Effects of Animosity and Allocentrism toward Consumer Eth- nocentrism in Shaping Consumers’ Willingness to Purchase: A Case Study on Consumers in Greater Jakarta (Jabodetabek Area) in Purchasing Malaysian Products
Effects of Animosity and Allocentrism toward Consumer Eth- nocentrism in Shaping Consumers’ Willingness to Purchase:
A Case Study on Consumers in Greater Jakarta (Jabodetabek
Area) in Purchasing Malaysian Products
Maeyta Selli* and Heri Kurniawan**
This paper aims to: (1) specify factors mediating the effects of consumer animosity towards the consumers’ willingness to purchase imported products; (2) specify factors mediating the effects of al- locentrism towards consumers’ purchasing willingness on imported product; and (3) examine wheth- er product quality comparison between domestic vis-à-vis imported products moderates the relation- ships between: (a) consumer animosity and consumers’ willingness to purchase (b)ethnocentrism and consumers’ willingness to purchase. A survey was conducted to 209 respondents that have bought Malaysian products in the past three months and lived in Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, and Bekasi) area. The result shows that ethnocentrism mediated the relationship between animosity and consumers’ willingness to purchase; while it does not work as a mediator in the relationship between allocentrism and consumers’ willingness to purchase. In addition, product quality comparison does not moderate the relationship between animosity and consumers’ willingness to purchase as well as ethnocentrism and consumers’ willingness to purchase. Interpretations, contributions, and implica- tions for manager are also discussed.
Keywords: Malaysian product; consumer animosity; product quality comparison; consumer ethno- centrism; allocentrism.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk : (1) menjelaskan faktor-faktor yang memediasi pengaruh consumer animosity terhadap kemauan konsumen untuk membeli produk impor. (2) menjelaskan faktor-faktor yang memediasi pengaruh allocentrism terhadap kemauan konsumen membeli produk impor, dan (3) menganalisis apakah perbandingan kualitas produk antara produk domestik dan produk impor memoderasi hubungan antara: (a) consumer animosity dan kemauan konsumen untuk membeli, (b) ethnocentrism dan kemauan konsumen untuk membeli. Pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui sur- vei pada 209 responden yang bertempat tinggal di daerah Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok dan Bekasi) yang pernah membeli produk buatan Malaysia dalam tiga bulan terakhir. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ethnocentrism memediasi hubungan antara animosity dan kemauan konsumen membeli. Namun di sisi lain, ethnocentrism tidak terbukti memediasi hubungan antara allocentrism dan kemauan konsumen membeli. Selain itu, perbandingan kualitas produk tidak memoderasi hubun- gan antara animosity dan kemauan konsumen untuk membeli. Perbandingan kualitas produk juga tidak terbukti memoderasi hubungan antara ethnocentrism dan kemauan konsumen untuk membeli. Interpretasi, kontribusi dan implikasi untuk para manajer juga dibahas dalam tulisan ini.
Kata Kunci: Produk Malaysia, consumer animosity; perbandingan kualitas produk, ethnocentrism, allocentrism
Introduction
Department of Management, Faculty of Eonomics Uni-
The expansion of international trade today
versity of Indonesia, Kampus UI Depok, Jawa Barat,
provides opportunities and interesting chal-
Phone: +62 _ 21 7272425 & Fax: +62 21 7270024 * Universitas Indonesia, Email: maeyta@gmail.com
lenges to strategists and marketing managers.
** Universitas Indonesia, Email: heri.kurniawan07@
Those including the location of production,
gmail.com
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although hatred or dislike of a country exists on the survival of organizations engage in inter-
consumers will still probably buy the products national business (Huang et al., 2010).
if they find its quality is better. Research on the “country of origin” (COO)
Based on this fact, it becomes important to in recent years revealed that products produced
answer whether the evaluation of quality of by developed countries will be more in demand
both imported and local products have impor- than products produced by developing coun-
tant role in moderating the relationship between tries (Ettenson, 1993; Jaffe and Martinez, 1995;
consumer animosity towards consumers’ buy- Schooler, 1971, Wang and Lamb, 1983). This
ing interest, and also the relationship between is due to the perception that products’ quality
consumer ethnocentrism and consumers’ buy- of developed countries are better than those of
ing interest. So that, every business person can developing countries. However the situation is
gain knowledge about the role of product qual- now different; several recent studies revealed
ity in increasing consumers’ buying interest. By that there are several factors influencing con-
applying the right strategy in executing the role sumers’ interest in buying products – no lon-
of the products’ quality, the business persons ger depends only on the economic development
can win the competition in the era of the ongo- status of the producing countries.
ing trade expansion today.
Research conducted by Nijssen and Doug- Based on the previous findings, this study las (2004) revealed that Dutch consumers are
aims to: (a) examine the effects of consumer an- reluctant to consume products produced by
imosity on consumer ethnocentrism; (b) exam- Germany as a result of past history between the
ine the effects of allocentrism towards friends two countries during World War 2, although the
on consumer ethnocentrism; (c) examine the products produced by the German have better
effects of consumer ethnocentrism on consum- quality. This shows the consumers’ attitude in
ers’ purchasing interest; (d) examine the role responding to products could be different due
of products quality comparison (both local and to bilateral disputes (Klein et al., 1998; Klein,
imported products) in moderating the relation- 2002; Nijssen and Douglas, 2004; Ang et al.,
ship between consumer animosity and consum- 2004). Meanwhile, research conducted by
ers’ buying interest, and (e) examine the role of Shimp et al. (1995 in Huang et al., 2008) re-
products quality comparison in moderating the vealed that the high level of South Korean con-
relationship between consumers ethnocentrism sumers’ ethnocentrism makes them reluctant to
and consumers’ buying interest. buy products from other countries and prefer to consume domestic products as the form of their
Literature Review
love for their country. This shows that the level of consumer ethnocentrism can also influence
Focus of the Study – Products from Malaysia their consumption patterns since they prefer to consume domestic products than imported
In his book “The Confrontation of Indonesia products (Verlegh, 2007).
- Malaysia Dispute 1961-1963”, JAC Mackie Shankarmahesh (2006 in Huang et al., 2008)
(1974) mentioned the relationship between In- stated that social environment (family and
donesia and Malaysia have lasted about 1,500 friends) can influence consumer in buying do-
years. Along the way, arise less harmonious re- mestic or imported products. This allocentrism
lationship between the two countries despite the theory appears in which the social environment
historical record that both countries are known (family or friends) who tend to choose local
as the allied countries (Liow, 2010, in Chong, products than imported products can influence
2012). History records the dispute between In- one’s ethnocentrism towards domestic products
donesia and Malaysia have taken place in the (Shankarmahesh, 2006). On the other hand, a
time of Sukarno, known as the “Confrontation” study conducted by Klein (2002) and Klein et
in 1962 (Holst, 2007). Some other conflicts aris- al., (1998) found that influence of animosity
ing in recent years include: breach of the border in shaping consumers’ interest to buy products
between the two countries and the issue of the
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community as a whole in the country against 2010), acts of violence committed against Indo-
the threat of the outside party (Grant, 1991; nesian Workers (TKI) working in Malaysia, up
Schmitt et al., 2003). This behavior will final- to the number of claims made by the Malaysian
ly increase negative attitudes towards objects, to Indonesian (Inayatullah, 2010).
people, ideas, and products produced by the attacker country (Nijssen and Douglas, 2004).
Consumer Animosity Based on this social identity theory, the Indone- sian consumers who feel angry or have negative
Riefler and Diamantopoulos (2006) said that feelings towards Malaysia would assume Ma- tensions often arise between countries. There-
laysia as a threat that will ultimately increase fore, patriotism and love of country could be
the Indonesian people reaction to prefer local factors that influence consumers’ attitudes to-
products and avoid purchasing Malaysian prod- ward products produced by other countries and
ucts. Thus, the first hypothesis emerged in this their willingness to purchase the products (Han,
study is as follows:
1988; Klein et al., 1998; Rawwas et al., 1996 in
H1: Consumer animosity affects consumer
Riefler and Diamantopoulos, 2006). Thus indi-
ethnocentrism.
rectly, one’s dislike to a country will affect their behavior towards the products produced by the
Allocentrism
country. Huang et al. (2010) said if consumers dislike or hate a state, they will refuse to con-
Gamble (2012) interpreted allocentrism sume products imported from that state.
as a set of personal attributes in which an in- Klein et al. (1998) defined consumer ani-
dividual focus their attention and action in mosity as “remmants of antipathy related to
accordance with others in their environment previous or ongoing military, political, or eco-
than themselves. So when someone with al- nomic events” that influences consumers’ be-
locentrism was facing a conflict between their havior to purchase certain products. Klein et al.
personal interests and social groups, generally (1998) added that this behavior arises because
they would prefer to support the interests of the the exporting country has ever involved in mili-
group (Gürhan-Canli and Maheswaran, 2000, tary, political, or economic activities that was
in Huang et al., 2008). They tend to watch their painful and hard to forget. Research conducted
actions in any social group, so it will indirectly by Klein et al. (1998) and Klein and Ettenson
increase ethnocentrism or sense of belonging to (1999) revealed that consumer animosity and
a social environment than those who have an consumer ethnocentrism tend to have similari-
idiocentrism tendency (De Ruyter et al., 1998; ties since the concept carried by both is to avoid
Shankarmahesh, 2006; Sharma et al., 1995). products from certain countries as a result of
One who has high tendency of allocentrism economic, political, and military problems.
can share their similar identity with their close Jung et al. (Cui et al in 2002, 2001) exposed
friends including their behavior in consuming that consumer animosity is more likely to be
local products, both local and imported prod- negative against other countries. It is an action
ucts (Hui, 1988). In this study, allocentrism that is based on feelings and confidence in deal-
level on relationships with good friends is ing with outside influences, especially against a
counted; since there are several common iden- particular hated country.
tities among friends including similar social Meanwhile, consumer ethnocentrism is more
identity as a part of being in the same coun- focused on attitudes in choosing local products
try (Hui, 1988). Huang et al. (2010) indicated (in-group) compared to imported products (out-
the higher levels of one’s allocentrism towards group) as a basis to sustain the national econo-
friends will also increase the level of consumer my or of patriotism in protecting their country’s
ethnocentrism. Thus, the second hypothesis in interests (Cui et al. , 2001). Based on social
this study is as follows:
identity theory, the conflict between Indonesia
H2: Allocentrism towards friends affects
and Malaysia will increase the threat of outsid-
consumer ethnocentrism.
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June 2014 - Vol.VI - No. 1 3
Consumer Ethnocentrism Several studies explained that ethnocentrism
has strong influence on consumers’ buying in- terest for the products coming from various
countries (Huang et al., 2010). Shimp (1984) defined consumer ethnocentrism as “an individ-
ual’s tendency to view domestically manufac- tured products as superior, and the belief that it is unpatriotic to buy foreign-made products due to adverse effect such behaviour may have on the domestic economy and employment.” This behavior occurs based on thoughts that it is a mistake to buy foreign products since it could damage the local economy, causing unemploy- ment, and is an unpatriotic stance to the coun- try. Patriotism itself is strong feelings and loy- alty that makes consumers prefer local products without counting others’ special quality (Bala- banis et al., 2001).
Consumer ethnocentrism implies how the attitudes and responses of consumers in finding
the difference of local and imported products, although in the end they would be more likely to return to the local products (Shimp & Shar- ma, 1987). Various studies in the past revealed that ethnocentrism will affect the assessment of a product and the consumers’ buying inter- est – where consumers will tend to buy local products than imported products (Shankarma- hesh, 2006). Then, the third hyphothesis is as follows:
H3: Consumer ethnocentrism affects con- sumers’ buying interest.
Several studies revealed that animosity is not positively correlated to the assessment of product quality (Klein et al., 1998; Klein, 2002; Nakos and Hajidimitriou, 2007). This shows that some consumers tend to not include their anger against a country into their decision in buying products produced by the country (Klein, 2002). Heslop and Papadoulos (1993) described the role of the Country of Origin
(COO) as an important construct in influenc- ing consumers’ trust in the quality of a product,
which in turn influencing consumers’ buying interest. This happens if the country of origin
of certain products does more in shaping con- sumers’ perception towards the quality of the products, instead of the role of information on
those products (Hong and Wyer, 1989; Huang et al in 1990., 2010).
Shoham et al. (2006) reported that consum- ers’ buying interest and assessment of the prod- ucts’ quality is not affected by consumer ani- mosity. However, assessment of the quality of goods and services may play an important role in driving the relationship between consumer animosity and consumer buying interest and also the relationship between consumer ethno- centrism on purchase decision. Referring to the case of the relationship between Indonesia and Malaysia, it can be said that Indonesian con- sumers will tend to choose local products in- stead of using goods and services from Malay- sia although for Indonesian consumers, goods and services produced by Malaysia have better quality than goods and local services. So the fourth hypothesis state:
H4A: Products’ quality comparison does not
act as a moderating variable between consumer animosity in Greater Jakar- ta against Malaysia and consumers’ buying interest.
On the other hand Thelen et al. (2006) and Verlegh (2007) stated that ethnocentrism does not always encourage consumers to choose lo- cal products compared to alternative choices of products coming from other countries. In fact some studies say that the evaluation of local products by consumers showed impartial state of the in-group view (Verlegh, 2007). As exam- ple, Balabanis and Diamantopoulos (2004) re- ported that the effects of the in-group could be more suitable to explain the positive consum- er outlook (UK) on local products rather than consumers’ negative views to alternative prod- ucts from other countries. Another example, although consumers from Poland, Russia, and China are likely to have positive view on their local products, but does not mean they have a negative outlook on imported products, when imported products clearly showed better qual- ity than local products (Klein et al., 2006). This makes it a possibility that consumer ethnocen- trism which often makes a consumer extol lo- cal products cause the same consumer to prefer an alternative better-quality imported products (Verlegh, 2007).
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Figure 1. Graphical Representation of Moderation Effect and Moderation Fit Consumers in Indonesia who have low
ert scale completes the semantic differential levels of ethnocentrism tend to buy imported
scale, so that respondents’ answers will be able goods and services (eg, products from Malay-
to be treated as interval scaled data (Ferdinand, sia) due to better quality. According to Huang
2006). The decision to execute a-6-point Likert et al. (2010) this occurs because of the exis-
type scales (even number) is to avoid a central tence of consumer ethnocentrism is less im-
tendency of respondents’ answers: to choose portant than the quality of imported goods and
the neutral option (Sahra, Shaver and Brown, services. Consumers who do not assume ethno-
2009). Specifically, the final measurement vari- centrism as an important thing will put aside a
ables are detailed as follows: sense of nationalism and will concern more on
Product Quality Comparison. It is an over- the quality of goods and services. On the other
all assessment of products’ quality produced by side, those who have a high level of ethnocen-
Malaysia. In these variables, the group of re- trism would be more difficult to be influenced
spondents who assume that local products were by products’ quality comparison (Balabais and
superior or better than products made in Ma- Diamantopoulos, 2004; Supphellen and Ritten-
laysia was given the code 1. Meanwhile, for re- burg, 2001; Thelen et al., 2006). The last hy-
spondents who considered local products were pothesis states:
inferior compared to products made in Malay-
H4b: Products’ quality comparison acts as
sia was given a code 2.
a moderating variable between con-
The product quality comparison variable for
sumer ethnocentrism and willingness
the two countries was divided into two major
to purchase.
groups based on the average value of the re- sponses entered by all respondents. The use
Research Method
of average values is possible because a score above the average (mean) is considered high
This quantitative study applied a conclusive motivation and a score below the average value research design consisting descriptive research
is considered low motivation (Ghozali, 2005). and causal research.
Division into two groups was carried out be- The drafted questionnaire containing some
cause previous studies showed that consumers developed statements was pilot tested using
with a certain level of animosity and ethnocen- judgmental sample of thirty respondents who
trism have a distinct tendency of forming pur- lived in Jakarta and greater area (Jabodetabek)
chase interest based on their view of the quality and who had consumed Malaysian products
of local products (both superior and inferior lo- (that also produced locally): aviation services,
cal products) compared to imported products. banking services, and petroleum products.
The first group (Coded 1), which consisted The developed final instrument applied a-6
of 106 respondents answered that local products point Likert type scales (where 1 is “strongly
were superior compared to Malaysian products, disagree” and 6 is “strongly agree”). The Lik-
while the second group (Coded 2) which con-
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Spreadsheet, while 172 answered directly assessments of the statements adapted from
through a-self administered survey). Klein et al (1988).
Prior to draft questionnaire development, re- Consumers’ Purchasing Interest. Buy-
search was focused to get prior result in iden- ing interest was part of consumer behavior in
tifying the well-known goods and services im- consumption and in taking decisions before
ported from Malaysia that were also produced purchasing. Five indicators applied to measure
in Indonesia: involving 20 Indonesia consum- respondent’s buying interest used in this study
ers. The results showed that there were three were adapted from Klein et al (1998) and Nijs-
research objects that can be developed in this sen and Douglas (2004).
study; those were aviation services, banking Consumer Animosity towards Malaysia. It
services, and petroleum products. Within the is an attitude statement that pose a different as-
three product categories, amongst the compet- sessment of products from a particular country.
ing brands/products available, there are brands/ Animosity scale was developed and validated
products produced by Indonesia and Malaysia, by Klein (2002) in the United States and Klein
so that consumers can choose between Indone- et al. (1998) in China. There are 9 items on the
sian product or Malaysian product. first scale, but through trial questionnaires and
The primary data collection took place interviews it was decided to use the 6-items ani-
over a period of three months in Jakarta, Bo- mosity scale in this study.
gor, Tangerang and Bekasi area. The first two Consumer Ethnocentrism. CETSCALE
months were dedicated to develop and pre-test (Consumer Ethnocentrism Tendencies Scale)
the questionnaire, and the rest was dedicated is a measuring instrument used to assess con-
to collect data through a self-administered sumer ethnocentrism trends related to consum-
survey (70% were conducted by face to face ers’ decision to purchase imported products
survey,while the rest were conducted through compared to local products. To measure this
the Internet).
concept, Shimp and Sharma (1987) developed Before executing further statistical test, cer-
a measurement instrument consisting of 17 tain computation were performed, including questions that were formulated and validated
data preparation (in the pre-test stage). Hyman in the United States. The variables that make
and Siera (2010) suggest pre test for the ques- up CETSCALE aim to reflect a sense of patri-
tionnaire before conducting the main survey. otism, products availability, the impact of the
Furthermore, Malhotra (2007) mentioned that economy, and also the impact of employment
pre test (testing the questionnaire in a smaller that may appear on one’s ethnocentrism.
sample of the total respondents) will be able to Allocentrism towards Friends. IND-COL
identify also eliminate potential problems. (Individualism-Collectivism) scale is a mea-
Since all variables of the study were essen- surement scale developed by Hui (1998) and
tially perceptual, therefore they were subject to Hui and Yee (1999) to measure the level of one’s
a respondent’s filtering process that might cause allocentrism in a different social groups (either
inconsistency. To address the issue, Cronbach spouse, parents, relatives, neighbors, friends, to
Alpha was executed for testing the internal con- colleagues work). It is found that allocentrism
sistency. The Cronbach Alpha test were done to affects positively on the measurement of the so-
measure the reliability of measurement items. cial environment preference towards a particu-
Each variable will be considered as reliable if it lar object. The IND-COL scale in this study are
has a minimum coefficient of Cronbach Alpha as follows:
of 0,6 (Malhotra, 2007).
In this study, the calculation of the minimum The validity test was also conducted to mea- number of samples is the number of questions
sure how well the indicators define the research or items (36 questions) multiplied by 5 result-
construct (Hair et al., 2006). This test were
ed in 180 respondents (minimum) required in also executed in the pre test stage using Factor this study (Wijanto 2008). During the process,
Analysis conducted with SPSS 20. In this study, 209 respondents were involved: 37 respondents
the authors examime the following tables pro-
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ter analyzing the overall model fit, then the next Measurement of Sampling Adequancy (MSA),
step is to analyze causal relationship (by check- also Component Matrix (Factor Loading).
ing the significance of the coeficient structural KMO and Anti Image statistic were essential
equation path as well as the acceptance of the pre-requirement for Factor Analysis. To pass
hyphotesis). If the score of the t-value is less the pre-requirement, Malhotra (2007) suggest
than 1.96 means that the coeficient of structural
a minimum score of 0.5 for each test as well equation path is not significant and the hypoth- as the result of Bartlett Test with score that
esis is rejected. The last step is to analyze the should be less than 0.05. Upon satisfying pre-
coefecient of determination (R 2 ), that can be requirement for Factor Analysis, each indica-
taken from the reduced form equation (Wijanto, tor’s factor loading in Component Matrix table
must exceed 0,5 to indicate acceptable validity This research have two hypothesis: mediat- (Malhotra, 2007).
ing and moderating hypothesis. The mediating In addition to the descriptive statistics, this
hypothesis test whether or not the ethnocentism study employed Structural Equation Modeling
(variable) has the mediating role to the relation- (SEM) using LISREL 8.51 in order to test a
ship between consumer animosity dan allocen- series of simultaneous causal relations among
trism to willingness to purchase. According to variables. SEM also tests the measurement
Huang et al., (2010) some references below are model as well as the structural model (Hair et
applied to this research to accept or reject the al, 2006). According to Byrne (2010) and Hair,
hypothesis tested:
et. al (2009), SEM (known as covariance struc-
1. If the score of t-value of both relationships ture analysis or latent variable analysis) tests
are significant, so the hyphotesis will be ac- the structure of interrelationship that will be de-
cepted.
scribed through a series of equations that simi-
2. If the t-value of one relationship is signifi- lar with the multiple regressions.
cant while another relantionship is not sig- First step of SEM is to perform the CFA
nificant so the hyphotesis will be rejected. (Confirmatory Factor Analysis) to test whether
or not the measured or observable variables as Meanwhile for the moderating hyphotesis, the indicators really represent a construct (Hair
this research tested wheteher or not the product et al., 2009). The final CFA is resulted from sev-
quality comparison variable moderated the re- eral test results. First is the result of measure-
lationship between consumer animosity to the ment model validity test: that is measured by
consumer willingness to purchase also relation- the score of the t-value of Standardized Loading
ship between consumer ethnocentrism to the Factor (λ) of each variables observed (at signifi-
consumer willingness to purchase. In this re- cance level 5%, t value should be greater than
search the moderating variable: product quality
1.96) and the value of the Standardized Load- comparison was divided into 2 groups (Group ing Factor (λ) that should be greater than 0.50
1: containing the consumers who perceived lo- (Igbaria et.al, 1997). Second is the result of the
cal products: Indonesian products are more su- measurement model’s goodness of fit (checking
perior to foreign products: Malaysian Products the CMIN/df, RMSEA, GFI, CFI and AGFI).
while Group 2: containing the consumers who Third is the result of measurement model’s re-
perceived local products: Indonesian products liabity test as discussed in Hair (checking the
are more inferior to foreign products: Malay- minimum value of Construct Reliabilty or CR
sian Products ) so the data processing would re- that should be equal to or greater than 0.70 and
sult in two scores of t-value. According Huang Variance Extracted or VE that should be equal
et al., (2010) the guidance for accepting or re- to greater than 0.50 to be concluded as a good
jecting the hypothesis are as follow: reliability score).
1. If the score of the t-value of both group are After conducting CFA, the next step is an-
significant, meaning the variable (product alyzing the structural model: qualifying the
quality comparison ) is NOT significantly overall model fit with some fit indices criteria
moderated.
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Table 1 Characteristics of Research Sample
< 25 years old
84 40% 4 Education
Private company workers
78 37% 5 Income per month
Bachelor / undergraduate
50 24% 6 Spending (expenditure) per month
≤ Rp. 1,000,000 IDR
> Rp. 3,000,000 IDR
Table 2. Summary of Validity and Reliability Test Results
Reliability Criteria NO
Validity Criteria
1 Product Quality Comparison
3 CA Valid
4 CE Removal of CE2
5 AF Valid
Table 3. The Structural Model Fit Analysis
Results Absolute
GOF Measurements
Criteria
Score
Goodness of fit Index (GFI)
Satisfactory fit Root Mean Square Error of Approximination (RMSEA)
Good Fit Root Mean Square Residual (RMR)
Good Fit
Relative
Tucker-Lewis Index or Non Normed Fit Index (TLI or NNFI)
Satisfactory fit Normed Fit Index (NFI)
Satisfactory fit Adjusted Goodness of fit Index (AGFI)
Poor Fit Relative Fit Index (RFI)
Poor Fit Incremental Fit Index (IFI)
Satisfactory fit Comparative Fit Index (CFI)
Satisfactory fit
Parsimonious
Good Fit Source: Data analysis using LISREL 8.51
Parsimony Goodness of fit Index (PGFI)
25 years with undergraduate education back- significant, meaning the variable (product
2. If one of the t-value score of both group is
ground and most respondents were private sec- quality comparison ) is significantly moder-
tor workers with monthly expenditure of more ated.
than 3,000,000 IDR.
Measurement model’s goodness of fit (GOF)
Results and Discussions
test results in this study indicated good results. Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI) = 0.75, Root Mean
The results of pre test from 30 respondents Square Error of Approximation (RSMEA) = provided a reduction of 5 items (indicators) of
0.076, Root Mean Square Residuan (RMR) = the initial questionnaire (41 indicators) includ-
0.12, Normed Fit Index (NFI) = 0.77, Compara- ing five variables: Product Quality Comparison,
tive Fit Index (CFI) = 0.87, and Adjusted Good- Consumers’ Purchasing Interest (Willingness
ness of fit index (AGFI) = 0.71. These indica- to Purchase), Consumer Animosity towards
tors have exceeded the minimum requirement Malaysia, Consumer Ethnocentrism, Allocen-
as described in Wijanto (2008). Table 2 present trism towards Friends. The final questionnaire
the summary of validity and reliability testing employed 36 valid items that were proven to be
results. The result of the reliability and valid- reliable and valid .
ity scores for every indicator on each construct The descriptive statistics provided in table 1
also indicated a good reliability and validity. shows the respondents’ major characteristics of
Only one indicator (CE2) that were removed this study: female respondents were dominant
from Consumer Ethnocentrism due to lack of (63% of the total respondents), while more than
reliability and validity .
half of the respondents were under the age of
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Table 4A. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results (Mediation Hypothesis) and Comparison with Huang (2010)
Huang (2010) H1: Consumer animosity has a significant ef- T Value of Path CA CE = 4,13 (hypothesis T value of Path CA CE = 3,49 (hypothesis fect on consumer enthnocentrism
Hypothesis
Current Study
supported)
supported)
H2: Allocentrism towards friends has a sig- T value of path AF CE = 1.00 (hypothesis T value of path AF CE = 7,55 (hypothesis nificant effect on consumer ethnocentrism
not supported)
supported)
H3: Consumer Ethnocentrism has a signifi- T value of path CE WP = 2,43 (hypothesis T value of path CEWP = 5,59 (hypothesis cant effect on Willingness to Purchase
supported)
supported)
Conclusion (H1-H3)
1. Consumer Ethnocentrism mediated rela- 1. Consumer Ethnocentrism played as medi-
tionship between consumer animosity and
ating variable between consumer animos-
Willingness to Purchase.
ity and Willingness to Purchase 2. Consumer Ethnocentrism DID NOT medi- 2. Consumer Etnosentrism played as mediat-
ate the relationship between allocentrism
ing variable between allocentrism towards
towards friends and Willingness to Pur-
friends and Willingness to Purchase
chase.
Table 4B. Summary of Hypothesis Testing Results (Moderation Hypotheses) and Compari- son with Huang (2010)
Huang (2010) H4a:Product Quality Comparisson DOES Group 1 Path CAWP T value = 4,81;
Hypothesis
Current Study
Group 1 Path CAWP T value = 2,21 NOT play as moderating variable between Group 2 Path CAWP T value = 3,14
Group 2 Path CAWP T value = 1,19 Consumer Animosity in Jabodetabek to- Note: both groups have significant T values Note: Only one of the groups have significant
wards Malaysian Product and Willingness to (indifference)
T value
Purchase H4b: Product Quality Comparison plays as Group 1 Path CE WP T value = 2,03;
Group 1 Path CE WP T value = 4,15; moderating variable between Allocentrism Group 2 Path CE WP T value = 2,24
Group 2 Path CE WP T value = 4,59 towards Friends and Willingness to Purchase Note: both groups have significant T values Note: both groups have significant T values
1. Product Quality Comparison DOES NOT
1. Product Quality Comparison moderate re-
moderate the relationship between Con-
lationship between Consumer Animosity
sumer Animosity toward Malaysian prod-
toward Malaysian product and Wilingness
uct and Willingness to Purchase.
to Purchase.
2. Product Quality Comparison DOES mod-
2. Product Quality Comparisson DOES NOT
erate the relationship between Allocen-
moderate the relationship between Allo-
trism towards Friends and Willingness to
centrism towards Friens and Wilingness to
Purchase
Purchase
Overall Model Fit
the RMSEA standard value of below 0.1 is met (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1984; Bagozzi et all,
In this study, a linear model was construct- 1989). Considering the aforementioned GOF
ed to test the interaction and the cause and ef- statistics, the model can be considered as hav- fect relationships between variables within the
ing a satisfactory fit results, or in another words, model. With respect to the model fit analysis,
the overall model fit still exists. In summary, Bagozzi and Yi (1988) and Joreskog and Sor-
the structural model developed in this study has bom (1989) recommended such indicators as
a good model fit.
chi-square value, goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), root
Hypothesis Verification
mean square residual (RMR), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), normed fit
According to the research model in figure 1, index (NFI) and comparative fit index (CFI).
and results of hypothesis testing summarized in The model fit analysis is as shown in Table 3.
table 4A and table 4B, we can infer that the re- According to table 3, Although the AGFI is
lationship between factors and their respective rated below 0.9 (poor fit), and RMR is beyond
influence strenghs.
0,05 (poor fit), indicators such as GFI, NFI, CFI According to table 4A, the influence of con- are all above the minimum criteria. In addition,
sumer animosity towards ethnocentrism pro-
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June 2014 - Vol.VI - No. 1 9 June 2014 - Vol.VI - No. 1 9
ue of Hypothesis 3 was also found significant ity influence consumer ethnocentrism. Thus
(T = 2,43, p<0,05), and thus supported. The re- Hypothesis 1 is supported by the data and ac-
sult showed that consumer ethnocentrism has a cepted. In other words, respondents who hold
significant impact on consumer’s willingness to feeling of animosity towards Malaysian prod-
purchase. Therefore, it can be concluded that ucts and blamed Malaysia about the bilateral
ethnocentrism leads consumers to prefer pur- disputes between Indonesia and Malaysia (In-
chase of domestic over imported products (even ayatullah, 2010), were more likely to purchase
if the imported products were cheaper and/or national-made (local) products rather than
have better quality). Supphellen & Ritenburg products from the offending nation.
(2001) also found that consumer ethnocentrism According to Social Identity Theory theo-
has a positive impact on the consumers’ will- rical framework , if there are some outgroup
ingness to purchase local products. threats, it will be perceived as destructive to the
Furthermore, the consumers’ ethnocentrism in-group’s identity, and thus it will indirectly
has a different context with the consumer ani- increase consumer ethnocentrism. It is in line
mosity. Consumers’ ethnocentrism was also in- with study conducted by Nijssen dan Douglas
fluenced by in-group identity (which has a di- (2004) in Huang et al., (2010). As the conse-
rect and strong influence toward the consumers’ quences, consumers prefer to avoid or choose
attitude to buy imported products). It is totally not to buy Malaysian products (and choose to
different with “consumer animosity” which is consume local products). The same findings
much more influenced by out-group, so that it were also reported by Klein et al. (1998), Klein
will develop an in-group identity. (2002), Nijssen dan Douglas (2004), dan Ang et
In summary, according to results of hypoth- al. (2004) in Huang et al., (2010).
esis H1, H2 and H3, this study concluded that Unlike the level of consumer animosity
“consumer ethnocentrism” plays an important which significantly affected the level of con-
role as mediating variable between consumer sumer ethnocentrism, allocentrism towards
animosity and willingness to purchase, while friends was not found to be significantly affect-
for the relationship between allocentrism to- ing consumer ethnocentrism (T = 1,00; p-value
wards friends and willingness to purchase, con- >0,05). Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was not sup-
sumer ethnocentrism is not proven to be medi- ported.
ating variable.
The result indicated that the preferences for This study also tested the structural models domestic/foreign products were not related to
of the effect of product quality comparison as the social identity attached by consumer to their
moderating variable of the two groups; Group difference in-groups. In other words, parents
1 in which consumers assume local products
and/or friends who are members of respondent’s are superior to products from Malaysia, and reference group have no crucial or significant
Group 2 in which consumers consider the lo-
role in shaping one’s behavior in purchasing lo- cal products are inferior compared to prod- cal/foreign made product. It is in line with the
ucts from Malaysia.
study of Huang et al. (2008). This result might The t-value of Group 1 was 4.81, while in come from the phenomena of idiocentrism (in-
Group 2 the resulting t- value was 3.14. Based dividualism) among consumers (Triandis 1989
on the results shown in both group, significant t in Huang et al. 2008) in Jakarta and Greater
values were observed (both t-value were > 1,96). Area, which likely cause consumers to to care
However to conclude whether or not “Product about themself more than their social environ-
Quality Comparison” significantly plays a role ment. Shankarmahesh (2006) also disclosed
as a moderating variable in the relationship be- that there is an indication that allocentrism im-
tween Consumer Animosity and Willingness to pact toward consumer’s ethnocentrism is more
Purchase local products, the result of t-value influenced by the consumers’ cohort: younger
between Group 1 and Group 2 should be dif- people most likely to have a-lower enthnocen-
ferent: one should have a significant result and trism level other than elderly people.
the reverse for the other result (Huang et all,
10 ASEAN MARKETING JOURNAL
June 2014 - Vol.VI - No. 1
2010). It is also applied for testing the hypoth- Second. previous studies (e.g. De Ruyter et esis H4b. In this study, the result is indifferent,
al., 1998) indicate a strong relationship between so the “Product Quality Comparison” was not
allocentrism towards friends and consumer eth- proven to play as moderating variable. There-
nocentrism, in which allocentrism will increase fore, we can conclude that although Malaysian
positive influence between consumer ethnocen- products (in general) were perceived as better
trism and consumers’ buying interest. However, than local products (after consumers comparing
this study found that allocentrism of consum- local products to Malaysian products), consum-
ers who lived in Greater Jakarta does not sig- ers still choose to consume local products due
nificantly affect the consumer ethnocentrism to some animosities toward Malaysia.
although consumer ethnocentrism significantly Meanwhile, the structural model with Prod-
influences consumers’ buying interest. uct Quality Comparison modeled as a mod-
Third, the product quality comparison does erating variable on the relationship between
not act as a moderating variable in the relation- consumer ethnocentrism and consumers’ will-
ship between consumer animosity and consum- ingness to purchase resulted in significant t val-
ers’ buying interest. Although consumers in ue for both groups (t –value for Group 1 = 2.03,
Greater Jakarta are faced with the reality of bet- and the t- value for Group 2 = 2.24 both have
ter-quality products from Malaysia, but the ani- p-value <0,05). Using the same rule of thumb
mosity towards Malaysia will make consumers as the one used for testing hypothesis 4A, it
keep buying local products than imported prod- can be concluded that hypothesis 4B was not
ucts from Malaysia.
supported by data and thus rejected. Shoham et Fourth. This research also shows that the al. (2006) and Huang et.al (2010) also found
products quality comparison does not moder- the same conclusion with this study, in which
ate the relationship between consumer ethno- Product Quality Comparison does not play as
centrism and consumers’ buying interest. This
a moderating variable on the the influence of means that although consumers in Greater Ja- Consumer Ethnocentrism towards consumers’
karta are faced with the reality of better-quality Willingness to Purchase. Consumer ethnocen-
products made in Malaysia, they will still keep trism reflect consumers conviction regarding
choosing local products as the ethnocentrism ethicality and appropriateness of consuming
plays significant role in buying decision. imported products (Shimp dan Sharma, 1987 in
Huang et al., 2008). As the consequences, In-
Research Limitations and Direction for Fur-
donesian consumers with a high ethnocentrism
ther Research
perceived that a real Indonesian citizen should only consume local products although imported
This study had certain limitations, and thus products are more sophisticated and more reli-
the following suggestions are proposed. First, able.
since the effects caused by consumer ethnocen- trism is quite complex, therefore besides look-
Conclusion
ing at consumer ethnocentrism, this stream of research can consider the use of other variables
Based on the results of this study, there are such as nationalism and patriotism, which prob- four points need to be considered. First, Con-
ably have impact on consumer animosity. This sumer ethnocentrism is a significant mediator
is because nationalism is considered more com- on the relationship between consumer animos-
petitive and aggressive (Druckman , 1994 in ity and consumers’ buying interest. In current
Balabanis , 2001).
study context (products from Indonesia vs. Second, Research related to Country of Ori- Malaysia), animosity of Indonesian consum-
gin (COO) is generally associated with eco- ers will increase their ethnocentrism. This will
nomic growth and how consumers have the cause Indonesian consumers to develop percep-
ability to reach and access imported products. tion that as Indonesian, they should buy Indo-
Further research can make comparison between nesian products. This will lead them to avoid
consumers living in developed cities (i.e. those purchasing products from Malaysia.
with high income and ease of access to get im-
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June 2014 - Vol.VI - No. 1 11 June 2014 - Vol.VI - No. 1 11
of respondents. In the future, research where access to get imported products).
respondents are divided into groups should aim Third, during the data processing stage, re-
to get sufficient number of respondents so that spondents needed to be divided into two groups.
eliminating some items can be avoided and a This study faced a problem whereby some
more accurate result can be obtained. items used to measure the research construct
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