INTRO TO SYNTAX CLAUSES AND SENTENCES
Introduction to
English Syntax
Syntax: The analysis of
sentence structure
-CLAUSES AND SENTENCES-
9/2/17
1
What are the major properties of
a clause?
Each clause contains a finite verb; that is, a verb
marked for tense. Finite verbs are traditionally
said to be marked for tense, person and
number.
In each clause, the finite verb is accompanied by
its complements and adjuncts.
Each clause is marked for aspect and the aspect
can be changed: compare Wickham was eloping
with Lydia as opposed to Wickham eloped with
Lydia.
9/2/17
2
Each clause has mood.
Mood has to do with two sets of distinctions:
1. First, there are the distinctions between making
statements (Wickham eloped with Lydia), asking
questions (Did Wickham elope with Lydia?), and issuing
commands (Elope with Lydia!).
2. The second set of distinctions has to do with whether
the speaker or writer presents an event as possible (He
may have eloped with Lydia) or as necessary (He must
have eloped with Lydia) or as a fact (He did elope with
Lydia.)
9/2/17
3
Clauses
describe situations, the participants
in them (for example, Agents carrying out
actions on Patients, as in Frank [Agent]
persuaded Jane [Patient] to keep the secret,
and the circumstances in which they take
place, as in Frank Churchill was in Hartfield
[place] in June [time]).
9/2/17
4
Main and subordinate clauses
Compound
sentences consist of two or more
clauses joined by conjunctions.
Example:
1. Captain Benwick married Louisa Hayter and
Captain Wentworth married Anne Elliott.
2. Henry Crawford loved Fanny but Fanny loved
Edmund.
3. Mr Bingley became tired of Jane or Mr D’Arcy
persuaded Mr Bingley to go to London.
9/2/17
5
Subordinate clauses
Complex
sentences consist of a main clause
and one or more other clauses subordinate to
it. That is, one clause, the main clause, is
preeminent in a complex sentence and the
other clauses, the subordinate clauses, are
subject to certain limitations
9/2/17
6
Complement clauses
A. Elizabeth regretted that she had met
Wickham.
B. Catherine feared that the Abbey was
haunted.
These clauses were traditionally called ‘noun clauses’, because they
occur in slots in the main clause that can be occupied by ordinary
noun phrases – “Elizabeth regretted her actions” and “Catherine feared
the General’s temper”. The contemporary label ‘complement clause’
reflects the relationship between the clauses and the verb of the main
clause: “Elizabeth regretted” and “Catherine feared” are incomplete
pieces of syntax which require a modifier, either a noun phrase as in
the immediately preceding examples or a clause.
9/2/17
7
C. Complement clauses also occur to the left of
verbs, as in:
"That Anne was in conversation with Mr. Elliott
dismayed Captain Wentworth.“
D. The skeleton of the sentence above is “[ ] dismayed
Captain Wentworth”, the square brackets marking the
slot waiting for some constituent. The slot could be filled
by a noun phrase such as “Her words” but in the
sentence above is filled by the complement clause
"That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliott".
9/2/17
8
E. Complement clauses can modify a noun, as
in:
“Fanny was delighted by the idea that she
could subscribe to a library”
*The sequence “Fanny was delighted by the idea” is a
complete clause. The additional “that she could subscribe
to a library” conveys the content of the idea. It is not
required to complete the syntax, but as we will see later it is
not a relative clause and has been given the label
‘complement clause’ because it fills out the meaning of the
word idea
9/2/17
9
Other examples of noun complement clauses
are:
1. Who thought up the proposal that the
committee be abolished?
2. There was a plan that we would visit
Glasgow today but the weather is terrible.
9/2/17
10
Relative clauses
Complement clauses modify verbs and nouns;
relative clauses modify nouns.
In older descriptions, relative clauses are called
adjective clauses, reflecting the fact that
adjectives also modify nouns.
Examples:
The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.
The gentleman who saved Mariannewas Willoughby.
The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by
Cowper.
The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey.
9/2/17
11
Adverbial clauses
The name ‘adverbial’ suggests that adverbial
clauses modify verbs; but they modify whole
clauses.
Their other key property is that they are
adjuncts, since they are typically optional
constituents in sentences.
They are traditionally classified according to
their meaning, for example adverbial clauses of
reason, time, concession, manner or condition,
as illustrated below:
9/2/17
12
a. Reason
“Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she
refused to believe that he had deserted her”.
*The adverbial clause of reason in "Because Marianne
loved Willoughby", gives the reason (or the writer uses it
to give the reason) why Marianne refused to believe that
Willoughby had gone. It modifies the main clause “she
refused to believe that he had deserted her”.
9/2/17
13
b. Time
“When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram
very ill.”
9/2/17
14
c. Concession
“Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet he
married Elizabeth.”
*The adverbial clause of concession in "Although Mr
D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet", conveys a concession. The
writer says, as it were, ‘OK. I concede that he didn’t like
Mrs Bennet. Nonetheless he married Elizabeth.’ The
adverbial clause modifies the main clause "he married
Elizabeth."
9/2/17
15
d. Manner
“Henry changed his plans as the mood took
him”
*The adverbial clause of manner in "as the
mood took him", describes the manner in which
Henry changed his plans and modifies the main
clause "Henry changed his plans."
9/2/17
16
e. Condition
“If Emma had left Hartfield, Mr. Woodhouse
would have been unhappy”
*The adverbial clause of condition "If Emma had left Hartfield"
conveys the circumstances or conditions under which a particular
situation would have arisen. The situation is Mr. Woodhouse being
unhappy, and the writer declares that this situation did not actually
come about but would have done; Emma’s leaving Hartfield would
have brought it about. The crucial fact is the relationship between
the two situations; Mr. Woodhouse’s being unhappy is conditional
upon Emma’s leaving Hartfield. The adverbial clause of condition
modifies the main clause "Mr. Woodhouse would have been
9/2/17unhappy."
17
Complementizers and
subordinating conjunction
In grammars from before, say, 1965, the words introducing
complement clauses and adverbial clauses were generally
known as "subordinating conjunctions", and words such as
"and" or "but" were known as "coordinating conjunctions".
Coordinating conjunctions join clauses that have the same
status. Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate
clauses.
Since 1965 or so, the term ‘complementizer’ has been used in
one of the major theories of syntax not just for subordinating
conjunctions introducing complement clauses but for all
subordinating conjunctions.
9/2/17
18
Recognizing clauses
A. Does it modify another clause? If it does, it
is an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE.
B. Does it modify a verb? If it does, it is a
(VERB) COMPLEMENT CLAUSE.
C. Does it modify a noun? If it does, it could be
a RELATIVE CLAUSE or a COMPLEMENT
CLAUSE
9/2/17
19
C(i) Is the subordinate clause introduced by a
WH word such as who, which, where, or by a
prepositional phrase such as in which? If it is, it
is a relative clause.
C(ii) Is the subordinate clause introduced by
that? If it is, it could be either a relative clause
or a complement clause. If it is a relative
clause, that can be replaced by "which" and so
on. If it is a complement clause, "that" cannot
be replaced by a WH word.
9/2/17
20
Final comment
In the above examples, the relative and
complement clauses are introduced by "that",
"who" and "which". Relative and complement
clauses often follow their head noun or verb
directly, without a complementizer, as in:
1. I love the food they cook in the halls of residence.
2. A motorist has reported the road is blocked at Soutra
Hill.
3. I am delighted at the idea they might demolish the
Appleton Tower.
9/2/17
21
The
lack of a complementizer does not affect
the rules of thumb.
Example (b) contains a verb complement
clause, "the road is blocked at Soutra Hill",
which modifies "reported"; (a) contains a
relative clause, "they cook in the halls of
residence", modifying "food"; and (c) contains
a complement clause, "they might demolish
the Appleton Tower", modifying the noun
"idea"
9/2/17
22
Exercises
The following exercises contain sentences
consisting of two or more clauses. Analyze
each sentence into its clauses and state the
type of each clause – main clause, adverbial
clause (of reason, concession and so on),
relative clause, complement clause.
9/2/17
23
A.
1. Jane believes that the earrings she got from Susan are real silver.
2. I’ll believe it when I see it.
3. If you think Scotland are ever going to win the European Championship,
you must be a real optimist.
4. The article in which the theory was put forward is now unobtainable.
5. That Helen is to marry the man she met on holiday has surprised all her
friends.
6. Celia did not say that you could keep the book that you borrowed.
7. Because you are flying non-stop, you will probably have severe jet-lag.
8. He promised that he would be here on time, though I find it difficult to
rely on him.
9. The woman whose car you think you have dented is our MP.
10.That you don’t like my home-made vodka I find difficult to believe.
11.Since you think you are ready to sit the test, come along tomorrow.
12.That the club regained the trophy dismayed the teams that had better
players.
9/2/17
24
B.
1. We regret that the plan is impracticable.
2. They accept the theory that the world is flat.
3. They accept the theory that the group
proposed.
4. Did Fiona say who would be at the party?
5. Which of the candidates will be elected is quite
unpredictable.
6. It is believed by some historians that Napoleon
was poisoned.
9/2/17
25
C.
1. Kirsty went out and forgot to switch off the
gas fire.
2. We know that she wrote several novels and
threw them away.
3. The editors who ignored the ban and printed
the story might find themselves in prison.
4. If you go walking on the hills in winter and
do not take proper equipment, you are
asking for trouble.
9/2/17
26
D.
1. They are pioneering a new geography in which they will establish
when new races settled in particular regions.
2. A geneticist says the Pacific islands are an ideal testing ground for
the theory that the Pacific was colonized from west to east.
3. The history begins with the day when the chief medical officer for
Vanuatu noticed that a large number of people there suffered from
anaemia.
4. He was advised to treat them with iron supplements so he
contacted scientists at Oxford who found that half of the donors
suffered from alpha-thalassaemia, which is usually linked to the
presence of malaria.
5. It seems that the gene protects against malaria, since carriers of
the alpha 3.7 mutant will not die of malaria even if they contract a
severe bout.
6. Although anthropological studies have been inconclusive, previous
biological research has suggested that there was no contact while
the Melanesians were moving east.
9/2/17
27
English Syntax
Syntax: The analysis of
sentence structure
-CLAUSES AND SENTENCES-
9/2/17
1
What are the major properties of
a clause?
Each clause contains a finite verb; that is, a verb
marked for tense. Finite verbs are traditionally
said to be marked for tense, person and
number.
In each clause, the finite verb is accompanied by
its complements and adjuncts.
Each clause is marked for aspect and the aspect
can be changed: compare Wickham was eloping
with Lydia as opposed to Wickham eloped with
Lydia.
9/2/17
2
Each clause has mood.
Mood has to do with two sets of distinctions:
1. First, there are the distinctions between making
statements (Wickham eloped with Lydia), asking
questions (Did Wickham elope with Lydia?), and issuing
commands (Elope with Lydia!).
2. The second set of distinctions has to do with whether
the speaker or writer presents an event as possible (He
may have eloped with Lydia) or as necessary (He must
have eloped with Lydia) or as a fact (He did elope with
Lydia.)
9/2/17
3
Clauses
describe situations, the participants
in them (for example, Agents carrying out
actions on Patients, as in Frank [Agent]
persuaded Jane [Patient] to keep the secret,
and the circumstances in which they take
place, as in Frank Churchill was in Hartfield
[place] in June [time]).
9/2/17
4
Main and subordinate clauses
Compound
sentences consist of two or more
clauses joined by conjunctions.
Example:
1. Captain Benwick married Louisa Hayter and
Captain Wentworth married Anne Elliott.
2. Henry Crawford loved Fanny but Fanny loved
Edmund.
3. Mr Bingley became tired of Jane or Mr D’Arcy
persuaded Mr Bingley to go to London.
9/2/17
5
Subordinate clauses
Complex
sentences consist of a main clause
and one or more other clauses subordinate to
it. That is, one clause, the main clause, is
preeminent in a complex sentence and the
other clauses, the subordinate clauses, are
subject to certain limitations
9/2/17
6
Complement clauses
A. Elizabeth regretted that she had met
Wickham.
B. Catherine feared that the Abbey was
haunted.
These clauses were traditionally called ‘noun clauses’, because they
occur in slots in the main clause that can be occupied by ordinary
noun phrases – “Elizabeth regretted her actions” and “Catherine feared
the General’s temper”. The contemporary label ‘complement clause’
reflects the relationship between the clauses and the verb of the main
clause: “Elizabeth regretted” and “Catherine feared” are incomplete
pieces of syntax which require a modifier, either a noun phrase as in
the immediately preceding examples or a clause.
9/2/17
7
C. Complement clauses also occur to the left of
verbs, as in:
"That Anne was in conversation with Mr. Elliott
dismayed Captain Wentworth.“
D. The skeleton of the sentence above is “[ ] dismayed
Captain Wentworth”, the square brackets marking the
slot waiting for some constituent. The slot could be filled
by a noun phrase such as “Her words” but in the
sentence above is filled by the complement clause
"That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliott".
9/2/17
8
E. Complement clauses can modify a noun, as
in:
“Fanny was delighted by the idea that she
could subscribe to a library”
*The sequence “Fanny was delighted by the idea” is a
complete clause. The additional “that she could subscribe
to a library” conveys the content of the idea. It is not
required to complete the syntax, but as we will see later it is
not a relative clause and has been given the label
‘complement clause’ because it fills out the meaning of the
word idea
9/2/17
9
Other examples of noun complement clauses
are:
1. Who thought up the proposal that the
committee be abolished?
2. There was a plan that we would visit
Glasgow today but the weather is terrible.
9/2/17
10
Relative clauses
Complement clauses modify verbs and nouns;
relative clauses modify nouns.
In older descriptions, relative clauses are called
adjective clauses, reflecting the fact that
adjectives also modify nouns.
Examples:
The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.
The gentleman who saved Mariannewas Willoughby.
The book which Marianne was reading contained poems by
Cowper.
The building that we liked is in Thornton Lacey.
9/2/17
11
Adverbial clauses
The name ‘adverbial’ suggests that adverbial
clauses modify verbs; but they modify whole
clauses.
Their other key property is that they are
adjuncts, since they are typically optional
constituents in sentences.
They are traditionally classified according to
their meaning, for example adverbial clauses of
reason, time, concession, manner or condition,
as illustrated below:
9/2/17
12
a. Reason
“Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she
refused to believe that he had deserted her”.
*The adverbial clause of reason in "Because Marianne
loved Willoughby", gives the reason (or the writer uses it
to give the reason) why Marianne refused to believe that
Willoughby had gone. It modifies the main clause “she
refused to believe that he had deserted her”.
9/2/17
13
b. Time
“When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram
very ill.”
9/2/17
14
c. Concession
“Although Mr D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet he
married Elizabeth.”
*The adverbial clause of concession in "Although Mr
D’Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet", conveys a concession. The
writer says, as it were, ‘OK. I concede that he didn’t like
Mrs Bennet. Nonetheless he married Elizabeth.’ The
adverbial clause modifies the main clause "he married
Elizabeth."
9/2/17
15
d. Manner
“Henry changed his plans as the mood took
him”
*The adverbial clause of manner in "as the
mood took him", describes the manner in which
Henry changed his plans and modifies the main
clause "Henry changed his plans."
9/2/17
16
e. Condition
“If Emma had left Hartfield, Mr. Woodhouse
would have been unhappy”
*The adverbial clause of condition "If Emma had left Hartfield"
conveys the circumstances or conditions under which a particular
situation would have arisen. The situation is Mr. Woodhouse being
unhappy, and the writer declares that this situation did not actually
come about but would have done; Emma’s leaving Hartfield would
have brought it about. The crucial fact is the relationship between
the two situations; Mr. Woodhouse’s being unhappy is conditional
upon Emma’s leaving Hartfield. The adverbial clause of condition
modifies the main clause "Mr. Woodhouse would have been
9/2/17unhappy."
17
Complementizers and
subordinating conjunction
In grammars from before, say, 1965, the words introducing
complement clauses and adverbial clauses were generally
known as "subordinating conjunctions", and words such as
"and" or "but" were known as "coordinating conjunctions".
Coordinating conjunctions join clauses that have the same
status. Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate
clauses.
Since 1965 or so, the term ‘complementizer’ has been used in
one of the major theories of syntax not just for subordinating
conjunctions introducing complement clauses but for all
subordinating conjunctions.
9/2/17
18
Recognizing clauses
A. Does it modify another clause? If it does, it
is an ADVERBIAL CLAUSE.
B. Does it modify a verb? If it does, it is a
(VERB) COMPLEMENT CLAUSE.
C. Does it modify a noun? If it does, it could be
a RELATIVE CLAUSE or a COMPLEMENT
CLAUSE
9/2/17
19
C(i) Is the subordinate clause introduced by a
WH word such as who, which, where, or by a
prepositional phrase such as in which? If it is, it
is a relative clause.
C(ii) Is the subordinate clause introduced by
that? If it is, it could be either a relative clause
or a complement clause. If it is a relative
clause, that can be replaced by "which" and so
on. If it is a complement clause, "that" cannot
be replaced by a WH word.
9/2/17
20
Final comment
In the above examples, the relative and
complement clauses are introduced by "that",
"who" and "which". Relative and complement
clauses often follow their head noun or verb
directly, without a complementizer, as in:
1. I love the food they cook in the halls of residence.
2. A motorist has reported the road is blocked at Soutra
Hill.
3. I am delighted at the idea they might demolish the
Appleton Tower.
9/2/17
21
The
lack of a complementizer does not affect
the rules of thumb.
Example (b) contains a verb complement
clause, "the road is blocked at Soutra Hill",
which modifies "reported"; (a) contains a
relative clause, "they cook in the halls of
residence", modifying "food"; and (c) contains
a complement clause, "they might demolish
the Appleton Tower", modifying the noun
"idea"
9/2/17
22
Exercises
The following exercises contain sentences
consisting of two or more clauses. Analyze
each sentence into its clauses and state the
type of each clause – main clause, adverbial
clause (of reason, concession and so on),
relative clause, complement clause.
9/2/17
23
A.
1. Jane believes that the earrings she got from Susan are real silver.
2. I’ll believe it when I see it.
3. If you think Scotland are ever going to win the European Championship,
you must be a real optimist.
4. The article in which the theory was put forward is now unobtainable.
5. That Helen is to marry the man she met on holiday has surprised all her
friends.
6. Celia did not say that you could keep the book that you borrowed.
7. Because you are flying non-stop, you will probably have severe jet-lag.
8. He promised that he would be here on time, though I find it difficult to
rely on him.
9. The woman whose car you think you have dented is our MP.
10.That you don’t like my home-made vodka I find difficult to believe.
11.Since you think you are ready to sit the test, come along tomorrow.
12.That the club regained the trophy dismayed the teams that had better
players.
9/2/17
24
B.
1. We regret that the plan is impracticable.
2. They accept the theory that the world is flat.
3. They accept the theory that the group
proposed.
4. Did Fiona say who would be at the party?
5. Which of the candidates will be elected is quite
unpredictable.
6. It is believed by some historians that Napoleon
was poisoned.
9/2/17
25
C.
1. Kirsty went out and forgot to switch off the
gas fire.
2. We know that she wrote several novels and
threw them away.
3. The editors who ignored the ban and printed
the story might find themselves in prison.
4. If you go walking on the hills in winter and
do not take proper equipment, you are
asking for trouble.
9/2/17
26
D.
1. They are pioneering a new geography in which they will establish
when new races settled in particular regions.
2. A geneticist says the Pacific islands are an ideal testing ground for
the theory that the Pacific was colonized from west to east.
3. The history begins with the day when the chief medical officer for
Vanuatu noticed that a large number of people there suffered from
anaemia.
4. He was advised to treat them with iron supplements so he
contacted scientists at Oxford who found that half of the donors
suffered from alpha-thalassaemia, which is usually linked to the
presence of malaria.
5. It seems that the gene protects against malaria, since carriers of
the alpha 3.7 mutant will not die of malaria even if they contract a
severe bout.
6. Although anthropological studies have been inconclusive, previous
biological research has suggested that there was no contact while
the Melanesians were moving east.
9/2/17
27