a t su ccessfu l cu lt u r e ch a n ge is a sy st em a t ic, n ot a

se gm en t ed , p r ocess. Ch a n ge m u st b e p la n n ed a n d w ell-or ga n ized if it is t o b e effect ive in r e p la cin g cor e va lu es in sch ools.

In ch a n gin g a n or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e, t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e lea d er ca n n ot b e over em -p h a sized . Bot h H a m m er a n d St a n t on (1995) a n d Ch a m py (1995) em p h a size lea d er m od el-in g a s t h e p r im a r y, m ost cr u cia l b eh av ior for cu lt u r a l ch a n ge. Beca u se t r a n sfor m ed or ga -n iza t io-n s d e p e-n d o-n -n ew p r ocess i-n fu sio-n a n d n ew p r ocesses d e p en d on em p loyees em b r a cin g a n d p r a ct icin g n ew va lu es a n d b eliefs, t h e m od elin g of exp ect ed b eh av ior s by t h e lea d er b ecom es a llim p or t a n t . T h ese w r it er s m a in t a in t h a t em p loyees m u st b e con -v in ced t h a t t h e n ew p r ocess, a n d t h e con se-q u en ces of t h is p r ocess, a r e a t t a in a ble a n d r ea list ic, a n d som et h in g t h ey t h em selves ca n va lu e a n d p r a ct ice. Sch ein (1985), w h o d id

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r esea r ch on p r in cip a ls a n d ch a n gin g a sch ool’s cu lt u r e, fou n d t h a t su ccessfu l sch ool lea d er s h ave a sy st em a t ic p la n for cu lt u r a l ch a n ge a n d t h a t t h eir m od elin g of d esir ed va lu es a n d b eh av ior s is essen t ia l in sh a p in g t h e cu lt u r e of t h e fu t u r e. St r on g p r in cip a ls d ed ica t ed t o ch a n ge r ea lize t h a t a sch ool’s cu lt u r e p r ov id es t h e sch ool w it h it s ow n u n iq u e im a ge w h ich con vey s t o t h e st u d en t s a n d t h e ext er n a l p u blic w h a t t h e sch ool r e p r e-sen t s, w h a t it s m ission is. Con ley (1993) a d d s t h a t t h e cu lt u r e of a sch ool d et er m in es w h a t a n d h ow st u d en t s lea r n , h ow t h ey b eh ave, a n d w h a t t h ey b elieve a n d va lu e. Beca u se t ea ch er s d eliver t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d , in som e sch ools, d evelop t h e cu r r icu lu m , w h a t t h e cu r r icu lu m com p r ises a n d h ow t h e cu r r icu -lu m is t a u gh t d ir ect ly r efl ect s t h e b eliefs, va lu es, a n d b eh av ior s of t h e t ea ch in glea r n -in g p r ocess. Sh e-in (1985) r efer s t o t h e cu lt u r e of a sch ool a s it s “h id d en cu r r icu lu m ” a n d su ggest s t h a t w h a t is lea r n ed by a n d exp ect ed of st u d en t s on a d a ily b a sis a r e fa r m or e a ccu -r a t e -r efl ect ion s of t h e sch ool’s cu -r -r icu lu m t h a n a n y m ea su r e a ssessin g in st r u ct ion a l con t en t . Con ley n ot es t h a t b eca u se cu lt u r e is su ch a p ow er fu l in fl u en ce on lea r n in g, t r a n sfor m ed sch ools m u st t a k e ca r e t o r id t h em -selves of a n y vest iges of t h e old cu lt u r e so a s n ot t o h ave com p et in g id ea s a n d loya lt ies over t h e cor e va lu es w h ich gu id e exp ect a t ion s a n d b eh av ior s.

Lu n en bu r g a n d Or n st ein (1996) n ot e t h e im p or t a n ce of m od elin g by lea d er s t o ch a n ge p r ocesses in sch ools, bu t a d d t h a t w in n in g t h e a p p r ova l a n d su p p or t of in for m a l p ow er a gen t s w it h in t h e sch ool’s cu lt u r e is eq u a lly im p or t a n t t o su ccessfu l ch a n ge. T h ese in for -m a l lea d er s h ave p eer loya lt y, t r u st , a n d r esp ect a s a r esu lt of t h eir k n ow led ge, sk ills, p er son a lit ies, a n d t h e r ew a r d s t h ey ca n p r o-v id e. P eer s follow t h ese lea d er s by ch oice, fr ee of coer cion , b eca u se t h ey b elieve t h a t con -sen t w ill y ield p er son a l ga in for t h em w it h in t h e sch ool. Ma n y sch ools h ave sever a l in for -m a l gr ou p s w h ich h ave t h eir ow n “gr ou p lea d er ” a n d w h ose in fl u en ce over t h eir p eer s is given by gr ou p con sen su s. T h ese gr ou p lea d er s a r e p ow er a gen t s in sch ools a n d t h eir a ct ion s sp ea k for t h eir gr ou p m em b er sh ip. T h ey r et a in p ow er a s lon g a s t h ey a ct in a ccor d a n ce w it h t h e n or m s a n d va lu es h eld by t h eir follow in g a n d t h ey ca n p r ov id e p er -son a l b en efi t s or r ew a r d s t o t h eir follow in g. P r in cip a ls w h o ga in t h e t r u st a n d con fi d en ce of t h ese in fl u en t ia ls fi n d t h e p a t h t o ch a n ge ea sier a n d m or e su ccessfu l sin ce t h e in for m a l lea d er ’s w illin gn ess t o t r y n ew p r ocess(es) or in n ova t ive p r ogr a m s w ill b e m a d e k n ow n t o t h eir follow er s, t h er eby r ed u cin g t h e level of cogn it ive d isson a n ce.

In for m a t ion w h ich is a ccu r a t e a n d fa ct -b a sed is a p ow er fu l a n d p er su a sive t ool t o in it ia t e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge. Da t a w h ich a r e ea sy t o r ea d a n d u n d er st a n d a ble (gen er a lly fr ee of com p lica t ed r esea r ch d esign a n d st a t ist ics) p la n t seed s of d ou b t a b ou t t h e exist in g w ay of d oin g t h in gs a n d ch a llen ge em p loyees t o t h in k b eyon d t h e cu r r en t p r od u ct ion p r ocesses (Ch a m py, 1995). Lit er a t u r e a b ou t su ccessfu l r een gin eer ed sch ools a n d t h eir su ccess w it h TQM sp a r k s in t er est a n d t r ig-ger s q u est ion s. H er e, t h e p r in cip a l b ecom es a r esou r ce p er son , a su p p lier of a d d it ion a l in for m a t ion , a n d loca l exp er t . P oin t in g t o t h eir ow n m od elin g b eh av ior s, t h ese p r in cip a ls n ot e t h a t t h eir b eh av ior cip a t t er n s coin -cid e w it h t h e n ew p r ocess t h ey w a n t t o in fu se in t o t h eir sch ools. As a r esu lt , t ea ch er s w ill b e gin t o q u est ion t h e b en efi t s of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e a n d t o a n a ly ze t h e p osit ive a n d n e ga t ive a sp ect s of ch a n ge. N ot a ll t ea ch er s, h ow -ever, w ill q u est ion t h e va lu es, m y t h s, a n d n or m s of t h e sch ool’s cu lt u r e. Som e w ill look a t ch a n ge a s a t h r ea t t o t h e secu r it y of t h eir job fu n ct ion s, t h eir r ela t ion sh ip s a m on g p eer s, a n d t h eir wor k p a t t er n s. P eer lea d er s w h o a r e r esp ect ed m ay ch a llen ge t h ose w h o a r e r elu ct a n t t o ch a n ge t o look a t t h e d a t a ob ject ively a n d t o r e p la ce m or a l ju d gm en t s w it h ob ject ive a n a ly sis. Som e t ea ch er s w ill r eject t h ese a p p ea ls for op en -m in d ed n ess a n d w ill r efu se t o b e p er su a d ed by t h e p r in cip a l, t h eir p eer s, or t h e lit er a t u r e, w h ile ot h er s w ill a t t em p t t o b e in t ellect u a lly h on est . For r elu ct a n t t ea ch er s, t h e TQM p r a ct ice of b en ch m a r k in g b ecom es a n im p or t a n t p a r t in t h e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge p r ocess.

Ben ch m a r k in g, t h e p r a ct ice of a llow in g em p loyees t o v iew fi r st -h a n d exem p la r y p r o-gr a m s a n d p r a ct ices, lessen s cogn it ive d isso-n a isso-n ce a isso-n d r esist a isso-n ce t o ch a isso-n ge by a llow iisso-n g t ea ch er s t o see t a n gible con seq u en ces of r een gin eer in g. Mor eover, in ed u ca t ion , n ot h -in g h a s m or e va lid it y for a t ea ch er t h a n t h e wor d of a n ot h er t ea ch er. Allow in g a ll t ea ch -er s, t h ose b ot h ea g-er a n d r elu ct a n t , t o exp lor e t h e p osit ive a n d n e ga t ive effect s of TQM a s a p r ocess for sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion fu r t h er r ed u ces r esist a n ce t o ch a n ge a n d a n sw er s m a n y p r a ct ica l q u est ion s n ot a d d r essed in t h e lit er a t u r e. Ca r e sh ou ld b e t a k en t o exp lor e b ot h t h e p r ocess a n d t h e r esu lt s of t h e

p r ocess, n ot ju st t h e in d iv id u a l p r a ct ices t h em selves. Ben ch m a r k in g’s r ea l va lu e lies in it s a b ilit y t o p r ov id e a m od el t o cr it iq u e, a st im u lu s for n ew id ea s, n ot a st r u ct u r e for d ir ect in fu sion . T h e p r im a r y r ole of t h e p r in -cip a l is t o select t h ose sch ools w h ich b est exem p lify t h e p r ocess d esign m ost lik ely t o y ield t h e ou t com es t a r get ed for t h e sch ool.

Focu s gr ou p s p r ov id e t h e n ext st e p in t h is sy st em a t ic ch a n ge p r ocess. La r ge a n d sm a ll

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

gr ou p wor k p r ov id es a p la t for m t o exp r ess d iscon t en t a n d con cer n s a s t ea ch er s exp lor e t h e p osit ive a n d n e ga t ive a sp ect s of ch a n ge. H er e, t h e p r in cip a l’s r ole b ecom es on e of a fa cilit a t or w h o k ee p s t ea ch er s’ a t t en t ion on bu ild in g a n ew sch ool y ield in g q u a lit y p r od -u ct s a n d ser v ices. Sin ce r een gin eer in g is a b ou t p r ocess d esign , p r in cip a ls em p h a size cr ea t ive t h in k in g a n d d r ea m in g, a n d ch a l-len ge t ea ch er s t o d evelop a d eliver y sy st em t h a t p r om ot es q u a lit y t ea ch in g a n d r esu lt s in q u a lit y lea r n in g. T h e p r in cip a l p r om ot es a “ca n d o” a t t it u d e a m on g t ea ch er s a n d ser ves a s a m ot iva t or a n d st im u la t or t o bu ild self-con fi d en ce a m on g t h e st a ff t o u n d er t a k e cu l-t u r a l ch a n ge. In essen ce, l-t h ese focu s gr ou p s go a b ou t t ea r in g d ow n t h e old cu lt u r e a n d r e p la cin g it w it h t h e n ew va lu e a n d b eliefs t h a t w ill su p p or t a n d p er m ea t e t h e n ew p r ocess of sch oolin g. T h is r est s p r im a r ily on t h e follow in g con d it ion s: fi r st , t h a t m a n y of t h e t ea ch er s see a n eed for ch a n ge a n d a r e w illin g t o exp lor e n ew a n d b et t er w ay s t o im p r ove t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g: secon d , t h a t t ea ch er s, for t h e m ost p a r t , h ave t h e self-con fi d en ce a n d d esir e t o in it ia t e ch a n ge; a n d , t h ir d , t h a t t ea ch er s b elieve t h a t t h e n ew p r ocess (TQM) p r ov id es v ia ble, r ea list ic, a n d a ch ieva ble ou t com es.

La r ge gr ou p session s, w ell p la n n ed w it h sp ecifi c t op ics, gr ea t ly fa cilit a t e t h e ch a n gin g of t ea ch er s’ p er sp ect ives a n d a t t it u d es. La r ge gr ou p t op ics focu s on im a ges of t h e fu t u r e, p r ocess d esign , a n d t h e TQM p h ilosop h y a n d m a n a gem en t p r in cip les. In ea ch session , t h e p r in cip a l’s r ole in t h is r een gin eer in g exer cise is t h a t of ca t a ly st a n d r esou r ce p er son . Im a ges of t h e fu t u r e w ill focu s on w h a t t ea ch er s b elieve t o b e t h e id ea l sch ool, a n ed u ca -t ion a l u -t op ia w h er e -t h eir d r ea m s ca n b e r ea l-ized . T h is session b ecom es a b r a in st or m in g exer cise w h er e id ea s a r e gen er a t ed a n d fr ee t h in k in g d om in a t es. T h is st im u la t es d ia logu e a m on g t ea ch er s a n d a llow s for t h e cr oss-p ollin a t ion of id ea s. Som e t ea ch er s, h ow ever, w ill h old on t o som e of t h e exist in g va lu es, n or m s, a n d cu st om s. Old h a b it s, a ssu m p -t ion s, a n d b eh av ior p a -t -t er n s a r e d ee p ly in gr a in ed , a n d , for som e, p r ov id e a sen se of secu r it y in t h e p r ocess of ch a n ge. Mor eover, som e a sp ect s of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e m ay b e com p a t ible w it h t h e em er gin g im a ges of t h e fu t u r e a n d t h eir in clu sion w ill h elp b r id ge t h e ga p for t h ose t ea ch er s w h o a r e m ost r elu c-t a n c-t c-t o ch a n ge.

Wh en b r a in st or m in g is com p let ed , sm a ll focu s gr ou p s a r e for m ed t o a llow t ea ch er s t im e t o r efl ect a n d fu r t h er exp lor e t h eir feel-in gs a n d t o a d d t o t h e com p on en t s of t h e id ea l sch ool. Tea ch er s a r e fr ee t o d et er m in e w h ich cu r r en t p r a ct ices a r e com p a t ible w it h t h e im a ges of t h e fu t u r e a n d t o d iscu ss t h eir

m er it s. For som e, sm a ll gr ou p in t er a ct ion is less t h r ea t en in g a n d t h ey feel m or e com for t -a ble in exp r essin g t h eir d ee p est feelin gs -a n d op in ion s. T h e p r in cip a l cir cu la t es a m on g t h e sm a ll gr ou p s, a ct in g a s a r esou r ce p er son t o p r ov id e k n ow led ge a n d in for m a t ion t o a d d r ess t ea ch er q u est ion s a n d con cer n s a s ea ch gr ou p fu r t h er d evelop s t h e im a ges of t h e id ea l sch ool a n d exa m in es t h e va lu es a n d n or m s of t h e exist in g cu lt u r e. T h e p r in cip a l m u st r em em b er t h a t som e t ea ch er s w ill w a n t t o h old on t o cer t a in a sp ect s of t h e cu r r en t cu lt u r e a n d w ill exp r ess st r on g feelin gs for t h eir in clu sion . Wh en t h ese b eh av ior s a n d va lu es con fl ict w it h fu t u r e im a ges, t h e p r in cp a l’s t a sk b ecom es on e of cp er su a d er a n d in d i-v id u a l ca t a ly st . T h e p r in cip a l a d d r esses ea ch t ea ch er ’s con cer n (s) w it h fa ct b a sed in for m a t ion a n d , if n eed ed , a llow s t ea ch er s t o b en ch -m a r k a d d it ion a l sch ools. T h is p r ocess t a k es t im e, bu t it is con v in cin g, a n d su ch d et er m in ed com m it m en t t o ch a n ge is a ch a r a ct er -ist ic of effect ive lea d er sh ip.

Bu ild in g v ision a n d m ission st a t em en t s a n d d et er m in in g t h e sch ool’s cor e va lu es is t h e n ext st e p in t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion p r ocess. Vision com es fr om a gr eed u p on cor e va lu es, d esir ed p a t t er n s of b eh av ior, a n d com m on ly h eld a t t it u d es a n d a sp ir a t ion s. Vision is a fu t u r ist ic st a t em en t w h ich clea r ly p r oject s t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s d ir ect ion for a t lea st 30 yea r s (Dr u ck er, 1974). A sch ool’s v ision em b od ies b eliefs a b ou t sch oolin g a n d it s p u r p ose for t h e fu t u r e. Mission st a t em en t s a lso com e fr om cor e va lu es a n d a t t it u d es. A m ission st a t em en t p r ov id es a sp ecifi c im a ge of t h e fu t u r e, is b r oa d in scop e, a n d a llow s for d r ea m in g, bu t p a in t s a r ea list ic, a t t a in a ble fu t u r e. Goa ls com e fr om t h e sch ool’s cor e va lu es a n d st a t e sp ecifi ca lly w h a t t h e sch ool in t en d s t o a ccom p lish . Lon g-r a n ge in n a t u r e, t h ey a r e a ct ion st a t em en t s t h a t r efl ect t h e v ision a n d m ission of t h e sch ool. Few in n u m -b er, goa ls a r e sp ecifi c en ou gh t o p r ov id e t h e fou n d a t ion for st r a t e gic p la n n in g a n d t a n gi-ble en ou gh t o p r ov id e in d ices t o m ea su r e t h e sch ool’s p r ogr ess.

At t h is cr it ica l st a ge of sch ool t r a n sfor m a t ion , p r in cip a ls m u st em p h a size t h e im p or -t a n ce of con sen su s in id en -t ify in g -t h e cor e va lu e a n d b eliefs t h a t w ill d r ive t h e v ision a n d m ission of t h e sch ool. Mor eover, t h e em p h a sis on sh a r ed ow n er sh ip m u st b e st r essed a n d p er m ea t e t h e en t ir e p r ocess sin ce t ea ch er s a r e n ow lay in g t h e essen t ia l fou n d a t ion u p on w h ich t h e r een gin eer ed p r ocess w ill b e bu ilt . By join t ly a gr eein g u p on cor e va lu es, m ission , a n d v ision , t ea ch -er s a n d a d m in ist r a t or s w ill h ave a vest ed in t er est in m a k in g t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion p r ocess a su ccess t h r ou gh a p er son a l com m it -m en t t o t h e sch ool’s n ew cu lt u r e.

L. David We lle r

Unlo c king the c ulture fo r quality sc ho o ls: re e ngine e ring Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 5 0 –2 5 9

La r ge a n d sm a ll gr ou p session s w ill b e u sed t h r ou gh ou t t h is p r ocess t o a ch ieve m a xim u m t ea ch er in p u t a n d p r om ot e con sen su s bu ild -in g. S-in ce cor e va lu es a r e t h e m or a l a n d p h ilosop h ica l fa b r ic fr om w h ich goa ls a r e d evelop ed , sm a ll focu s gr ou p s follow a la r ge gr ou p session w h er e a list of cor e va lu es a r e p r esen t ed a n d d iscu ssed . Sm a ll gr ou p s p r o-m ot e close exa o-m in a t ion of issu es a n d t h e sh a r in g of in t r in sic feelin gs n ecessa r y t o op en a n d h on est com m u n ica t ion a m on g t ea ch er s. Wh en t h ese gr ou p s h ave id en t ifi ed t h eir cor e va lu es, t h ey a r e d iscu ssed a n d con sen su s is r ea ch ed in a la r ge gr ou p session . T h e d evelop m en t of m ission a n d v ision st a t e-m en t s is con d u ct ed in t h e sa e-m e for e-m a t .

T h e t h ir d p h a se of t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion p r ocess is t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of t h e p r ocess t h a t com p let es t h e t a sk of r een gin eer in g. TQM p r ov id es a h olist ic, em p ow er ed , b ot t om -u p a p p r oa ch t o t r a n sfor m in g sch ools, a n d m a n y of t h e q u a lit y m a n a gem en t p r in cip les a r e u sed t h r ou gh ou t t h is r een gin eer in g p r ocess. H er e, p r in cip a ls ca ll on t ea ch er s fr om t r a n sfor m ed sch ools u sin g TQM a s it s p r ocess t o h elp t ea ch er s see h ow t h e sch ool’s goa ls, m ission , a n d v ision ca n b e a p p lied t o t h eir p r ofession a l r esp on sib ilit ies a n d t h eir cla ssr oom in st r u ct ion . Tea ch er s fr om TQM sch ools h ave t h e n ecessa r y cr ed ib ilit y essen -t ia l for -t ea ch er -t r a in in g -t o b e effec-t ive. T h ese t ea ch er s h ave gon e t h r ou gh t h e a sim ila r p r ocess a n d ca n a n sw er m a n y of p r a ct ica l q u est ion s t ea ch er s m ay h ave. T h ey a r e a ble t o r ela t e p er son a l exp er ien ces t h a t a d d cr ed ib ilit y t o t h e effect iven ess of TQM a s a t r a n sfor -m a t ion a l p r ocess. Mor eover, t ea ch er s r ea lize t h a t if t h eir p eer s ca n a d op t TQM a s a t r a n s-for m a t ion a l p r ocess a n d a ch ieve it s in t en d ed r esu lt s, t h ey ca n , t oo. T h is r esu lt s in gr ea t er self-con fi d en ce a n d fu r t h er m ot iva t es t h e st a ff t o em b r a ce t h e t en et s of TQM’s m a n a ge-m en t p r in cip les.

In r een gin eer in g, Ch a m py (1995) m a in t a in s t h a t em p loyee sa t isfa ct ion w it h t h e n ew p r ocess p r eced es q u a lit y p r od u ct s a n d ser -v ices. Tea ch er s m u st h a-ve ow n er sh ip of t h e n ew p r ocess a n d b e sa t isfi ed t h a t t h e goa ls of sch oolin g a r e com p a t ible w it h t h eir ow n va lu es a n d a t t it u d es. Wh en t ea ch er s’ n eed s a r e m et , t h ey ca n t h en con cen t r a t e on m eet -in g t h e n eed s of t h eir st u d en t s a n d on q u a lit y ou t com es. Beca u se t ea ch er s t h em selves r een gin eer ed t h e d eliver y sy st em , t h e issu e of a ccou n t a b ilit y is m oot . P r od u cin g q u a lit y p r od u ct s n ow r est s sq u a r ely on t h eir sh ou l-d er s. An l-d b eca u se t h ey l-d evelop el-d t h e goa ls of sch oolin g, t h ey k n ow t h e eva lu a t ion st a n -d a r -d s a n -d cr it er ia for p er for m a n ce.

In TQM sch ools, t ea ch er s b ecom e t h e d eci-sion m a k er s a n d p r oblem solver s a n d h ave t h e a b ilit y, w it h in t ea m s, t o cr oss

in t er d iscip lin a r y b ou n d a r ies a s t h ey wor k

t ow a r d im p lem en t in g t h e p r ocess of sch oolin g – t h e TQM p r in cip les a n d m a n a gem en t p h ilos-op h y. Wh en t h ese t ea m s fu n ct ion w it h in a n d a cr oss gr a d e levels or d ep a r t m en t s, t h ey im p lem en t a p r ocess t h a t t r a n scen d s st r u ct u r es a n d b ou n d a r ies a n d m a k es ct h e cu r r icu -lu m a n d t h e in st r u ct ion a l d eliver y sy st em a h olist ic p r ocess d evoid of t h e st r u ct u r a l b a r r i-er s fou n d in t r a d it ion a l sch ools. E q u a lly im p or t a n t is t h e a b ilit y of t h ese t ea m s t o a d ju st r a p id ly t o t h e ext er n a l n eed s a n d for ces b r ou gh t t o b ea r on sch ools. Th eir em p ower ed b a se a llow s for fl exib ilit y in t h e in st r u ct ion a l sy st em in or d er t o a d d r ess t h e con cer n s a n d n eed s of t h eir p r im a r y cu st om er – t h e st u d en t .

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