Manajemen | Fakultas Ekonomi Universitas Maritim Raja Ali Haji joeb.83.1.3-10
Journal of Education for Business
ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20
Service Learning: Bringing Real-World Education
Into the B-School Classroom
Michele A. Govekar & Meenakshi Rishi
To cite this article: Michele A. Govekar & Meenakshi Rishi (2007) Service Learning: Bringing Real-World Education Into the B-School Classroom, Journal of Education for Business, 83:1, 3-10, DOI: 10.3200/JOEB.83.1.3-10
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.83.1.3-10
Published online: 07 Aug 2010.
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eal-world education in the busi-nessschoolclassroomisbasedon imparting “learnings that are dynamic, emergent, context-sensitive, and holis-tic” (Billimoria, 1998, p. 266). The expected outcomes from this type of learning include (a) enhancement of knowledgebywhichstudentscanlearn to balance theory and practice of busi-nessconcepts,(b)developmentofgood teamwork and communication skills, (c)abilitytoreadilyadaptandrespond to changing conditions in the business environment,and(d)constantemphasis oninnovation.Judgingbythesecriteria, many critics still consider the business school curriculum narrow and largely indifferent to the external environment of business (ACNielsen, 2000; Emil-iani,2004;Lorange,1994).
Thepastseveralyearshaveproduced new initiatives by business schools to complement traditional chalk-and-talk learning environments with real-world learningexperiences.Manyscholarshave noted that this emphasis on real-world learning has shifted business schools’ focus from classroom-based instruc-tion to experiential instrucinstruc-tion and has resulted in a “diasporic shift” (Billimo- ria,1998,p.265)inmanagementeduca-tion(Angelidis,Tomic,&Ibrahim,2004; Billimoria; Hervani, & Helms, 2004; Klink &Athaide, 2004; Madsen, 2004; McCoskey & Warren, 2003; McIntyre, Webb, & Hite, 2005; Still & Clayton,
2004;Tschopp,2004).Examplesinclude student teamwork projects, integrative coursework activities and capstone courses, entrepreneurial opportunities inthecurriculum,course-relatedintern-ships, formal practitioner mentorinthecurriculum,course-relatedintern-ships, and increasingly popular volunteerism andservice-learningactivities.
Increasingly, experiential pedago-gies have been hailing service learning as a means of linking formal classroom instruction with real-world learning that occurs beyond the classroom and involves the community (Godfrey, Illes, &Berry,2005;Rama,Ravenscroft,Wol-cott, & Zlotkowski, 2000; U.S. Depart-ment of Education, 1999). As business educators and service-learning practitio-ners, we concur and argue that service- learning activities can indeed offer “powerful experiential alternatives to the exclusive classroom model” (Wad-dock&Post,2000,p.49).Inthisarticle, we briefly review recent literature on service learning and its benefits. Then wedescribetwoseparatecoursesover4 years, report qualitative and quantitative evidencethatdemonstratestheefficacyof servicelearninginmeetingourlearning outcomes,andconcludewithreflections andlessonslearned.
ServiceLearning:Background andBenefits
Althoughresearchershavedefinedser-vice learning variously in the literature,
ServiceLearning:BringingReal-World
EducationIntotheB-SchoolClassroom
MICHELEA.GOVEKAR MEENAKSHIRISHI
OHIONORTHERNUNIVERSITY SEATTLEUNIVERSITY
ADA,OHIO SEATTLE,WASHINGTON
R
ABSTRACT.Service-learningpedagogythatsupportscommunityinvolvementval-uesandpromotesleadershipdevelopment offersmoreeffectivenessandefficiency formanagementeducatorsinterestedin incorporatingreal-worldlearningintotheir coursesthantraditionalinternshipsand cooperativeeducation(P.C.Godfrey&E. T.Grasso,2000).Inthisarticle,theauthors argueforservicelearningasmeansofinte-gratingreal-worldlearningintocurricula. Theydescribe2longitudinalexamplesin aneconomicscourseandamanagement coursefrom2001to2004.Beyondqualita-tivedatafromstudentreflectivejournals, essays,andanonymouscomments,the authorspresentquantitativeevidenceofsig-nificantdifferencesthatsupportarguments infavorofservicelearning.
Keywords:longitudinal,management,qual-itative,quantitative,servicelearning Copyright©2007HeldrefPublications
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theyhaverecognizedservicelearningas an educational approach that combines communityserviceprojectswithcredit-bearing educational experience. Furco (1996)distinguishedservicelearningas “balanced”(p.5)pedagogyanchoredin reciprocity:Theservice-learningexperi-ence benefits students (providers) and community (recipient). Unlike intern-ships,wheretheintendedbeneficiaryis the student, service-learning programs “ensure equal focus on both the ser-vice being provided and the learning thatisoccurring”(Furco,p.5).Thisbal-ance helps distinguish service learning from volunteerism, where the commu-nityrecipientistheprimarybeneficiary. Service programs do incorporate some principles of service learning but are different because they lack classrooms’ focus on competency. Similarly, field experience shares some methods with servicelearningbutoftenlacksarequire- mentforreflectionandin-depthintegra-tion.Reflectionalsodistinguishesservice learning.Bothformal(journaloressay) andinformal(1-minpaperordiscussion) typesofreflectionultimatelyensurethat theprojectprovidesreallearninginaddi-tion to the service experience (Dubin-sky,2006;Eyler&Giles,1999).Dewey (1938)providedearlyphilosophicaljus- tificationforservicelearningbysuggest-ing that projects enable participants to broadeneducationalandcivichorizons.
In a cross-disciplinary survey of researchonservicelearningandstudent outcomes,Ramaetal.(2000)highlight-ed the potential of service learning to enhance technical and cognitive capa- bilitiesandcitizenshipskillsamongstu-dents.Otherresearchershaveshownthe significantimpactofservicelearningin
enhancingstudentcompetencies(Fried-a direct link to real-world work skills, enabling the students to enhance and practice the concepts taught in class (Bringle & Hatcher, 1996; Hingorani, Sankar, & Kramer, 1998; Kenworthy-U’Ren,2000).WaddockandPost(2000) noted that meaningful service learn-ingcansparkappreciationofcorporate social responsibility among students. On the whole, business schools have beenslowinembracingandimplement-ing service-learnbeenslowinembracingandimplement-ing activities in curri-cula(Gujarathi&McQuade,2002).
Although business educators may be tentativeaboutservicelearning,theyare increasingly interested in moving into therealworldoforganizations.Itisnot hardtounderstandthisshiftinperspec-tive because complexities of the global economy require managers to possess severalcompetencies:(a)abilitytoapply balancedacademicrigorinapracticalset-ting,(b)individualandteamworkskills, (c)problem-solvingabilityinadynamic organizationalsetting,(d)understanding of diversity, and (e) ability to consider multiplepointsofviewsimultaneously.
In this article, we make a case for service learning for these reasons as a means to bring real-world learning intothebusinessschoolclassroom.We arguethatservicelearninghelpsdirectly addressinterestsofmanagementeduca-torsasitexpandslearningspatiallyand temporallybeyondthetraditionalclass-room,partiallyreplicatingareal-world setting for students. Service-learning projectscaneffectivelyengagestudents in the uncertainties, difficulties, and complexities of present-day manage- mentandbetterpreparethemforgradu-ateschoolandfuturecareers.
In the following section, we pro-vide details on the application of
ser-course was based on a number of fac-tors.First,inadditiontofacultyinterest in experiential pedagogies, the univer-sity was investigating enhancing stu-dentoutcomesthroughservicelearning on campus partly because the Higher Learning Commission’s reaccreditation was approaching. Second, the College of Business Administration was trying to meet the suggestions of some advi-sory executive focus groups.Although these factors are not necessary for a service-learning decision, they dimin- ishedtheusualcomplicationsofadopt-ing this more demandishedtheusualcomplicationsofadopt-ing experiential pedagogy.Third,servicelearningoffers exactlytheactivetechniquesthatenable learningeconomictheorythroughreal-worldexperience.
Inmoneyandbanking,anupperlevel required or elective economics course thatappliesbothmicro-andmacroeco-nomic principles, the professor explic-itly tried to develop an understanding of the theory and practice of banking. In the course, the professor aimed to equip students with skills of financial data analysis that encouraged them to connect current economic conditions and relevant data. To meet their spe-cific learning objectives, professors emphasized operation of the Federal Reserve System and made students well-informed so they could discuss financialaspectsoftheglobaleconomy inanyforum.
To examine the efficacy of service learningindeliveringreal-worldlearning, the instructors planned general learning outcomesofcriticalandcreativethinking skills, the ability to respond to change, exposuretoreal-worlddiversity,andbet-terunderstandingofclassroomconcepts through the experience of teaching
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and spring 2001; spring 2002, 2003, and2004)constituted25%ofthetotal course grade. In 2001, the class’s stu- dentsofferedtutorialassistancetochil-dren and financial planning basics to adult clients at a nearby community serviceagency.During2002–2004,the class’s students taught economics and finance fundamentals to an economics classatanareahighschool.
To ensure successful completion of hours pledged and hold each student responsible for promised services, the client organization and the student par-ticipantssignedacontractdetailingtheir service commitments. Also, students maintainedandturnedinareflectivejour- naldetailingtheirexperiences.Thereflec-tive journal directions presented the fol-lowingfoursetsofquestions:(a)“What happened?What did you see?What did youdo?”;(b)“Howdidyoufeel,react? Whatdidyoulearnaboutyourself,your biases, and your assumptions?”; (c) “Were you able to ‘learn’ money and banking through this experience? Given constraintsonyourtime,wereyouableto try something new and different in your presentation?Explain.”;and(d)“Inrank order,writethefivebestandworstthings about this case as compared to another ‘classroom-based’case.”
ServiceLearninginManagement
Choosing service learning for the nonprofitmanagementcoursewaseasy. Universityprograminterestwasstrong in the first years of the course, with a university volunteer for Volunteers in Service to America [VISTA] to help. Theideasofthebusinesscollege’sfocus groupcarriedovertoeasethedecision. The business college had been explor-ing the possibility of addexplor-ing a 4-year serviceorservice-learningrequirement, butstaffingissuesdelayedthatdecision. Last,theprimarypurposeforthecourse wastotrainbusinessundergraduatesfor future positions as community leaders (thecollegemission),whentheywould serveonnonprofitcommunityorganiza-tionboards.Becausepreparingstudents for future service was the purpose of the course, having them apply service learningbecameanobviousstep.
Nonprofit management is an upper-
levelmanagementelectivecourserequir-ing students to apply understandlevelmanagementelectivecourserequir-ing of management concepts to management challengesinthethirdsector.Thespe-cific learning objectives of (a) under-standingspecialmanagementproblems of nonprofit organizations, (b) gaining experience in this dynamic and impor-tantsector,and(c)preparingforfuture serviceasboardmemberslinkwiththe generallearningobjectivesofenhanced critical thinking, applying course con-ceptstoservearealnonprofit,adapting tochange,buildingteamworkandcom-municationskills,andraisingawareness ofdiversitybeyondcampus.
Service projects for nonprofit man-agement also counted for 25% of the totalcoursegrade,withreflectiveproject logsearninganother12.5%.In2001and 2003,studentsingroupsof3–5worked with members of nonprofit boards and theirstakeholderstoexamineconcerns, evaluateprocesses,andpreparereports. In 2002, students partnered with the local nonprofit hospital to revise its new orientation manual for employees or volunteers, with each student group havingseparatechapterresponsibilities. In 2004, the instructor secured client agencies, and student groups negoti-ated their own projects. Groups orga-nized a campaign for a Friends of the Library program; planned, researched, designed, developed, and published a Web page for a local county hospital; conductedamembershipsurveyforthe county Young Men’s Christian Asso-ciation(YMCA);andparticipatedinthe annual fundraising and grant cycle as fullmembersofKiwanisfor10weeks. Studentsdevelopedcontractswiththeir clients and with each other, and peers evaluated individual participation. The instructor called for reflective journals andprojectlogsatthreeintervalsduring thecourse.
Evidence
This section presents qualitative and quantitativeevidenceassessingservice-learning student outcomes. Qualitative evidencecomesfromanonymouspost-course student evaluations of teaching, students’ reflective journals, project logs, and take-home essays. Quantita-tive assessment comes from surveys (pre- and post-) completed by students
inbothcourses(questionsanddataare availablefromMicheleA.Govekar).
QualitativeEvidence
Reflective summaries from student journals,essays,andpostcourseteaching evaluation comments indicate that the service-learning projects had addressed most—if not all—learning outcomes (seeTables1and2).Studentsinmoney and banking noted “better understand-ing of financial concepts.” Analysis of comments in reflective journals indi-cated that in 2001, 89% of the class reportedthattheirexperienceatanadult andteenlearningcenterhadenhanced personal understanding of general eco-nomics. During 2002–2004, when stu-dent teams taught a high school class, approximately80%ofparticipantsindi- catedimprovedunderstandingoffinan-cialtopicsbecause“beingabletoandin fact explaining a concept to somebody else truly enhances your own compre-hension as well.” Reports from 21 of 28studentswhocompletedtheservice-learning experience in 2004 noted that the experience eased their nervousness andmadethemmorerelaxedaboutread-ing and discussandmadethemmorerelaxedaboutread-ing topics pertinent to moneyandbanking.Inalloftheplanned service-learningexperiencesover2001– 2004,studentsindicatedthattheirteam worked well in planning and executing theactivity.
Nonprofitmanagementstudents’jour-nalsandreflectiveessaysshowedsimilar linkageofserviceprojectstoclassroom concepts,butalsoshowedintenttoapply classroom ideas in furthering the proj-ects. The 2001 board assessment drew commentssuchas,“Ilearnedalotabout boards that I never knew before this course”and“Ilikedsittinginonboard meetings and getting a real-life experi-enceofwhatwewerelearning.”Working withMemorialHospitaldrewcomments indicatingthat“workingwitharealorga-nization in the community,” “hands on stuff,”and“beingabletohelptheXYZ community...[allowed]seeinghowa non-profit organization works.” Entries recognizedthevalueofreal-lifeexperi-ence in doing something that made a difference in the community. At least 80% of reflections used concepts from
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TABLE1.CourseContentforMoneyandBankingCourse,2001–2004
Year
Coursedetails 2001 2002and2003 2004
Project Adultandteen Taughtfinancial Taughtfinancialconcepts learningcenter conceptstostudents inahighschool inahighschool economicsclass economicsclass
Agency ProjectImpact CentralCatholic CentralCatholic HighSchool HighSchool
CommunityCenter
Evidence Pretestandposttest, Reflectivejournal Pretestandposttest, reflectivejournal (Rama,2001) reflectivejournal
Specificlearningoutcomes
Understand Learnedsimple Usedclassroom Preparedcollegeplanning financialconcepts financialconcepts knowledgeto worksheetforcollege educateothers seminar
Understand Createdproblems Usedthe howthe orgames Internetto
Federal toretainstudentinterest updateinformationon Reserve andenhanceproblem- FederalReservenot works solvingskills inthetextbook
Read Usedillustrativeexamples Explainedthenuances the toexplainsupplyand ofthejobless WallStreet demandconcepts recoverytothe
Journal highschoolclassroom
byusingeconomic
datafromthe
WallStreetJournal
Generallearningoutcomes
Developcritical Presentedresults Discussedideaswith Preparedworksheetswith thinkingskills ataconference highschoolstudents actualnumbersfora collegeprepseminar Better Learnedbetterafter Usedactivelearning Designedchallenging understand teachingthe techniquesto researchmaterial classroom concept enhanceunderstanding andlessonsplans concepts
Respondto Createdgames Highschoolinstructor Highschoolswitchedto change toretainadultclient changedlessonplans Macintoshtechnology interest atshortnotice
requiringadditional research
Develop Developedgood Beinginaclassfor
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and switch to a lecture–discussion for-mat.Theobservationthattheprojectshad challenged preconceived notions about inner-cityteengroupsorhighschoolstu-dentsappearedinamajorityofreflective journals.Studentsappreciatedexposureto apopulationthatwasdifferentfromwhat theywereaccustomedtoandlikedbeing in charge of the learning environment. Comments such as “I believe that this has taught me a lot about myself”
indi-cated that students were able to expand their learning beyond the traditional environment. Last, students’ description of activities designed for the classroom (financialmonopoly,moneyandbanking jeopardy),interactivefinancialWebsites, online quizzes on the Federal Reserve System, and handouts on the basics of budgeting and student loans indicated thatthestudentsthoughtcreativelyabout otherwisepossiblydullfinancialtopics.
One of the nonprofit management students reported, “Working with the actualnonprofitswasagreatexperience forthecourseitselfandanopportunity to serve.”Where teamwork skills were concerned,onestudentwroteabouthis highschoolpresentation:“Onemember would answer and the group members would feed off that answer. . . . We worked well together.” Tables 1 and 2 listothercomments.
TABLE2.CourseContentforNonprofitManagementCourse,2001–2004
Year
Coursedetails 2001 2002 2003 2004
Project DruckerFoundation Revisednewemployee Facilitatedboard Campaign,designedWeb boardsurveys orientationhandbook assessments pageforsurveyand participation Agency Artscouncil,Girl MemorialHospital BoyScouts,Habitatfor Publiclibrary, Scouts,Boardof Humanity,UnitedWay, MemorialHospital, Education,Nature YMCA,ElksLodge, YMCA,
Conservancy,Humane BoardofHealth, Kiwanis Society,downtown IslamicCenter,
organization,economic DomesticViolence development Center
Evidence Reflectiveessays,written Reflectiveessays Reflectivejournals, Reflectivejournals,essays, coursecomments essays,writtencourse pre-andposttests, comments coursecomments
Specificlearningoutcomes
Understand Learnedmoreabout Workedwithactual Appliedmanagement Gainedreal-lifeexperience nonprofits’ nonprofitenvironment organizations andteamworkideas
problems
Experience Experiencedorganizational Experiencedfinancial Adaptedtoevaluate Experiencedfrustration dynamicsof andinterpersonal crisisasprojectbegan; board’sfinefor withmultipledemands nonprofitsector conflicts accreditation gamblingviolations
visitwaspending
Preparefor Developedcreative Severalweeksof Experiencedwork Needformoreguidance board methodstoget askingtogetvision; firsthand; toworkwithnonprofits service boardresponse helpedcommunity preparedtoserve
Generallearningoutcomes
Developingcritical Analyzedsurveyresults Teamscritiquedeach Cross-project Obtainedreal-life thinkingskills other’swork discussionsdeveloped experience comparativeideas
Understanding Generatedinterest Relatedclasswork Receivedreal-life Learnedabout classroomconcepts toactualsituations experience nonprofitdifferences incontext
Adaptingto Obtainedhands-on Changedprojecttomeet Receivedwrittenand Morestructureand change experience organization’spolitics; oralboardfeedback directiondesired sitecontactquitmidway
Teamworkand Usedsurveysand Usedinterviewsto Boardmeetings Changedsoftwaretomeet communication hadtobepersuasive; developcontext stressedlistening client’spreferences; skills (i.e.,receivedwrittenand hadfreedomtowork oralboardfeedback) onprojects
Diversity Witnessedboard Learnedaboutemployee Workedwith Hadfreedomtoworkon awareness stakeholdersclash ordepartmentrelations diversegroups projects
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QuantitativeEvidence
For quantitative assessment, both courses’studentsalsocompletedapretest andposttestsurveyinspring2004.Sur-vey questions, which we adapted from Eyler and Giles’ (1999) Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Educa-tion(FIPSE)surveyinstrument,required respondents to use 5-point Likert-type scales to indicate respondent’s degree ofagreementfrom1(stronglyagree)to 5 (strongly disagree), rate themselves from1(muchbetter)to5(muchworse), describe themselves from 1 (not very wellatall)to5(verywell),anddescribe theirexperiencefrom1(never)to5(very often). A recently published scale, Ser-viceLearningBenefit(SELEB),follows much the same method to propose a standardized assessment (Toncar, Reid, Burns,Anderson,&Nguyen,2006).
Both instructors selected specific questions from the FIPSE survey that
directlyaddressedcoursegenerallearn- ingobjectivessuchasbetterunderstand-ing,applicationofclassroomconcepts, criticalandcreativethinking,abilityto respond to change, better teamwork, better communication skills, and an awareness of diversity. The instructors asked questions in a variety of for-mats and compared responses as an internal check for self-reporting bias. For instance, the instructors measured leadership skills—important for man-agement—by asking students to assess their“leadershipskills,”“abilitytolead agroup,”and“knowingwhotocontact to get things done.”Also, communica-tion skills drew on “speaking in front of groups,” “initiating talk,” “listening skills, and “communicating my ideas.” Further, diversity awareness items included,“affectingothers’prejudices,” “seeing others’ side,” and “understand-ingothers...intheirshoes.”Students were free to answer or not. Random number codes allowed anonymous
response, so instructors had no knowl-edge of participation or results until aftercompletingcoursegrades.
Inspring2004,43studentscompleted bothpretestsandposttests.Table3shows means,standarddeviations,andstatisti-cally significant results of pairedt tests comparing student assessments. It dis-plays questions for which we expected posttest means to be lower numerically (becauseofquestiondirectionorcoding reversal)withboldr .Wefoundstatisti-callysignificantdifferencesbetweenpre- and posttest responses on 15 items.All differences are in the anticipated direc-tion,supportedbysimilardifferencesin relatedquestions.
Studentsassessed(a)theirknowledge oftheorganizationand(b)workinginthe organizationasimproved.Theyreported less discomfort in speaking in front of groupsofthoseinauthorityandininiti-ating talk with unfamiliar people. They reported more deviation from planned
TABLE3.DescriptiveStatisticsandSignificanttTestResults(N=43)FromSurveyofStudents
No. Statement Pre-M SD Post-M SD df t
06. Iknowalotaboutworkingin 3.14 0.98 3.38 0.89 42 –1.65*
theprojectorganization.
09. Iknowalotaboutthe 2.98 1.04 3.42 0.82 43 –2.59**
projectorganization.
11r. Ifeeluncomfortablespeaking 2.84 1.13 2.42 1.19 43 2.46**
infrontofindividualsinauthority.
12r. Iusuallyfeeluncomfortable 3.09 1.15 2.33 0.91 43 5.18**
initiatingconversationswith peopleIdonotknow.
18r. Iwasabletogoexactlyas 3.19 0.79 2.66 0.96 43 3.02**
dictatedbymyplanorcontract.
29r. Idonotliketodeviatefrom 2.93 0.99 2.63 0.86 42 2.10*
establishedformat.
34r. Ithinkcreatively. 2.63 1.05 2.40 0.99 43 1.81* 35r. Iengageindiscussion. 2.67 0.95 2.35 0.89 43 2.74**
withothers.
36r. Iamabletoleadagroup. 2.47 0.99 2.23 0.91 43 2.29*
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formatsandalsomorecomfortindeviat-ing. They reported increased ability to thinkcreatively,engageingroupdiscus-sion, lead a group, go beyond the text-booktofindanswers,communicatewith others, and know whom to contact to getthingsdone.Last,theyreportedsig-nificantimprovementinkeepingupwith thenews,feelingpreparedtoembarkon a career, and—surprisingly—less likeli-hoodtotryunderstandingothersthrough empathy. These changes were statisti-cally significant across both courses. In addition, the posttest also assessed the overall experience. Nonprofit manage-ment students and money and banking students both applied things that they learnedinthecourseandwereverylike-ly to applearnedinthecourseandwereverylike-ly things that they learned to serviceinthefuture.Ofparticularnote, both money and banking and nonprofit managementstudentsassessedtheitems of“appliedclasstorealproblems,”“it’s rewardingtohelpothers,”and“working withotherseffectively”asclosetovery important. Feedbackfrompartnerorganizations hasalsobeenencouraging.Oneagency completed an evaluation form rating students’ performance as “very profes-sional” and expressed a keen desire to continuetheprogramwithfutureclass-es. The high school service-learning experienceappearstohavebeenequally rewarding for the partners. The high school economics teacher noted that studentscametolookontheuniversity studentsasrolemodelsandmentors.All studentscompletingthenonprofitman- agementcoursereceivedindividualper-sonallettersdetailingtheircontribution andthankingthemfortheirwork.Those students used these letters in seeking jobs to differentiate themselves from otherapplicants.
ReflectionandLessonsLearned Service learning has the potential to transform business undergraduate edu-cation. Service learning affects major areassuchastheory-to-real-worldlink- age,abilitytochangewiththeenviron-ment,andcapacitytofosterinnovation. These areas prepare students for post-graduateprogramsandfuturecareers.In thisarticle,wemadeacaseforservice- learning pedagogy as one means of
integrating real-world learning into the businesscurriculum.
As we noted in the previous sec- tion,Tables1and2mapevolvingstu-dentexperiencesandlearningoutcomes for both courses over 4 years. Sam-ples describe mostly positive student responses and surprising successes in achieving the intended learning out-comes.As further evidence of critical-thinking skills development, four stu-dents in the 2002 money and banking community service endeavor collabo-ratedtoresearchandpresentapaperat thestate-levelCampusCompactconfer-ence. One 2001 student wrote that the experiencemadeher“morepatientwith peopleandmoreacceptingofracialand economic diversity.” That several non-profit management graduates are now workinginnonprofitorganizationssup-ports the potential of service learning to engender a lifelong commitment to service.Weweredelightedatthedepth ofupbeatstudentcomments.
However, some student comments also indicated dissatisfaction with the ambiguitythatwasinherentintheproj-ects and the time that was involved in trips to client organizations. To deal withtheseissues,bothinstructorstook time to emphasize that ambiguity was designedintotheprojectsaspartofthe real-world experience. Both professors set extra office hours to deal with the stressesthataroseduringeachservice-learningexperience.
Conclusion
As we look forward, we can draw severalconclusions.First,studentevalu-ations of our courses have consistently improved with repeated applications of service learning. It appears that faculty members need practice to get it right. Second,comparingserviceleaningwith other modes of teaching these courses, wegainedmorepersonalsatisfactionin termsofworthwhileoutreachandclose coaching relationships with students. Last,tofacilitatebroaderfacultyinvolve-ment, implementing service learning requires multiple community partners, significantinstitutionalinvolvement,and better ways to demonstrate outcomes to counter skepticism from faculty and
curriculumcommittees.Futureresearch-ers may meet this final need as service learninginthebusinessdisciplinesflows frompracticetopracticalresearch(e.g., Toncaretal.,2006). Ofcourse,therearecostsinadopting servicelearningtoaddresstheneedsof today’sstudents.Startupcostsaresignif-icant,andfindingpotentialclientstakes time, energy, and resources. Clients’ wantsmaynotmatchwhatstudentsneed tolearn.Establishingtheproject,main-tainingrecords,coachingstudentteams, and providing continual constructive feedbacktaketimeandenergy.Monitor-ingboardmeetingschedulesandstudent attendance can require several days of telephone tag for faculty committed to teaching other courses, until one learns to help students self-monitor. Student comments in teaching evaluations that pertaintoclientissuescanseemunfairat times,anduntenuredfacultyinparticu-lar should consider potential impact on student evaluations. A poorly executed serviceprojectcouldriskpositivesocial capitalthattheuniversityhasinitssur-rounding community. Finally, there are the direct costs such as those of trans-portation,printing,andpostage.
Although the costs of service learn-ingmaybehigh,managementeducators shouldexplicitlyassessthecostsofnot moving classroom learning beyond a chalk-and-talkenvironmentintothereal world,whichisrepletewithcomplexi-ties; not teaching students about the dynamicnatureofthebusinessenviron-ment; and not emphasizing innovation. Perhaps such reflection would inspire managementeducatorstodevelopcurri- culathatnotonlyenhanceundergradu-ate competencies but also foster link-ages among faculty, students, the local community,andtheuniversity.
NOTES
Dr.MicheleA.Govekar isanassociateprofes-sor of management at Ohio Northern University. Sheteachescoursesinstrategicmanagement,proj-ect management, corporate citizenship, and non-profitorganizationsandgeneralmanagement.Her academic research and publications focus on the managementandhistoryoftheU.S.firms’interna- tionaloperations,corporateandnonprofitinterac-tions,nonprofitorganizations,andassessment.
Dr.MeenakshiRishiisanassociateprofessor in economics at Seattle University. She teaches coursesinmacroeconomics,internationalpolitical economy,andinternationalbusiness.Herresearch interestsaredevelopmenteconomics,internation-alfinance,andpedagogy.
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and spring 2001; spring 2002, 2003, and2004)constituted25%ofthetotal course grade. In 2001, the class’s stu- dentsofferedtutorialassistancetochil-dren and financial planning basics to adult clients at a nearby community serviceagency.During2002–2004,the class’s students taught economics and finance fundamentals to an economics classatanareahighschool.
To ensure successful completion of hours pledged and hold each student responsible for promised services, the client organization and the student par-ticipantssignedacontractdetailingtheir service commitments. Also, students maintainedandturnedinareflectivejour- naldetailingtheirexperiences.Thereflec-tive journal directions presented the fol-lowingfoursetsofquestions:(a)“What happened?What did you see?What did youdo?”;(b)“Howdidyoufeel,react? Whatdidyoulearnaboutyourself,your biases, and your assumptions?”; (c) “Were you able to ‘learn’ money and banking through this experience? Given constraintsonyourtime,wereyouableto try something new and different in your presentation?Explain.”;and(d)“Inrank order,writethefivebestandworstthings about this case as compared to another ‘classroom-based’case.”
ServiceLearninginManagement Choosing service learning for the nonprofitmanagementcoursewaseasy. Universityprograminterestwasstrong in the first years of the course, with a university volunteer for Volunteers in Service to America [VISTA] to help. Theideasofthebusinesscollege’sfocus groupcarriedovertoeasethedecision. The business college had been explor-ing the possibility of addexplor-ing a 4-year serviceorservice-learningrequirement, butstaffingissuesdelayedthatdecision. Last,theprimarypurposeforthecourse wastotrainbusinessundergraduatesfor future positions as community leaders (thecollegemission),whentheywould serveonnonprofitcommunityorganiza-tionboards.Becausepreparingstudents for future service was the purpose of the course, having them apply service learningbecameanobviousstep.
Nonprofit management is an upper-
levelmanagementelectivecourserequir-ing students to apply understandlevelmanagementelectivecourserequir-ing of management concepts to management challengesinthethirdsector.Thespe-cific learning objectives of (a) under-standingspecialmanagementproblems of nonprofit organizations, (b) gaining experience in this dynamic and impor-tantsector,and(c)preparingforfuture serviceasboardmemberslinkwiththe generallearningobjectivesofenhanced critical thinking, applying course con-ceptstoservearealnonprofit,adapting tochange,buildingteamworkandcom-municationskills,andraisingawareness ofdiversitybeyondcampus.
Service projects for nonprofit man-agement also counted for 25% of the totalcoursegrade,withreflectiveproject logsearninganother12.5%.In2001and 2003,studentsingroupsof3–5worked with members of nonprofit boards and theirstakeholderstoexamineconcerns, evaluateprocesses,andpreparereports. In 2002, students partnered with the local nonprofit hospital to revise its new orientation manual for employees or volunteers, with each student group havingseparatechapterresponsibilities. In 2004, the instructor secured client agencies, and student groups negoti-ated their own projects. Groups orga-nized a campaign for a Friends of the Library program; planned, researched, designed, developed, and published a Web page for a local county hospital; conductedamembershipsurveyforthe county Young Men’s Christian Asso-ciation(YMCA);andparticipatedinthe annual fundraising and grant cycle as fullmembersofKiwanisfor10weeks. Studentsdevelopedcontractswiththeir clients and with each other, and peers evaluated individual participation. The instructor called for reflective journals andprojectlogsatthreeintervalsduring thecourse.
Evidence
This section presents qualitative and quantitativeevidenceassessingservice-learning student outcomes. Qualitative evidencecomesfromanonymouspost-course student evaluations of teaching, students’ reflective journals, project logs, and take-home essays. Quantita-tive assessment comes from surveys (pre- and post-) completed by students
inbothcourses(questionsanddataare availablefromMicheleA.Govekar). QualitativeEvidence
Reflective summaries from student journals,essays,andpostcourseteaching evaluation comments indicate that the service-learning projects had addressed most—if not all—learning outcomes (seeTables1and2).Studentsinmoney and banking noted “better understand-ing of financial concepts.” Analysis of comments in reflective journals indi-cated that in 2001, 89% of the class reportedthattheirexperienceatanadult andteenlearningcenterhadenhanced personal understanding of general eco-nomics. During 2002–2004, when stu-dent teams taught a high school class, approximately80%ofparticipantsindi- catedimprovedunderstandingoffinan-cialtopicsbecause“beingabletoandin fact explaining a concept to somebody else truly enhances your own compre-hension as well.” Reports from 21 of 28studentswhocompletedtheservice-learning experience in 2004 noted that the experience eased their nervousness andmadethemmorerelaxedaboutread-ing and discussandmadethemmorerelaxedaboutread-ing topics pertinent to moneyandbanking.Inalloftheplanned service-learningexperiencesover2001– 2004,studentsindicatedthattheirteam worked well in planning and executing theactivity.
Nonprofitmanagementstudents’jour-nalsandreflectiveessaysshowedsimilar linkageofserviceprojectstoclassroom concepts,butalsoshowedintenttoapply classroom ideas in furthering the proj-ects. The 2001 board assessment drew commentssuchas,“Ilearnedalotabout boards that I never knew before this course”and“Ilikedsittinginonboard meetings and getting a real-life experi-enceofwhatwewerelearning.”Working withMemorialHospitaldrewcomments indicatingthat“workingwitharealorga-nization in the community,” “hands on stuff,”and“beingabletohelptheXYZ community...[allowed]seeinghowa non-profit organization works.” Entries recognizedthevalueofreal-lifeexperi-ence in doing something that made a difference in the community. At least 80% of reflections used concepts from
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tion,attitude,organizationalchange)to explaintheexperience.
Student reflective journals also pro-videdexamplesofproblem-solvingskill development and ability to respond to
change. Students noted that they had to changelessonplanemphasis,sometimes at the last minute, when told that an earlier group had gone over the same concept.Studentswhoplannedtousethe
computer classroom sometimes had to contend with uncooperative technology (businessstudentsfoundMacintoshtech-nologyuncooperativebecausetheywere trainedtousepersonalcomputers[PCs])
TABLE1.CourseContentforMoneyandBankingCourse,2001–2004
Year
Coursedetails 2001 2002and2003 2004
Project Adultandteen Taughtfinancial Taughtfinancialconcepts
learningcenter conceptstostudents inahighschool
inahighschool economicsclass
economicsclass
Agency ProjectImpact CentralCatholic CentralCatholic
HighSchool HighSchool
CommunityCenter
Evidence Pretestandposttest, Reflectivejournal Pretestandposttest,
reflectivejournal (Rama,2001) reflectivejournal
Specificlearningoutcomes
Understand Learnedsimple Usedclassroom Preparedcollegeplanning
financialconcepts financialconcepts knowledgeto worksheetforcollege
educateothers seminar
Understand Createdproblems Usedthe
howthe orgames Internetto
Federal toretainstudentinterest updateinformationon Reserve andenhanceproblem- FederalReservenot
works solvingskills inthetextbook
Read Usedillustrativeexamples Explainedthenuances
the toexplainsupplyand ofthejobless
WallStreet demandconcepts recoverytothe
Journal highschoolclassroom
byusingeconomic
datafromthe
WallStreetJournal
Generallearningoutcomes
Developcritical Presentedresults Discussedideaswith Preparedworksheetswith thinkingskills ataconference highschoolstudents actualnumbersfora
collegeprepseminar
Better Learnedbetterafter Usedactivelearning Designedchallenging
understand teachingthe techniquesto researchmaterial
classroom concept enhanceunderstanding andlessonsplans
concepts
Respondto Createdgames Highschoolinstructor Highschoolswitchedto
change toretainadultclient changedlessonplans Macintoshtechnology
interest atshortnotice
requiringadditional
research
Develop Developedgood Beinginaclassfor
teamwork teamworkand 45minrequired
skillsand communicationskills managementskill
communication andcreativity
skills
Gainexposure Increasedcomfort Challenged Learnedthatattendinga
todiversity withpeoplefrom preconceivedideas goodcollegemaybe
differentracialand adistantdreamfor
ethnicgroups someyoungsters
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and switch to a lecture–discussion for-mat.Theobservationthattheprojectshad challenged preconceived notions about inner-cityteengroupsorhighschoolstu-dentsappearedinamajorityofreflective journals.Studentsappreciatedexposureto apopulationthatwasdifferentfromwhat theywereaccustomedtoandlikedbeing in charge of the learning environment. Comments such as “I believe that this has taught me a lot about myself”
indi-cated that students were able to expand their learning beyond the traditional environment. Last, students’ description of activities designed for the classroom (financialmonopoly,moneyandbanking jeopardy),interactivefinancialWebsites, online quizzes on the Federal Reserve System, and handouts on the basics of budgeting and student loans indicated thatthestudentsthoughtcreativelyabout otherwisepossiblydullfinancialtopics.
One of the nonprofit management students reported, “Working with the actualnonprofitswasagreatexperience forthecourseitselfandanopportunity to serve.”Where teamwork skills were concerned,onestudentwroteabouthis highschoolpresentation:“Onemember would answer and the group members would feed off that answer. . . . We worked well together.” Tables 1 and 2 listothercomments.
TABLE2.CourseContentforNonprofitManagementCourse,2001–2004
Year
Coursedetails 2001 2002 2003 2004
Project DruckerFoundation Revisednewemployee Facilitatedboard Campaign,designedWeb
boardsurveys orientationhandbook assessments pageforsurveyand
participation
Agency Artscouncil,Girl MemorialHospital BoyScouts,Habitatfor Publiclibrary,
Scouts,Boardof Humanity,UnitedWay, MemorialHospital,
Education,Nature YMCA,ElksLodge, YMCA,
Conservancy,Humane BoardofHealth, Kiwanis
Society,downtown IslamicCenter,
organization,economic DomesticViolence
development Center
Evidence Reflectiveessays,written Reflectiveessays Reflectivejournals, Reflectivejournals,essays,
coursecomments essays,writtencourse pre-andposttests,
comments coursecomments
Specificlearningoutcomes
Understand Learnedmoreabout Workedwithactual Appliedmanagement Gainedreal-lifeexperience nonprofits’ nonprofitenvironment organizations andteamworkideas
problems
Experience Experiencedorganizational Experiencedfinancial Adaptedtoevaluate Experiencedfrustration dynamicsof andinterpersonal crisisasprojectbegan; board’sfinefor withmultipledemands nonprofitsector conflicts accreditation gamblingviolations
visitwaspending
Preparefor Developedcreative Severalweeksof Experiencedwork Needformoreguidance board methodstoget askingtogetvision; firsthand; toworkwithnonprofits service boardresponse helpedcommunity preparedtoserve
Generallearningoutcomes
Developingcritical Analyzedsurveyresults Teamscritiquedeach Cross-project Obtainedreal-life thinkingskills other’swork discussionsdeveloped experience
comparativeideas
Understanding Generatedinterest Relatedclasswork Receivedreal-life Learnedabout classroomconcepts toactualsituations experience nonprofitdifferences incontext
Adaptingto Obtainedhands-on Changedprojecttomeet Receivedwrittenand Morestructureand change experience organization’spolitics; oralboardfeedback directiondesired
sitecontactquitmidway
Teamworkand Usedsurveysand Usedinterviewsto Boardmeetings Changedsoftwaretomeet communication hadtobepersuasive; developcontext stressedlistening client’spreferences;
skills (i.e.,receivedwrittenand hadfreedomtowork
oralboardfeedback) onprojects
Diversity Witnessedboard Learnedaboutemployee Workedwith Hadfreedomtoworkon awareness stakeholdersclash ordepartmentrelations diversegroups projects
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QuantitativeEvidence
For quantitative assessment, both courses’studentsalsocompletedapretest andposttestsurveyinspring2004.Sur-vey questions, which we adapted from Eyler and Giles’ (1999) Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Educa-tion(FIPSE)surveyinstrument,required respondents to use 5-point Likert-type scales to indicate respondent’s degree ofagreementfrom1(stronglyagree)to 5 (strongly disagree), rate themselves from1(muchbetter)to5(muchworse), describe themselves from 1 (not very wellatall)to5(verywell),anddescribe theirexperiencefrom1(never)to5(very often). A recently published scale, Ser-viceLearningBenefit(SELEB),follows much the same method to propose a standardized assessment (Toncar, Reid, Burns,Anderson,&Nguyen,2006).
Both instructors selected specific questions from the FIPSE survey that
directlyaddressedcoursegenerallearn- ingobjectivessuchasbetterunderstand-ing,applicationofclassroomconcepts, criticalandcreativethinking,abilityto respond to change, better teamwork, better communication skills, and an awareness of diversity. The instructors asked questions in a variety of for-mats and compared responses as an internal check for self-reporting bias. For instance, the instructors measured leadership skills—important for man-agement—by asking students to assess their“leadershipskills,”“abilitytolead agroup,”and“knowingwhotocontact to get things done.”Also, communica-tion skills drew on “speaking in front of groups,” “initiating talk,” “listening skills, and “communicating my ideas.” Further, diversity awareness items included,“affectingothers’prejudices,” “seeing others’ side,” and “understand-ingothers...intheirshoes.”Students were free to answer or not. Random number codes allowed anonymous
response, so instructors had no knowl-edge of participation or results until aftercompletingcoursegrades.
Inspring2004,43studentscompleted bothpretestsandposttests.Table3shows means,standarddeviations,andstatisti-cally significant results of pairedt tests comparing student assessments. It dis-plays questions for which we expected posttest means to be lower numerically (becauseofquestiondirectionorcoding reversal)withboldr .Wefoundstatisti-callysignificantdifferencesbetweenpre- and posttest responses on 15 items.All differences are in the anticipated direc-tion,supportedbysimilardifferencesin relatedquestions.
Studentsassessed(a)theirknowledge oftheorganizationand(b)workinginthe organizationasimproved.Theyreported less discomfort in speaking in front of groupsofthoseinauthorityandininiti-ating talk with unfamiliar people. They reported more deviation from planned
TABLE3.DescriptiveStatisticsandSignificanttTestResults(N =43)FromSurveyofStudents
No. Statement Pre-M SD Post-M SD df t
06. Iknowalotaboutworkingin 3.14 0.98 3.38 0.89 42 –1.65*
theprojectorganization.
09. Iknowalotaboutthe 2.98 1.04 3.42 0.82 43 –2.59**
projectorganization.
11r. Ifeeluncomfortablespeaking 2.84 1.13 2.42 1.19 43 2.46**
infrontofindividualsinauthority.
12r. Iusuallyfeeluncomfortable 3.09 1.15 2.33 0.91 43 5.18**
initiatingconversationswith peopleIdonotknow.
18r. Iwasabletogoexactlyas 3.19 0.79 2.66 0.96 43 3.02**
dictatedbymyplanorcontract.
29r. Idonotliketodeviatefrom 2.93 0.99 2.63 0.86 42 2.10*
establishedformat.
34r. Ithinkcreatively. 2.63 1.05 2.40 0.99 43 1.81*
35r. Iengageindiscussion. 2.67 0.95 2.35 0.89 43 2.74**
withothers.
36r. Iamabletoleadagroup. 2.47 0.99 2.23 0.91 43 2.29*
39r. Igobeyondthetextbook 2.79 0.76 2.35 0.86 43 3.79**
tofindinformation.
41r. Icommunicatemyideasto 2.49 0.69 2.23 0.74 43 2.42**
others.
42r. Iknowwhotocontacttoget 2.56 0.93 2.33 1.00 43 2.12*
thingsdone.
43. Itrytokeepupwithlocal 3.40 1.14 3.61 1.08 43 –1.39+
ornationalnews.
46r. Idonotfeelwellpreparedfor 2.77 1.02 2.49 1.15 43 1.41+
postgraduateplans.
47. Itrytounderstandfriends 4.16 0.84 3.95 0.94 43 1.65*
fromtheirpointofview.
Note.Boldrvaluesindicateimprovementwithlowerposttestmeans.
+p≤.10.*p≤.05.**p≤.01.
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formatsandalsomorecomfortindeviat-ing. They reported increased ability to thinkcreatively,engageingroupdiscus-sion, lead a group, go beyond the text-booktofindanswers,communicatewith others, and know whom to contact to getthingsdone.Last,theyreportedsig-nificantimprovementinkeepingupwith thenews,feelingpreparedtoembarkon a career, and—surprisingly—less likeli-hoodtotryunderstandingothersthrough empathy. These changes were statisti-cally significant across both courses. In addition, the posttest also assessed the overall experience. Nonprofit manage-ment students and money and banking students both applied things that they learnedinthecourseandwereverylike-ly to applearnedinthecourseandwereverylike-ly things that they learned to serviceinthefuture.Ofparticularnote, both money and banking and nonprofit managementstudentsassessedtheitems of“appliedclasstorealproblems,”“it’s rewardingtohelpothers,”and“working withotherseffectively”asclosetovery important.
Feedbackfrompartnerorganizations hasalsobeenencouraging.Oneagency completed an evaluation form rating students’ performance as “very profes-sional” and expressed a keen desire to continuetheprogramwithfutureclass-es. The high school service-learning experienceappearstohavebeenequally rewarding for the partners. The high school economics teacher noted that studentscametolookontheuniversity studentsasrolemodelsandmentors.All studentscompletingthenonprofitman- agementcoursereceivedindividualper-sonallettersdetailingtheircontribution andthankingthemfortheirwork.Those students used these letters in seeking jobs to differentiate themselves from otherapplicants.
ReflectionandLessonsLearned
Service learning has the potential to transform business undergraduate edu-cation. Service learning affects major areassuchastheory-to-real-worldlink- age,abilitytochangewiththeenviron-ment,andcapacitytofosterinnovation. These areas prepare students for post-graduateprogramsandfuturecareers.In thisarticle,wemadeacaseforservice- learning pedagogy as one means of
integrating real-world learning into the businesscurriculum.
As we noted in the previous sec- tion,Tables1and2mapevolvingstu-dentexperiencesandlearningoutcomes for both courses over 4 years. Sam-ples describe mostly positive student responses and surprising successes in achieving the intended learning out-comes.As further evidence of critical-thinking skills development, four stu-dents in the 2002 money and banking community service endeavor collabo-ratedtoresearchandpresentapaperat thestate-levelCampusCompactconfer-ence. One 2001 student wrote that the experiencemadeher“morepatientwith peopleandmoreacceptingofracialand economic diversity.” That several non-profit management graduates are now workinginnonprofitorganizationssup-ports the potential of service learning to engender a lifelong commitment to service.Weweredelightedatthedepth ofupbeatstudentcomments.
However, some student comments also indicated dissatisfaction with the ambiguitythatwasinherentintheproj-ects and the time that was involved in trips to client organizations. To deal withtheseissues,bothinstructorstook time to emphasize that ambiguity was designedintotheprojectsaspartofthe real-world experience. Both professors set extra office hours to deal with the stressesthataroseduringeachservice-learningexperience.
Conclusion
As we look forward, we can draw severalconclusions.First,studentevalu-ations of our courses have consistently improved with repeated applications of service learning. It appears that faculty members need practice to get it right. Second,comparingserviceleaningwith other modes of teaching these courses, wegainedmorepersonalsatisfactionin termsofworthwhileoutreachandclose coaching relationships with students. Last,tofacilitatebroaderfacultyinvolve-ment, implementing service learning requires multiple community partners, significantinstitutionalinvolvement,and better ways to demonstrate outcomes to counter skepticism from faculty and
curriculumcommittees.Futureresearch-ers may meet this final need as service learninginthebusinessdisciplinesflows frompracticetopracticalresearch(e.g., Toncaretal.,2006).
Ofcourse,therearecostsinadopting servicelearningtoaddresstheneedsof today’sstudents.Startupcostsaresignif-icant,andfindingpotentialclientstakes time, energy, and resources. Clients’ wantsmaynotmatchwhatstudentsneed tolearn.Establishingtheproject,main-tainingrecords,coachingstudentteams, and providing continual constructive feedbacktaketimeandenergy.Monitor-ingboardmeetingschedulesandstudent attendance can require several days of telephone tag for faculty committed to teaching other courses, until one learns to help students self-monitor. Student comments in teaching evaluations that pertaintoclientissuescanseemunfairat times,anduntenuredfacultyinparticu-lar should consider potential impact on student evaluations. A poorly executed serviceprojectcouldriskpositivesocial capitalthattheuniversityhasinitssur-rounding community. Finally, there are the direct costs such as those of trans-portation,printing,andpostage.
Although the costs of service learn-ingmaybehigh,managementeducators shouldexplicitlyassessthecostsofnot moving classroom learning beyond a chalk-and-talkenvironmentintothereal world,whichisrepletewithcomplexi-ties; not teaching students about the dynamicnatureofthebusinessenviron-ment; and not emphasizing innovation. Perhaps such reflection would inspire managementeducatorstodevelopcurri- culathatnotonlyenhanceundergradu-ate competencies but also foster link-ages among faculty, students, the local community,andtheuniversity.
NOTES
Dr.MicheleA.Govekar isanassociateprofes-sor of management at Ohio Northern University. Sheteachescoursesinstrategicmanagement,proj-ect management, corporate citizenship, and non-profitorganizationsandgeneralmanagement.Her academic research and publications focus on the managementandhistoryoftheU.S.firms’interna- tionaloperations,corporateandnonprofitinterac-tions,nonprofitorganizations,andassessment.
Dr.MeenakshiRishiisanassociateprofessor in economics at Seattle University. She teaches coursesinmacroeconomics,internationalpolitical economy,andinternationalbusiness.Herresearch interestsaredevelopmenteconomics,internation-alfinance,andpedagogy.
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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. MicheleA. Govekar, 525 S. Main St., Ohio Northern University College of BusinessAdministration,Ada,OH45810
E-mail:[email protected]
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