Student Number: 051214151 ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDU CATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUA GE AND ARTS EDUCATIO N FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATI ON SANATA DHARMA UNIVER SITY YOGYAKARTA 2009
CASTE DISCRIMINATION IN INDIA AS SEEN
IN ARAVIND ADIGA’S THE WHITE TIGER A THESIS Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree in English Language Education
By Stefani Ratna Kusuma Wardhani
Student Number: 051214151
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDU CATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUA GE AND ARTS EDUCATIO N FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATI ON SANATA DHARMA UNIVER SITY YOGYAKARTA 2009
I dedicate this thesis to my beloved parents and elderly brot her, and my dear friends who have given faith in me to make all things possible, hope in me to make all things work, and love that make all things beautiful. Without them, I could not have finished my thesis.
Faith makes all things possible, Hope makes all things work, Love makes all things beautiful.
(Anonymous)
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINAL ITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have wri tten, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in t he quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, November 7, 2009 The Writer
Stefani Ratna Kusuma Wardhani 051214151
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH
UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Stefani Ratna Kusuma Wardhani Nomor Mahasiswa : 051214151
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
CASTE DISCRIMINATION IN INDIA AS SEEN IN ARAVIND ADIGA’S
THE WHITE TIGERbeserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama te tap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Yogyakarta, 7 November 2009 Yang menyatakan (Stefani Ratna Kusuma Wardhani )
ABSTRACT
Wardhani, Stefani Ratna Kusuma . (2009). Caste Discrimination in India as
Seen in Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger. Yogyakarta: English Language
Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Sanata Dharma University.
This thesis discusses c aste discrimination portrayed in India as seen in Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger. The White Tiger is a very rich novel. This novel consists of seven letters which are written by Balram Halwai, the main character of The White Tiger. Balram Halwai is destined as a sweet maker as what his caste, Halwai, means. However, Balram is struggling hard to raise his power against strict and oppressive caste system in India.
The objective of this study is to reveal the representation of caste discrimination in India as portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai. In order to achieve the objective of the study, there was one problem stated in this study , which is: How is caste discrimination in India portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai, the main character of Arav ind Adiga’s The White Tiger?
This study employed library research. In this study, the primary data was a novel written by Aravind Adiga , The White Tiger. The secondary data were th e books and articles related to the theories and approach that was used in analyzing this study. The writer used socio-cultural approach to answer the problem.
The results of this study reveal caste discrimination in India , which is portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai. There are three caste discrimination areas that are portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai; education, occupation, and freedom. Caste discrimination in education causes Balram and other thousands people in the country unable to finish their school. There is also discrimination that cause s the lost of free foods, dusters, chairs, and uniforms in school. Caste discrimination in occupation is proven when Balram finds difficulty to get a job except in teashops because his society judges that he could only make a sweet. Whenever Balram applies for a job, he is always asked from what caste he is. Caste discrimination in freedom is revealed in some restrictions that caste system had. People from the lower caste, including Balram Halwai, are not allowed to go in public space, such as mall. Rickshaw -pullers are restricted to show up in certain streets that enable the foreigners to see them. There are two kinds of drinks in every drink store; they are Indian liquor for boys from village like Balram and English liquor for rich people. People from low castes are trap ped by people from high castes. The trap is called Rooster Coop. It is a metaphor of the oppressive caste system in India. People who are trapped in Rooster Coop would not get out from there easily. It happen s because the caste system create s such division of labour and does not give any freedom to break through it.
This novel can be used to broaden knowledge , especially on caste discrimination in India. Besides, this novel can also be used to teach Intensive Reading I for the students of English Language Education Study Program.
ABSTRAK
Wardhani, Stefani Ratna Kusuma. (2009). Caste Discrimination in India as
Seen in Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Bahasa
Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Pendidikan dan Ilmu Keguruan, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Skripsi ini mengulas tentang diskriminasi kasta yang tercermin di India seperti yang terlihat dalam novel karya Aravind Adiga berjudul The White Tiger. The White Tiger merupakan sebuah novel yang sangat kaya akan nilai. Novel ini terdiri dari tujuh surat yang ditulis ole h Balram Halwai, karakter utama dalam novel The White Tiger. Balram Halwai ditakdirkan sebagai pembuat manisan seperti apa arti kastanya, Halwai. Namun, Balram berjuang keras untuk mengangkat kekuatannya melawan sistem kasta yang keras dan menindas di India.
Tujuan dari skripsi ini untuk mengungkapkan gambaran diskriminasi kasta di India yang tercermin melalui kehidupan Balram Halwai. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, skripsi ini membahas satu permasalahan. Bagaimana diskrim inasi kasta di India yang tercermin melalui kehidupan Balram Halwai, karakter utama dalam novel Aravind Adiga berjudul The White Tiger?
Studi ini menggunakan metode studi pustaka. D i dalam skripsi ini, sumber utamanya adalah novel karya Aravind Adiga berjudul The White Tiger. Sumber tambahannya adalah buku -buku dan artikel yang berhubungan dengan teori dan pendekatan yang digunakan dalam menganalisa studi ini. P enulis menggunakan pendekatan sosio-kultural untuk memecahkan permasalahan.
Hasil dari studi ini mengungkapkan diskriminasi kasta di India yang tercermin melalui kehidupan Balram Hal wai. Ada tiga area diskriminasi kasta yang tercermin melalui kehidupan Balram Halwai; pendidikan , pekerjaan, dan kebebasan. Diskriminasi kasta di pendidikan menyebabkan Balram dan ribuan orang lain di negaranya tidak dapat menyelesaikan sek olah. Terdapat juga tindak diskriminasi yang mengakibatkan hilangnya jatah makanan gratis, pembersih, kursi, dan seragam di sekolah. D iskriminasi kasta di pekerjaan terbukti ketika Balram mendapat kesulitan untuk mendapat pekerjaan kecuali di toko teh karena masyarakat sekitar menganggap bahwa Balram hanya mampu membuat manisan . Setiap Balram melamar pekerjaan, ia s elalu ditanya berasal dari kasta apa. Diskriminasi kasta di kebebasan mengungkapkan beberapa larangan yang dimiliki sistem kasta. Masyarakat kasta bawah, termasuk Balram Halwai, tidak diperbolehkan untuk memasuki tempat umum seperti mall. Penarik becak dil arang untuk memperlihatkan diri di beberapa jalan yang dapat dilihat turis asing. Terdapat dua jenis minuman di setiap toko minuman, minuman India untuk orang desa seperti Balram dan minuman Inggris untuk mereka yang kaya. Orang-orang yang berasal dari kasta rendah dijebak oleh orang -orang dari kasta tinggi. Jebakan ini disebut Rooster Coop. Rooster Coop adalah sebuah kiasan dari sistem kasta yang menindas di India. O rang yang terjebak dal am Rooster Coop tidak dapat keluar dengan mudah. Hal itu terjadi karena sistem kasta menghasilkan pembagian buruh dan tidak memberi mereka kebebasan untuk terlepas dari sana.
Novel ini dapat digunakan untuk memperluas pengetahuan terutama mengenai diskriminasi kasta di India. S elain itu, novel ini dapat digunakan untuk mengajar Intensive Reading I untuk mahasiswa program studi ilmu Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris.
Kata kunci: diskriminasi kasta, India, The White Tiger.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank the Almighty Lord Jesus Christ for His endless love and blessings in my life. All that happened in my life might only happen in His permission.
I am deeply indebted to my major sponsor, Mrs. Henny Herawati, S.Pd.,
M.Hum., for all her great patience, valuable times, encouragement, enlightenment
feedback and guidance from the beginning to the accomplishment of this thesis. I would also thank to my guidance lecturer, Mrs. Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd. , for all her beneficial advices, encouragement, and care due to my study from the beginning until the accomplishment of my study. My gratit ude also goes to all
my lecturers in English Language Education Study Program for their help during
my study. Next, I would like to thank the secretariat of English Education Study Program, mbak Danik and mbak Tari who have help me a lot with the administration stuffs.
I mostly thank my beloved parents, Bapak R.Fl Agus Wahyudi and Ibu
F. Hertin Niken Sukestirin , my elderly brother, Mas R.Fx Satria Kusuma Aji
for their greatest support, love, affection, prayer that they have poured me during these many years. I would also thank my late Eyang Putri, who I believe has rested in peace in heaven. Neither any of spoken nor written words could ever describe how much they really mean to my life.
My gratitude also goes especi ally for Panjerino Setiaji and family, for their loving, affection, support, and prayer in these past four years. It is a blessing to have a second family like them.
I also send big thanks to my great friends of Pillar: Eska, Nancy, Novi,
Tari, Galuh, and Taufik for their advices, supports, inspirations, affections, and
prayers through my good and bad condition. I would also thank my thesis consultation friends: Verdi, Anis, mbak Arina, and mbak Tutik for their beneficial helps during my hard time in accom plishing my thesis. I would not forget to thank all my friends in PBI 2005 especially my classmates for all tremendous moments, laughter, teamwork, and friendship we shared during our study. Special thanks go to Patrice who helps me a lot in grammar and la nguage.
I thank my best friends of Senior High School: Sekar, Nita, Shery, Putri, and Rita for their support and unforgettable moments that have strengthen our friendship though we are separated in miles.
My special thanks go to Secondhand Serenade, for their two albums always accompany me during typing my thesis. “Thank you very much friends , you make such great albums that keep me awake during typing this thesis”.
Finally, I sincerely thank all the people whom I cannot mention one by one and who have given me a hand during writing this thesis.
Stefani Ratna Kusuma Wardhani
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………………. i
APPROVAL PAGES…………………………………………………………. ii
DEDICATION PAGE ……………………………………………………. iv
STATEMENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY …………………………… v
ABSTRACT ………………………………………………… ……………….. vii
ABSTRAK……………………………………………………………………... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………. x
TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………… xii
LIST OF APPENDICES……………………………………………………... xiv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………..1 A. Background of the Study ………………………………………………... ...
1 B. Problem Formulation ………………………………………………………
3 C. Objective of the Study ……………………………………………………..
4 D. Benefits of the Study …………………………………… ………………....
4 E. Definitions of Terms ………………………………………………………
5 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE …………………..
7 A. Review of Related Theories ……………………………………………..
7 1. Critical Approaches ………………………..............................................
7 2. Discrimination ......................................................... ………….................
9 B. Review on Socio-Cultural Background ........................................................
10 1. Caste System in India ………………………............................................
10 a. Caste in India as Organizational Structure among the Hindus ……..
11 b. Caste and Education ……………………….............................. .........
12 c. Caste and Occupation ……………………….....................................
13 d. Caste and Daily Life in India ……………………….........................
15 C. Theoretical Framework …………………………………………… .............
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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ………………………………………….. A. Object of the Study ………………………………………………………... B. Approach of the Study …………………………………………………….. C. Method of the Study ……………………………………………………… . CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS …………............................................................. A. Caste Discrimination in Education ………………………………………... B. Caste Discrimination in Occupation ………………………………… ...….. C. Caste Discrimination in Freedom ………………………………... .............. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ………………….. A. Conclusions ……………………………………………………………….. B. Suggestions ………………………………………………………………..
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1. Suggestion for Future Researchers …………………………………….
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REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………. APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………….. APPENDIX 1 ………………………………………………………………… APPENDIX 2 ………………………………………………………………… APPENDIX 3 …………………………………………………………………
2. Suggestion for the Implementation of Teaching English Using the Novel........................................................................................................
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LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 Summary …………................................................... ..
APPENDIX 2 Biography…………........................…………………. APPENDIX 3 The Implementation of Teaching Intensive Reading I
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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The first chapter is introduction. It consists of five major parts namely
background of the study, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms. Background of the study describes briefly some crucial information and reasons about the subject matter. Problem formulation presents the problem to be analyzed and is formulated in the form of question . The third one, objectives of the study, is a part t o state the purpose of the study undertaken in relation to the research question. The next part is benefits of the study, which describes the benefits from the study for the related parties. The last part, definition of terms, is the part in which the cruc ial terms are explained.
A. Background of the Study
In Glossary of Literary Terms , Abrams defines novel as a literary work that reflects the reality of human life by presenting complex characters with their motives based on their social class and their inte raction with other characters (120). It can be said that novel is the reflection of human life that represents one’s life experience based on a particular social phenomenon. In The White Tiger, Adiga tries to reflect the real life in India through Balram’s life. Many westerners believe caste system is a matter from the past because India is officially a democracy country and the Indian constitution of 1950 banned caste discrimination. However, in many aspects of Indian society, it is alive and manifested in daily life.
Aravind Adiga is the third Indian citizen who won the Man Booker Prize. He won the Man Booker Prize on October 14, 2008. The White Tiger is his debut novel. Aravind Adiga was born in India in 1974 and raised partly in Australia. He is a former correspondent for Time magazine. He has also been worked in the Financial Times. A first draft of The White Tiger was written in 2005 then put aside until December 2006 Adiga opened the draft and began rewriting it entirely.
By early January 2007, he fini shed the novel.
The White Tiger is a debut novel by Aravind Adiga that surprised the world by its criticism toward the reality of life in India. In this novel, the main character, Balram Halwai writes seven letters to Jiabao, the Chinese premier. Through the letters, Balram uncovers his life journey from his childhood time until finally he becomes an entrepreneur. His youth life was spent in poverty, unfinished his school, until he saw his father’s powerless death in a hospital without any aid, died becau se of Tuberculosis. Balram’s life starts to change when he becomes a servant for Mr. Ashok, a son of the Landlord. Working with Mr. Ashok, Balram’s life is getting better and better. Even with his eavesdropping skill, he sharpens his knowledge about the re al world in India. His turning point of life occurred when he murders his own employer, Mr. Ashok. After murdering his employer, with the knowledge that he gets from eavesdropping, Balram begins to raise his power against his caste. Balram’s caste is Halwai. Halwai means sweet- maker.
I am interested in analysing Adiga’s novel, The White Tiger, because of some reasons. Firstly, I was interested when I read the title for the first time, The White Tiger. I know that a white tiger is the rarest animal in any jungle. It is a creature that comes along only once in a generation. Moreover, white tiger is also known as the Royal Bengal or Indian tiger. From this interesting title, I became curious to read this novel and to know what this novel is actually about.
Secondly, after reading the novel, I was interested in Balram Halwai’s life especially with his journey of life because he is a Halwai. Halwai is his caste and his caste influences his life a lot. Moreover, I wanted to know how caste discrimination in India is portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai.
This novel is very rich of many values. It tells about the culture in India, the politics, and even the economic issues in India. There are many things that can be analyzed in this novel, but in this study I would like to focus my analysis on the caste discrimination in India which is portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai.
Based on the life of the main character of The White Tiger, Balram Halwai, this analysis is used to see his life as Aravind Adiga ’s criticism toward Indian society which still strictly applies caste system and discrimination.
B. Problem Formulation
To keep the analysis on track, the writer formulated the question below based on the background mentioned above.
How is caste discrimination in India portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai, the main character of Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger?
C. Objective of the Study
Looking back at the problem formulated above, the aim of this study is to reveal the representation of caste dis crimination in India as portrayed through the life of Balram Halwai. Balram Halwai is the main character of Aravind Adiga’s The White Tiger.
D. Benefits of the Study
The work is expected to be beneficial for:
1. Readers
The study may give the readers an obviou s illustration that caste discrimination still happens even in modern India life. It also gives the readers a great life effort example through Balram Halwai’s life who is struggling hard to raise his power against the strict caste system in India.
2. Students of English Language Education
The study may give the students a new point of view about caste discrimination, especially caste discrimination in India which is seen through Balram Halwai’s life. Moreover, this novel gives a lot of cultural values of Indi a. This study may show that through reading novel, there are so many advantages that one may get.
3. Lecturers
As this study deals with caste discrimination in India which is portrayed through Balram Halwai’s life, the writer believed that this novel can be u sed to teach Intensive Reading, Extensive Reading, Cross Cultural Understanding, Prose 2, or Book Report. Not only helping students to learn in an interesting way, this novel can also help students to develop their mastery on vocabulary and reading skills. On the other hand, this novel gives students the knowledge of culture, customs, values, and tradition of caste in India.
E. Definition of Terms
There are several points of terms that are used in this study that the writer would like to define first before analyzing the novel deeper. The terms are:
1. Caste
English caste is from Latin castus "pure, cut off, segregated", the participle of carere "to cut off" (whence also castration). Castes are hereditary systems of occupation, endogamy, social culture, social class, and political power, the assignment of individuals to places in the social hierarchy is determined by social group and cultural heritage (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caste ). There are four castes or varnas; Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Balram's last name, Halwai, means sweet maker. He is a member of the s weet maker Jati, within the Shudras caste.
2. Discrimination
In Webster New Twentieth Century Dictionary Second Edition , discrimination is stated as the act of distinguishing; the act of making or observing a difference (522). It can be concluded that discrim ination refers to the activity of making or perceiving distinctions. While Fairchild in Dictionary of Sociology and Related Sciences assumes that discrimination is unequal treatment of groups of basically equal status. Discrimination carries with the eleme nt of unfair, unreasonable, and arbitrary distinctions in the impositions of burdens and the distribution of flavours (280). In this study, caste discrimination refers to the act of distinguishing or making difference by hereditary systems of social culture.
3. Freedom
In Webster’s New Twentieth Century Dictionary Unabridged Second Edition, the word freedom is defined as a being able to act, move, use without hindrance or restraint (730). I t can be concluded that freedom refers to the ability to act, move, or use freely. While Fairchild states freedom as ability to act in accordance with one’s own inner motivation (124). In this study, freedom refers to the ability to act with one’s own moti vation without any restriction.
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LI TERATURE This chapter consists of review of related theories, review on socio -
cultural background, and theoretical framework. The review of related theories covers the theory of approach es and discrimination. The review on socio -cultural background covers the caste system in India. Theoretical framework consists of some explanations on how the theories stated in the review of the related theories and socio-cultural background are employed to answer the question on problem formulation.
A. Review of Related Theories
1. Critical of Approaches
A critical approach to literature necessitates an understanding of its nature, function, and positive values. One must know what literature is, how to r ead it, and how to judge it. According to Rohrberger and Woods in Reading and Writing about Literature, there are five critical approaches that can be used in reading literature. They are formalist approach, biographical approach, sociocultural - historical approach, mythopoeic approach, and psychological approach (3 -15).
The formalist approach is an approach concentrated on the total integrity of the literary works. The involvement of each aesthetic part to the whole is seen as a harmony to complete the work . The technique and structure used in the story are reference to the understanding of the piece of work.
The biographical approach is used when a critic intends to judge literary works based on the importance of acknowledging the author’s personal life for a deep understanding to his writing. The proponents of this approach believe that the works of literature has its source within the biography of its writer.
Furthermore, the biographical itself supplies useful information that could facilitate critic to a better understanding and appreciation of the works.
The sociocultural-historical approach examines a literary work by viewing the socio cultural condition and historical background when the work is created.
The proponents of this approach assert the analy sis of social, cultural, and historical background as reference to further understanding of the story.
The mythopoeic approach is used when a critic attempts to find particular recurrent patterns of human thought, which are considered sharing the same universal belief to certain community mind. Therefore, the mystical relationship found in a story can be explained by the use of this approach.
The psychological approach involves theories of psychology to explain the character’s personality in the story. The proponents of this approach insist that each character’s behaviour could refer to the psychology of human being. Using this approach, the character’s thought and behaviour can be traced more profoundly.
The five approaches described above have their value s and their own point of view side. For the authors, it seems that there is no single approach in serve for every piece of literature. However, each one has its properties to give and it is part of the task of the critic and reader of literature to find th e approach or approaches that will best lead to an appreciation of a particular work of literature.
In conducting the analysis, the writer decided to use socio -cultural approach. According to Wellek and Warren in Theory of Literature, literature represents life; and life is, in large measure, a social reality, even though the natural world and the inner or subjective world of the individual have also been objects of literary imitation (94). Furthermore, Wellek and Warren said that much of the most common a pproach to the relations of literature and society is the study of works of literature as social documents, as assumed pictures of social reality (102).
2. Discrimination
According to Human Arrangements: An Introduction to Sociology, discrimination refers to unequal treatment of people based on stereotyped beliefs about them (362). Furthermore according to Deborah A. Prentice and Dale T. Miller in Cultural Divides: Understanding and Overcoming Group Conflict , perhaps the most troubling for social identity perspective on status and power is the research suggesting that the two constructs have very distinctive effects. Although both group power and group status have been shown to enhance various manifestations of in-group favouritism, they appear to do so in different ways.
Two results from the research provide evidence for this contention.
First, although increased status may in fact lead to improve in -group favouritism, it appears that power is what makes discrimination possible in the first place. Second, it appears that status and power affect different group -relevant variables: status differential explains most of the variance in in -group identification and intergroup perceptions, while power differential explains most of the variance in actual discriminat ion. Thus, while consideration of the status differential in the social identity tradition may help to explain certain patterns of beliefs about groups, a complete understanding of the actual oppressive behaviour is underlying group-based systems of hierar chy also requires us to more thoroughly examine the role of power in intergroup relations (111).
Ravi Nair, who heads the South Asian Human Rights Documentation Centre in New Delhi, calls India's caste system racist. Nair is also a veteran of human rights activist,
"Quite clearly, caste is a form of racist behaviour, because, like racism, this is an issue dominance by one group against another," argues Mr. Nair. "Secondly, if I was born into a Dalit community - irrespective of whatever vertical mobility that I had because of my class background - I would still not be able to change my caste hierarchy in the social pecking order, and because of that, it definitely is racist behaviour in the terms of how one community has dominance over another."
B. Review on Socio-Cultural Background
1. Caste System in India
This study uses a novel, The White Tiger, as the subject matter. The White Tiger itself is a novel that takes place in India. According to Gokhale, in describing the characteristics of Indian society, we could not deny the existence of caste system in India. It is caste that distinguishes Indian society from its counterparts everywhere (117).
According to Encyclopedia Americana International Edition: Volume 5 (117), the word caste derives from the Portugue se casta, meaning “breed”, “race”, or “kind”, and was first used to denote the Hindu social classification on the India subcontinent. Caste itself is largely static, exclusive social class, membership in which it is determined by birth and involves particu lar customary restrictions and privileges.
a. Caste in India as Organizational Structure Among the Hindus
According to some estimation, there are more than 3,000 castes in the Indian subcontinent, greatly varying in size from a few score members to million s.
According to Encyclopedia Americana International Edition: Volume 5 , originally there were only four classifications, which derived from Hindu prescriptions, known as varnas (meaning “colour” in Sanskrit). The first reference to the varnas is found in Rig Veda, one of the oldest Indian classics, dating from about 3,000 BC. According to Rig Veda, society is composed of five hierarchical divisions. The first four of the varnas are the Brahmans, or priests or scholars; the Kshatriyas, or warriors and rule rs; the Vaishyas, or merchants, artisans, and husbandmen; and the Sudras, or servants and slaves. The fifth division is composed of the outvarnas, or untouchables. The social status of an individual is determined by his caste (775). There is no evidence th at the caste system as a whole has lost its grip on Indian society.
As cited in Caste in India: Its Nature, Function, and Origins , Hocart A. M shows his opinion about varna.
Certain colours are associated with the four varna -white with the Brahman, red with the Kshatriya, yellow with the Vaishya and black with the Sudra; varna, as has been stated, means colour. It is possible that this colour distinction is in some way associated with race, as one is reminded of the ancient Egyptian convention which show ed Egyptian red, Asiatic yellow, Northerners white and negroes black (66).
According to Cultural Anthropology: Seventh Edition , caste is a matter of religious conviction in India that all people are not spiritually equal and that the gods have established a hierarchy of groups (200). While according to Robert W Stern in Changing India Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent , in the ideology of varna dharma all men are created unequal; that they are endowed by their creator with unequal capacities in order to perform functions of unequal importance to Him. Their positions in His hierarchy are in accord with their functions. For example, vaishyas are the best generators of wealth because they are naturally acquisitive. Shudras are the best servants because t hey are naturally servile (56).
b. Caste and Education
According to Lamb, many Indian authorities are even more concerned with the problem of education quality in India (175). Furthermore, he says that first; there is what might be called the technical a spects. On the whole, although there are notable exceptions, the teaching is not good, and the textbooks and educational materials are inadequate in quality as well as quantity. Hence, Lamb says that, The peasants had no desire to have their children educ ated. Village children were needed to tend cattle and do other work in the fields. If they spent a year or two in school, they later forgot what they have learned because they had no occasion to use it. By the end of the century, three out of four villages were still without schools, and only one -fifth of the boys and a still smaller percentage of the girls of primary -school age were in school (180). Lamb also says that when the British first came to India, their main contacts were with Brahmans, who, with a few other upper castes, were the first to profit by British education (143).
According to Human Rights Watch in a report for the United Nations World Conference against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, such as high drop -out and lower literacy rates among lower caste populations have rather simplistically been characterized as the natural consequences of poverty and underdevelopment. Though these rates are partly attributable to the need for low -caste children to suppleme nt their family wages through labour, more insidious and less well -documented is the discriminatory and abusive treatment faced by low -caste children who attempt to attend school, at the hands of their teachers and fellow students (17).
c. Caste and Occupation
According to Harris and Johnson, each caste and sub caste has a hereditary occupation that guarantees its members basic subsistence and job security.
Furthermore, according to Hindu scripture, an individual’s varna is determined by a descent rule; that is, it corresponds to the varna of one’s parents and is unalterable during one’s lifetime (201).
In book of Caste in India: Its Nature, Function, and Origins which is written by Hutton, Risley goes on to add that caste name is generally associated with a specific occupation (47). Thus, Lamb describes the relationship between castes and occupation in India.
Theoretically, at least, each caste in India has a hereditary occupation. There are castes of washer men, gardeners, goldsmiths, moneylenders, potters, oil-pressers, mat-makers, leatherworkers, water -bearers, carpenters, accountants, genealogists, barbers, tailors -the list is almost endless. Although there are also a number of large and important peasant castes, agriculture is an occupation supposedly open to all-as is service in the government or the army.
The hereditary caste occupation is not necessarily followed by all the members of the caste or even by the majority of the members. Various present-day forces tend to undermine the old caste occupati onal patterns. Even so, at least certain castes have a monopoly or a near -monopoly on their traditional occupations (141).
In addition, Hutton describes Halwai as a caste of confectioners in northern India generally (282).
Furthermore, Hutton explains a bout the disadvantage of caste system in economic and freedom.
It is a possible further disadvantage of the caste system economically that it probably discourages organization from above by the entrepreneur, no less than it forestalls ambition on the part of workman. Durkheim has suggested that the function of the division of labour is to give the individual more freedom by substituting an organic for a rigidly mechanical economy, but the organic structure created by the caste system would seem to have pr ovided for the division of labour on a plan ingeniously calculated to avoid giving just that freedom; for occupation is determined by status instead of contract, and transition from status to contract, which Sir Henry Maine regarded as an essential feature of political progress, is nullified and frustrated (124). Caste system in India has disadvantage economically. As Durkheim suggests that the function of the division of labour is to give the individual more freedom.
However, caste system seems to avoid giving the freedom since the occupation is determined by status instead of contract.
d. Caste and Daily Life in India
Lamb says that castes have elaborate restrictions on diet and on social intercourse. Some castes will eat meat such as mutton, goat, or ch icken; others will eat fish but not meat. Some will not eat meat or fish but will eat eggs; others will not even eat eggs (138). According to Hitchcock, Rajputs of north India, they may hunt game, eat meat, drink liquor, and eat opium (139). Hence, Hutton explained that Rajput is an aristocratic caste, widespread in western, northern, and central India, whose traditional functions are fighting and ruling. They represent the ancient Kshatriya varna, and rank next to the Brahmans socially (293).
Hence, Lamb discussed the caste system challenged in India, There are three points about caste today that should be emphasized. First, India is officially trying to create social equality, while deep -seated habits of mind work against it. Second, competition for improv ed status seems to be on the increase. Although much of this competition takes on the form of intercaste rivalries, some possibility exists for the individual to rise above his caste, to move into a new class if he can secure a good job. For this, higher education is essential (151).
Lamb said that at the bottom of the social ladder is a group of castes officially known as the “scheduled castes”. Thus it is by this title that they usually refer to official documents of modern India. These lowest, most dep ressed castes are the outcastes or untouchables. They have suffered from a number of civil and religious disabilities, which have now been prohibited by law but have not entirely vanished in practice. Traditionally, they were not allowed to enter temples, pass through certain streets, enter certain parts of the villages, or drink water from the common village well used by other Hindus. In various areas, they were forbidden to carry umbrellas, wear shoes, milk cows, keep domestic animals, or use ornaments (144).