THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS

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THE PROFESSIONAL FUNCTIONS AND

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN

ENGLISH FOR HEALTH OFFICIALS

  A Thesis Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to obtain the Magister Humaniora

  (M. Hum) Degree in English Language Studies

  

By

Theresia Laksmi Widyarini

  

Student Number: 046332013

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM (S2) IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

  

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

2008

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  This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, and sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if she took somebody else’s ideas, or phrases, or sentences without a proper reference.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

  I am taking a great pleasure of expressing my deepest gratitude by dedicating this page to those who have been giving me support of any kind. First of all, I would like to thank Father Who Arts in Heaven, for being the Best Friend, ever; The gratitude also goes to,

  1. Dr. FX. Mukarto, M.S., my supervisor, for having spared his unbelievably busy time for consultation and guidance; 2. dr. Bondan Agus S, SE, MA., the Chairman of Yogyakarta Provincial Health

  Office, and his distinguished staff: Dra Siti Munawaroh, Apt. M.Kes, Drg Yuli Kusumastuti, M.Kes, late dr Nanis Budiningsih, M.Kes, dr RA. Arida Utami, M.Kes, and Dra Dyah Ayu P, Apt, M.Kes, for being my research partners;

  3. dr. Choirul Anwar, M.Kes., the Chairman of Yogyakarta Municipal Health Office, and his outstanding staff: Taslim Sudiyanto, SKM., Darra Irawati, SE., and Agung Setiawan, SIP, for having provided me with valuable inputs in preparing and finalizing this research;

  4. Prof. dr. Laksono Trisnantoro, MSc., Ph.D., the Director of the Center for Health Service Management, Medical Faculty, UGM and the secretaries: Nenggih Wahyuni, SIP., and Sealvy Kristianingsih, A.Md, , for having facilitated me so far;

  5. Drs. RY. Suharyo and S. Suratmi, A.Ma, my dearest parents, I can never thank you enough for the endless love, prayers and faith;

  6. A. Edy Purnomo, SE., and Y. Alvendi Agung B, my dearest husband and my lovely son, thanks for always being there for me;

  7. V. Woro Hapsari, SE, Akt., and B. Ida Tri Ambarwati, A.Md, my dearest sisters; Y.P. Marbun, A.P., and Ali Wasono, my dearest brothers-in-law; also Yonatan Marbun and Octavia Widya, my lovely nephew and niece, thanks for the love, care and prayers;

  8. Pak Singgih, Bu Rin, Pak Setyo, Bu Siti, Ansel, mbak Rus, Dian, Linda, Listy, Shierly, Dini and Dona, my wonderful friends of Batch 2004; Guys, thanks for cheering me up.

  Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to those who cannot be stated here by name. May God bless them all.

  Theresia Laksmi Widyarini

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

  TITLE PAGE …………………………………………………………………..i APPROVAL PAGE …………………………………………...………………ii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ……………………………...………….. iv LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI …………………………………… v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………...vi TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………...vii LISTS OF FIGURES & TABLES…………………………………………..... ix ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………... x ABSTRAK ……………………………………………………………………. xi

  CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION …………………………………………….. 1 A. Background …………………………………………………………… 1 B. Problem Identification …………………………………………………4 C. Problem Limitation …………………………………………………….5 D. Problem Formulation …………………………………………………..6 E. Research Objectives ………………………………………………….. 7 F. Research Benefits …………………………………………………….. 7 G. Operational Definition ……………………………………………….. .8 CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK …………….. 11 A. Theoretical Review …………………………………………………...12

  1. Professional Functions …………………………………………….12

  2. Communicative Competences ………………………………….....14

  a. Development of Communicative Competence...……………..14

  b. Elements of Communicative Competences ………………….17 1) Discourse Competence ...………………………………...18 2) Actional Competence ..…………………………………..18 3) Linguistic Competence ...………………………………...19 4) Sociocultural/ Sociolinguistic Competence …………….. 20 5) Strategic Competence …………………………………… 20

  c. Communicative Competences in Adult Learning …………....22 1) Adult Learning Characteristics…………………………...22 2) Adult Learning Style ……………………………………..23 3) Adult Learning Strategies ……………………………….. 26

  3. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) …………………………….. 28

  a. Development of ESP…... ……………………………………. 28

  b. ESP Categories ………………………………………………. 30

  c. English for Health Officials……………………………………31

  4. Syllabus Design ………………………………………………….. 31

  a. Competence- based Syllabus Design ………………………….. 33

  b. Needs Analysis …………………………………………………34 1) Approaches to Needs Analysis..……………………………. 35 2) Interview and Questionnaire..………………………………. 38

  c. Syllabus Development ……………………………………..….. 41

  B. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………. 43

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  CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………..47 A. Methods ………………………………………………………………47 B. Nature of Data ………... ……………………………………………..48 C. Data Setting and Source…...……………….…………………………49 D. Data Gathering Instrument ……………….. ………………………... 49

  1. Interview……………….. ….……………...…………………… .50

  2. Questionnaire... ……………...........…….………………………..51

  E. Data Collection ……………………………………………………... 54

  F. Data Analysis …………………………………………………………54

  G. Data Triangulation……………………………………………………..54

  CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULT …. …………... ……………………. 56 A. Result of Professional Function Identification ……… ………............57 B. Result of Communicative Competence Identification …………….….77 C. Result of Syllabus Development ……………………………………. 90

  1. Assessing Learners’ Needs ………………………………………91

  2. Developing Goals and Objectives ………………………………..92

  3. Deciding Syllabus Type ………………………………………….92

  4. Specifying Contents ………………………………………...……93

  5. Planning Syllabus ……………………………………..…………95

  6. Selecting teaching Approaches and Materials ………………….105

  7. Assessment procedures and Criteria ……………………………105

  CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion …………………………………………………………..106 B. Implication …………………………………………………………..108 C. Recommendation ……………………………………………………109 BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………..111 APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………112 Appendix 1. Interview Sheet …………………………………………… 113 Appendix 2. Interview Result/Transcription …………………………… 114 Appendix 3. Questionnaire Sheet ………………………………………. 125 Appendix 4. Questionnaire Result ……………………………………… 133 Appendix 5. Research Statement Completion ………………………….. 140

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  LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Communicative Competence ModelFigure 2.2. The Classification of ESP Categories

  TABLES

Table 2.1. Learning Style Taxonomy for the L2 ClassroomTable 2.2. Learning Strategies for L2 LearnersTable 2.3. Strengths and weaknesses of Different Interview TypesTable 3.1. Interview BlueprintTable 3.2. Topics and related Specific InformationTable 3.3. List of Questionnaire QuestionsTable 4.1. Guest Reception FunctionTable 4.2. International Negation FunctionTable 4.3. Program/ Activity Reporting FunctionTable 4.4. International Correspondence FunctionTable 4.5. Seminar Presentation FunctionTable 4.6. Program Proposal FunctionTable 4.7. Fund Raising FunctionTable 4.8. Official Travel FunctionTable 4.9. Interpreting Function

  Table 4.10.Fellowship/Short Course/Comparative Study/Benchmarking Function

Table 4.11. Communicative Competence in Guest ReceptionTable 4.12. Communicative Competence in International NegationTable 4.13. Communicative Competence in Program/ Activity ReportingTable 4.14. Communicative Competence in International CorrespondenceTable 4.15. Communicative Competence in Seminar ParticipationTable 4.16. Communicative Competence in Program ProposalTable 4.17. Communicative Competence in Fund RaisingTable 4.18. Communicative Competence in Official TravelTable 4.19. Communicative Competence in Information SeekingTable 4.20. Communicative Competence in InterpretingTable 4.21. Communicative Competence in Fellowship/Short

  Course/Comparative Study/Benchmarking

Table 4.22. Communicative Competence in TranslatingTable 4.23. Specifying ContentsTable 4.24. The Plan of the Syllabus Design

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  ABSTRACT

  Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials . Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. The competence-based approach has been the current approach of education in

  Indonesia since 2003. This approach has been referred to develop learners’ competences in performing the language successfully. Therefore, supplying the underlying competences helps learners in engaging successfully in a class and facilitates them in performing their international relation in their field of professions. Furthermore, the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is also contributed by the development in educational theories. The development emphasizes the central importance of learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have been considered to have different needs and interest which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This provides support to the development of courses which is relevant to learners’ needs and interest.

  There were three problems formulated in the research. The first problem investigated the professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials in terms of their international relation. The second problem concerned with the most required communicative competences in order to perform those professional functions successfully. And the third problem which would become the technological by-product of this research aimed at designing a syllabus by integrating the professional functions mostly performed in English and the most required communicative competences of the language.

  The research investigated that the health officials performed a number of professional functions mostly performed in English and they required some communicative competences in order to perform the professional functions successfully. In investigating the professional functions mostly performed in English and the required communicative competence, the researcher conducted a need analysis. The professional functions the health officials performed in English mostly were guest reception, international negotiation, program/activity reporting, international correspondence, seminar participation, program proposal, fund raising, official travel, information seeking, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ comparative study/ benchmarking and translating,

  The communicative competence mostly required by the health officials to perform their professional functions successfully concerned with the proper use of the discourse, the functions of language, the grammar, the social and contextual factors, and the strategy.

  The result of the professional function identification and the required communicative competence to perform the functions successfully served as the bases of designing the syllabus. The type of syllabus chosen was competence-based which were equipped with competence standards and basic competence along with the indicators.

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ABSTRAK

  Theresia Laksmi Widyarini. (2008). Professional Functions and Communicative Competence in English for Health Officials . Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University. Pendekatan berbasis kompetensi merupakan pendekatan dalam pendidikan yang telah dilaksananakan di Indonesia sejak tahun 2003. Pendekatan ini ditujukan untuk meningkatkan kompetensi pembelajar dalam menggunakan bahasa dengan baik. Oleh karenanya, memberikan landasan kompetensi dapat membantu pembelajar dalam berinteraksi di kelas dan membantu mereka dalam melaksanakan hubungan internasional dalam bidang pekerjaan mereka. Disamping itu, perkembangan pembelajaran English for Specific Purposes (ESP) juga didukung oleh perkembangan teori-teori pendidikan. Perkembangan tersebut menekankan pada kepentingan pokok dari pembelajar dan perilaku mereka terhadap pembelajaran. Pembelajar dinilai memiliki kebutuhan dan ketertarikan yang akan mempengaruhi motivasi dalam pembelajaran dan pada keberhasilan pembelajaran mereka. Hal tersebut memberikan dukungan pada perkembangan pembelajaran yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan dan ketertarikan pembelajar.

  Penelitian ini merumuskan tiga masalah penelitian. Masalah pertama mengenai fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilakukan oleh staf kesehatan dengan menggunakan B. Inggris dalam hubungan internasional mereka. Masalah kedua mengenai kompetensi berkomunikasi yang diperlukan untuk melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan tersebut. Masalah yang ketiga mengenai penyususunan rancangan silabus yang memadukan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan dan kemampuan berkomunikasi tersebut dimana rancangan silabus ini merupakan technological by-product dari penelitian ini.

  Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa staf kesehatan melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilakukan dalam B. Inggris dan mereka memerlukan kompetensi berkomunikasi agar dapat melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan tersebut dengan baik. Penelitian ini melaksanakan suatu analisa kebutuhan dengan menggunakan wawancara dan angket. Fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan yang paling sering dilaksanakan dalam

  B. Inggris adalah: menerima tamu, negosiasi dengan kolega internasional, pelaporan program/kegiatan, surat menyurat dengan kolega internasional, seminar, pengusulan program/kegiatan, penggalangan dana, perjalanan dinas, pencarian informasi, interpreting, fellowship/ short course/ studi banding/ benchmarking dan translating,

  Kompetensi berkomunikasi yang diperlukan dalam melaksanakan fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan itu adalah kompetensi wacana, kompetensi tindak bahasa, kompetensi kebahasaan, kompetensi sosiokultural, dan kompetensi strategi

  Kemudian, hasil dari pengidentifikasian fungsi-fungsi pekerjaan dan kompetensi komunikatif digunakan sebagai dasar penysusunan silabus. Jenis silabus yang digunakan adalah silabus berbasis kompetensi yang meliputi kompetensi standar, kompetensi dasar dan indikator.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter is intended to introduce the research and justify the necessity

  to conduct it. A brief description of the occupational context where the research is conducted is provided with an emphasis on the needs of learning English. Finally, the chapter is concluded with some definitions of terms

I. BACKGROUND

  This research, aims at describing the professional functions performed by the health officials in terms of their international relation as well as the required competences in order to perform those professional functions successfully. And the technological by-product of this research will be in a form of syllabus design which integrates the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language.

  The competence-based approach has been the current approach of education in Indonesia since 2003 (Pelayanan Profesional Kurikulum 2004, 2003). Current curricula of formal schools in Indonesia have been referred to develop learners’ competences in performing the language successfully.

  Naturally, considering the health officials who are experts in their field of profession, it is strongly argued that the role of an English instructor should not be to teach content but to provide necessary skills to be able to cope with content (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Therefore, supplying the underlying competences will help learners in engaging successfully in a class and facilitate them in

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  performing their international relation in their field of professions (Swales in Master, 1998).

  The development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is also contributed by the development in education. The development emphasizes the central importance of learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners have been considered to have different needs and interest which would have an important influence on their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This provides support to the development of courses which is relevant to learners’ needs and interest.

  Master (1998) and Jordan (1997) have mentioned some courses intended for English Medical Purposes. At least, they proposed English for Aphasics, English for Nursing Professionals, English for Pharmacy Students, English for Physiotherapy. Likewise, this research concerns with health professionals with different medical expertise backgrounds. These health officials (the research participants) do not directly serve patients in hospitals or clinics, but they serve the public in general and they represent government agents who deal with the management of public health. As far as the research concerns, this area has not gained sufficient attention in English for Specific Purposes.

  The Indonesian government has undergone major changes since the reform movement in 1998, especially in authority division among government agencies. The authority changes in the government agencies were initiated with the stipulation of decentralization (local autonomy) policy. Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO (Dinas Kesehatan Provinsi D.I. Yogyakarta) is one of the Indonesian government agencies dealing with public health sector.

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  Decentralization represents the main issue in Indonesian health reform (Trisnantoro, 2005). It also represents the main issue to respond to the economic and political change pressures. The decentralization concept intends to improve the public participation in the decision making, so that they can provide healthcare appropriate with the local needs and aspiration, accommodate social, economic, environmental diversities, as well as improve the distribution of public resource. Besides the decision making, the concept provides more room for the local management and strengthens the government (health sector) accountability towards the society

  The international donor agencies take their parts in encouraging better distribution of qualified and effective public healthcare. These agencies offer financial aids in a specific condition that the aids are utilized to improve the healthcare efficiency and quality (Trisnantoro, 2005). A way to improve the healthcare efficiency and quality is through the development of health human resource.

  Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO is one of government’s agencies in public health services. PHO also has experienced some major organizational changes as well as authority changes and it has been playing important role in the implementation of the decentralization/ autonomy policy in health sector. As a government agency in provincial level, PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs, not to mention its official relation with the foreign donors in which PHO also serves as the foreign donor coordinator. Since PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs as well as its foreign official relation with the foreign donors, the human resource of PHO is

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  demanded to obtain good quality and capability in performing their professional functions especially those related with the international donors.

  The May 27 earthquake that struck D.I. Yogyakarta Province and Klaten, Central Java have made the two provinces points of attention. Quite a number of international NGOs have come to the two provinces, especially D.I. Yogyakarta Province, to give aids during the emergency phase as well as the recovery and reconstruction phases. PHO as the government agency in provincial level has been coordinating all the aids and hosting regular coordination meetings. Most of the NGOs members do not speak Indonesian. They are accompanied by their interpreters, but during the meetings at PHO, where they are hosted by PHO staffs, it is PHO’s responsibility to make the meetings as well as communication run smoothly. One main constraint in dealing with those foreigners is then the language. It is quite unpractical both for the foreigners and PHO staffs when they communicate via interpreters. This is not to mention some misunderstanding which often happens since the interpreters do not always know about specific terminologies in health. It would have been a good and smooth communication if PHO staffs obtain good capability in the language. Therefore, a research which investigates the PHO staff’s need to improve their communicative competence in English so that they are able to perform their professional functions with their international colleagues is quite urgent.

B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

  Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office consists of several divisions and sub- divisions. As a government agency in provincial level, PHO organizes and

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  coordinates most of the health programs. The health programs are not established by the Ministry of Health, RI, but also those established by the province as well as the districts/ municipality. In the official relation with international agencies, PHO also serves as the coordinator and facilitator. Since PHO organizes and coordinates most of the health programs as well as its international official relation with the international agencies, the human resource of PHO is demanded to obtain adequate quality and capability in performing their official activities especially those related with the international agencies.

  However, the most common constraint encountered by the health officials in maintaining their international relation is that of the language, especially English. Some of the officials of the international agencies do speak Indonesian, but many others do not. This language constraint impedes the smooth running and well established communication because then many items being communicated are not exchanged well and results in misunderstanding and miscommunication quite often. For that reason, the staffs need to improve their communication ability in English so that they are able to perform their professional functions in their international relation and communication successfully. Furthermore, the language constraints occur due to lack of grammar knowledge, including when to use certain structures, lack of competence in communication using the language and lack of essential vocabularies/ technical terms in English for each division.

C. PROBLEM LIMITATION

  Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office/ PHO is one of government’s agencies in public health services. Some of its functions are organizing and

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  coordinating most of the health programs as well as foreign official relation with the foreign agencies. The established organizational structure of PHO consists of the leader of the office, the leaders of divisions, the leaders of sub- divisions and staff. Among those organizational elements, the leader of the office and the leaders of divisions hold the major role in dealing with the international relation. Therefore, the research will limit its discussion on the professional functions in international relation performed by the division leaders and their core staff as well as the competences which are required to perform the international relation and communication successfully. In the following discussion the term “health officials” is employed to address the leaders of the divisions and their core staffs who serve as the research participants.

D. PROBLEM FORMULATION

  The research will deal with the professional functions in international relation and communication of the health officials. The research problems are formulated as follows:

  1. What are the professional functions mostly performed in English by the health officials in their international relation and communication?

  2. What are the most required communicative competences of the language?

  3. How would a syllabus design integrating these professional functions performed in English and the required communicative competences of the language look like?

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  E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

  The research is conducted to serve some objectives, namely:

  1. To obtain qualitative description on the professional functions mostly performed in English by these health officials in their international relation and communication

  2. To obtain qualitative description on the most required communicative competences of the language to perform the professional functions successfully

  3. To design a syllabus integrating the professional functions and the required communicative competences of the language as the technological by-product of the research.

  F. RESEARCH BENEFITS

  It is hoped that by focusing on the health official’s current and future knowledge and skills of the language, the research helps them in developing their ability in English and later in performing the professional functions successfully. It is also expected that the research assists the health officials in developing their communicative competence of the language and facilitates them to become more autonomous and independent officials.

  Finally, the results of the research are expected to bring worth contribution to future teachers, next researchers, and anybody who are interested in English for Specific Purposes.

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G. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

  1. Professional Functions

  Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office is a government agent for serving public health. Such office deals mostly with public health management rather than medical health. The office maintain different jobs and functions for different divisions and sub-divisions (Struktur Organisasi Dinas Kesehatan Prop. DIY, 2004). Professional functions themselves refer to all the work activities (or functions) that are embraced within occupations (http://www. archaeologist.net).

  The research itself has set its limit of study on the professional functions the health officials perform in their international relation and communication.

  2. Communicative Competences

  Communicative competence refers to the ability to produce situationally acceptable, and more especially socially acceptable, utterances in a particular language (Brown et al, 1996).

  The most recent model of communicative competences in language education literatures is that proposed by Celce-Murcia, Dornyei and Thurrell (1995) which is compatible with theoretical view stating that language is communication, not just a set of rules. The elements of communicative competence are those of discourse competence, actional competence, linguistic competence, sociocultural/ sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence.

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  3. English for Specific Purposes

  English for Specific Purpose is a program which teaches typical English for a special purpose. The typical English is of a particular context of use and which the learners are more likely to meet in the target situation. Such a course is based on a need analysis. The need analysis aims at specifying as closely as possible what exactly the learners have to do through the medium of English. By conducting a need analysis, the learners’ needs to perform successfully in the target situation may be resolved. Concerning the learners, it is often assumed that ESP learners will not be purely beginners but will have already studied General English for some years.

  4. Syllabus Development

  Syllabus is a statement of content which is used as the basis for planning courses of various kinds (Nunan, 2001). Therefore, the syllabus here does not solely concern with the selection and grading of content but it also concerns with the attempts to specify and grade learning tasks and activities. Furthermore, a syllabus provides practical basis for the division of assessment, textbooks and learning time. It also tells the teacher and the learner not only what is to be learnt, but implicitly, why it is to be learnt. Then, a syllabus also provides a set of criteria for material selection and/or writing (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987).

  5. Health Officials

  The health officials are the staff of Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office and they hold degree in health. Since they serve in a provincial health office, they perform their jobs in public health management instead of medical/ clinical. They post strategic position in their division or sub- division which, as the consequence,

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  require them to maintain relation and communication with international institutions. Therefore, considering their post, they are also required to perform their jobs in dealing with international relation and communication professionally and successfully.

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CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW & FRAMEWORK The chapter reviews some theories that become the bases for the

  discussion. The discussion will be divided into two main parts, namely, theoretical review and theoretical framework.

  The theoretical review discusses four major points. They are professional functions, communicative competence, English for Specific Purpose (ESP) and syllabus design. The discussion starts with the professional functions and precedes to the communicative competences which will become the bases for designing a syllabus. The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning.

  The next discussion is on the program for learners having specific purpose in learning English. The program to be discussed in the English for Specific Purpose Program (ESP). ESP also serves as the background of this research since the English for Health Officials is part of it. The discussion on ESP talks about the ESP development, categories and components.

  The last part discusses syllabus design within which the competence- based syllabus design, needs analysis and the steps in syllabus development are reviewed. Finally, all the discussion reviewed will be compiled within a framework provided in the second subchapter.

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A. Theoretical Review

  This sub- chapter elaborates theories of the professional functions, the communicative competence, the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and the syllabus design.

1. Professional Functions

  Yogyakarta Provincial Health Office (PHO) as a public health office organization serves a number of functions on public health management. As a provincial office, PHO coordinates and manages health programs and activities performed by PHO itself as well as by the districts. As the main functions of PHO are coordinating and managing, PHO maintains health resource management. In line with the research’s objectives which involves health officials, the health resource management concerns with the human resource management.

  Syakdiah (2001) mentions that the important asset owned by an organization and mostly concerned about by the management is that of the human resource of the organization. People (human) represent elements which always exist in every organization. These people formulate, innovate and attain the objectives of the organization. She continues that viewed from the perspective of organization, these people are the resources. They are not the inanimate resources as capital, land, or factories, but they are the human resources.

  The health officials as the human resource of PHO mobilize other relevant resources in the PHO organization. They represent the most important resource in the organization due to two reasons (Syakdiah, 2001). First, the

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  human resource affects the efficiency and efficacy of the organization. The health officials in their organization design and produce health services, control the quality, promote the health products and services, allocate the financial resource, and determine the overall objectives of the organization. Second, human resource represents the main outcome of the organization.

  In general, according to Syakdiah (2001) the human resource management includes: ƒ Planning Planning refers to determining programs which contribute to the objective attainment as set up by the organization.

  ƒ Organizing After a series of actions set up by the organization, the organization needs to organize the attainment process. The organization represents the tool to attain the objectives, organizing means designing the structure of various relation among jobs, personnel and other physical factors.

  ƒ Directing and motivating This motivating function is important. This function attempts to mobilize people to work together effectively.

  ƒ Controlling This managerial function is related with organizing the activities so the activities run as planned.

  ƒ Procuring This function attempts to gain proper personnel in order to attain the organization’s objectives.

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  ƒ Training and development This function improves the capability of the human resource.

  ƒ Compensating This function is formulated as rewards for the human resource for their contribution in the attainment of the organization’s objectives.

  ƒ Integrating Integrating concerns with the adjustment of individual’s interests with those of the organization ƒ Maintaining This function maintains and improves the existing condition ƒ Separating This function is to terminate the occupational relation of a staff with the organization.

  As the research concerns, the health officials as the human resource of PHO also perform the above functions in their general occupational activities.

  However, the research limits its study on the professional functions performed by the health officials in their international relation and communication.

2. Communicative Competences

  The discussion on communicative competences comprises their development and elements as well as their roles in adult learning.

a. Development of Communicative Competences

  When one uses language to communicate, he/ she use signs in the forms of sounds and letters. Likewise, the health officials communicate and maintain their international relationship through language, both written and spoken. The

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  signs are not uttered or written randomly; there are rules to govern so that the signs are understood by others. The rules are called grammar. Sounds and letters which are used governed by rules are used by society in the same cultural context. Hence, language represents a system of social semiotic (Holliday, 2002).

  Language is used by the society as an social interaction tool. The implication is that a person who lives alone will not be able to use language; being able to use language requires the presence of other persons.

  Different view of language is as presented by Chomsky (1978) in which he views language as a set of rules. Linguistics developed by Chomsky and his followers is the idealized linguistics; therefore, competence and performance are considered different. Competence, in its real meaning, refers to language which still exists in its ideal form in a person’s brain, and performance refers to a form of language which is full of errors in the grammar, vocabularies, repetition, hesitation, etc. According to Chomsky (1965), competence consists of the mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearer’s internalized grammar. Performance consists of the comprehension and production of language. Because the rules the learner has internalized are not open to direct inspection, it has been necessary to examine how the learner performs, mainly in production (Ellis, 1990).

  The shift of interest away from linguistic competence and towards communicative competence occurred at a time when theoretical studies of semantics had not really been much applied to the teaching of languages. By 1980, attitudes towards teaching vocabulary were not at all that different from what they had been twenty years earlier, and were largely dominated by ideas

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  inherited from the 1930s (Brown et al. 1996) . The 1960s saw a shift away from vocabulary, and the adoption of a general assumption that most learners could get by adequately with a very limited vocabulary (Brown et al., 1996).

  Lyons in Brown et al (1996) offers a more or less uncontroversial, non- technical definition of linguistic competence:

  Linguistic competence is the knowledge of particular languages, by virtue of which knowledge those who have it are able to produce and understand utterance in those languages.

  ‘Competence’ definitely and unequivocally refers to something in an individual’s mind or brain. Where as ‘performance’, according to him refers to the production and understanding of utterances (in particular languages). When ‘performance’ is defined by linguists in relation to competence, it is usually defined in its process sense.