Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue6.1998:

Best practices in information technology (IT)
management: insights from K-12 schools’ technology
audits
Steve O. M ichael
Asso c iate pro fe sso r o f e duc atio nal manage me nt and dire c to r o f the do c to ral
pro gram in highe r e duc atio n administratio n at Ke nt State Unive rsity, Ohio , USA

Information regarding best
practices of information
technology (IT) management
in K-12 schools provides
school leaders with a basis
for developing their own IT
systems or evaluating their
existing systems. Important
as this information is, limited
literature coverage exists on
this topic. Over 100 technology audits conducted by
graduate students in school
organizations in north-east
Ohio in the United States have

yielded insights of best practices that school leaders
should fi nd useful. The
insights discussed in this
article include attention to
the access rate of users,
leadership promise, technology planning, staff development, technical support,
strategic hardware and software procurement, the technology budget, and an
expanded view of infrastructural facilities. The article
concludes with recommendations to school leaders who
are interested in taking their
IT practices to another level
of excellence.

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [ 1998] 2 7 7 –2 8 8
© MCB Unive rsity Pre ss
[ ISSN 0951-354X]

Introduction

Th e Rt. Hon . Ton y Bla ir MP (Bla ir, 1996)
obser ved th a t:
E du ca tion is a bou t investin g in ou r fu tu r e;
a n d it is in th e m a r r ia ge of edu ca tion a n d
tech n ology th a t th e fu tu r e lies for Br ita in .
You n g people n ow in sch ool w ill em er ge in to
a wor ld dom in a ted by in for m a tion a n d com m u n ica tion tech n ology. Th e developm en ts in
th ese fields a r e ph en om en a l: th e In ter n et,
a lm ost u n h ea r d of on ly two yea r s a go n ow
h a s a n estim a ted 70 m illion u ser s wor ldw ide; w ith over 7 m illion P Cs in bu sin esses
in Br ita in , bein g a ble to u se a com pu ter a t
wor k is a lr ea dy a s im por ta n t a s bein g a ble to
r ea d a n d w r ite (p. 1).

Th e in cr ea sin g in te gr a tion of tech n ology a n d
edu ca tion is ph en om en a l a n d offer s m u ch
pr om ise n ot on ly to Br ita in , bu t to th e US a n d
oth er developed a n d developin g n a tion s. In th e
US, P r esiden t Clin ton (1996) r em a r ked th a t:
Tech n ology is clea r ly tr a n sfor m in g ou r

wor ld, a n d it is cr ea tin g a r a n ge of possibilities for th e you n g people beh in d m e a n d th e
you n g people in th is a u dien ce th at a r e liter a lly u n im a gin a ble. Ma n y of you people wh o
a r e [u n iver sity] stu den ts…. a n d th e you n ger
stu den ts fr om h igh sch ools a n d th e m iddle
sch ools a n d th e elem en ta r y sch ools, you w ill
be doin g wor k th a t h a s n ot been inven ted yet.
Som e of you w ill be doin g th in gs th at h ave
n ot even been im a gin ed yet. An d it is u p to u s
to see th a t ever y on e of you h a s th e best possible ch a n ce to develop you r ta len ts a n d to
live ou t you r dr ea m s…
Wh a t does th is m ea n , h ook in g u p ever y
cla ssr oom ? It m ea n s if you h ave th e r igh t
com pu ter s a n d th e r igh t edu ca tion equ ipm en t, softw a r e, th e r igh t edu ca tion a l soft-

w a r e a n d pr oper ly tr a in ed tea ch er s, a n d
th en a ll of th ese con n ection s a r e m a de to
th e In ter n et a n d th e Wor ld Wide Web a n d
a ll of th e oth er n etwor k s th a t w ill be
explodin g ou t th er e, th in k wh a t th is
m ea n s. Th is m ea n s for th e fir st tim e ever

in h istor y, ch ildr en in th e m ost r u r a l
sch ools, ch ildr en in th e poor est in n er -city
sch ool distr icts, ch ildr en in sta n da r d,
m iddle-cla ss com m u n ities, ch ildr en in th e
wea lth iest sch ools, pu blic or pr iva te, u p
a n d dow n th e lin e, w ill h ave a ccess in r ea l
tim e to th e sa m e u n lim ited stor e of in for m a tion . It w ill r evolu tion ize a n d dem ocr a tize edu ca tion in a w ay th a t n oth in g ever

h a s in th e h istor y of th is cou n tr y. Th in k
a bou t wh a t it m ea n s.
In deed, in th e m in ds of n a tion a l lea der s, th e
poten tia ls a n d pr om ise of tech n ology to th eir
edu ca tion a l effor ts a r e en or m ou s.
Con sequ en tly, m a n y of th ese lea der s a r e m a k in g sign ifica n t investm en t in in for m a tion
tech n ology (IT). Accor din g to US Gover n m en t
pa per s, over $26 billion w a s obliga ted for in for m a tion tech n ology in 1996 a n d “th is IT spen d in g r epr esen ts a cr itica l in vestm en t of pu blic
ta x dolla r s a ffectin g vir tu a lly ever y gover n m en t fu n ction ” (h ttp/ / :w w w.wh iteh ou se.gov/
WH/ E OP / OMB/ in fotech / in fotech ). In 1995,
th e sta te of Ca lifor n ia a lon e a lloca ted over
$250 m illion to “sch ools on a on e-tim e ba ses to

pu r ch a se su ch item s a s com pu ter s…” (See:
w w w.fw l.or g/ tech policy/ legu pa u g.h tm l). Yet,
Detw iler Fou n da tion (1997) r em a r ked th a t:
Ca lifor n ia cu r r en tly r a n k s 50th in th e n ation
in th e r a tio of stu den ts-to-com pu ter s. Stu den ts in Ca lifor n ia get less com pu ter exposu r e in sch ool th a n stu den ts a n ywh er e else
in th e n a tion ! On aver a ge, com pu ter s in
elem en ta r y sch ools a r e older th a n th e stu den ts. Less th a n h a lf (48% ) of th e com pu ter s
cu r r en tly bein g u sed in sch ools h ave h a r d
dr ives. Sch ools aver a ge 39 stu den ts for ever y
com pu ter w ith a h a r d dr ive.

However, th e r ea liza tion of th ese poten tia ls
a n d pr om ise in sch ools depen ds m u ch on
a ch ievin g a ppr opr ia te or ga n iza tion a l ch a n ge
a n d str a tegic lea der sh ip th a t w ill en su r e IT
effectiven ess in sch ools.
Bu t im plem en tin g IT in sch ools is lik e n aviga tin g in u n ch a r ted w a ter s. Few, if a n y, of th e
cu r r en t top sch ool lea der s h a d com pu ter
tr a in in g du r in g th eir gr a du a te edu ca tion . Few
of today’s sch ool lea der s h ave a ccess to sch ola r ly liter a tu r e th a t a ddr esses th e lea der sh ip

dim en sion of IT in sch ools. Most of th e w r iter s
on IT in sch ools h ave focu sed pr im a r ily on
in tegr a tion of com pu ter s to cla ssr oom
in str u ction . Con sequ en tly, lea der s h ave few
option s or m odels to gu ide th eir IT in itia tives.
Th e pu r pose of th is a r ticle, th er efor e, is to
pr esen t a m odel of best pr a ctices th a t ca n be
u sefu l to sch ool m a n a gem en t/ a dm in istr a tion
in eith er developin g a n d im plem en tin g a n IT
pla n or eva lu a tin g a n existin g IT pla n . Th e
cen tr a l goa l of th is a r ticle is to h elp sch ool
lea der s wh o a r e in ter ested in a n swer in g th is

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Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy (IT) manage me nt:
insights fro m K-1 2 sc ho o ls’
te c hno lo gy audits

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

im por ta n t qu estion : “So h ow is m y sch ool
or ga n iza tion doin g w ith r ega r ds to IT im plem en ta tion ?”. In a n in cr ea sin gly com petitive
envir on m en t, sch ool lea der s m u st be con cer n ed a bou t h ow IT is bein g u tilized in th eir
sch ools a s com pa r ed w ith oth er sch ools a n d,
m or e im por ta n tly, a s com pa r ed w ith in sigh ts
of IT best pr a ctices in th e sch ool sector.

Background information
Th e sea r ch for best pr a ctices is n ot lim ited to
IT in sch ools. Alm ost ever y field of stu dy a n d
ever y pr ofession h a s som e for m of pr in ciples
of best pr a ctices. Th e Cen ter for Adva n ced
P u r ch a sin g Stu dies (CAP S), for exa m ple,
defin ed best pr a ctices for th eir field a s “th e
iden tifica tion of policies, pr ocedu r es, a n d
pr ogr a m s, r efer r ed to a s th e cr itica l su ccess

fa ctor s, th a t top per for m er s a r e u sin g th a t
lea d to su per ior per for m a n ce” (Ca ps, 1997).
Th e bu sin ess sector u su a lly iden tifies top
per for m in g com pa n ies (w ith cr iter ia r a n gin g
fr om level of pr ofita bility, r ela tive gr ow th to
position w ith in th e in du str y) a n d str a tegies
fou n d com m on a m on g th ese com pa n ies h ave
typica lly pr ovided a fr a m ewor k for developin g
in sigh ts a bou t best pr a ctices.
Sever a l Web sites h ave been developed to
pr ovide in for m a tion r ega r din g best pr a ctices
in edu ca tion . For exa m ple, Dr u m m on d’s Web
site pr ovides best pr a ctices in colle ge tea ch in g
(see: w w w.n sccu x.scc.ctc.edu ~ ecepr og/ bstpr a c.h tm l). Sim ila r ly, Ch icker in g a n d Ga m son ’s Web site pr ovides seven pr in ciples for
good pr a ctice in u n der gr a du a te edu ca tion
(see: w w w.h cc.h aw a ii.edu / h ccin fo/ fa cdev/
7_pr in ciples.h tm l).
Som e w r iter s h ave a r gu ed a ga in st th e
n otion of best pr a ctices beca u se th ese pr a ctices a r e often con ceived to offer a pr escr iption or pr eten sion of u ltim a te excellen ce a n d
to th e exten t th a t th e envir on m en t is ch a n gin g

a s well a s h u m a n k n ow ledge, a ttem pts to offer
th e fin a l wor ds on best pr a ctices sh ou ld be
viewed a s du biou s. For exa m ple, in a n a r ticle
en titled “Th e m yth of best pr a ctices,” Str a ssm a n n (1995) con clu ded th a t:
E xcellen t com pa n ies ca n a ch ieve su per ior
per for m a n ce w ith ou t follow in g a n y sta n da r d
in for m a tion tech n ology spen din g pa tter n . I
ba se th is con clu sion on m y a n a lysis of th e
bu dgets of Com pu ter wor ld’s P r em ier 100
com pa n ies over a two-yea r per iod. Th ese a r e
or ga n iza tion s wh ose in for m a tion pr odu ctivity is su per ior to oth er US cor por a tion s. (p. 1)

However, th er e is over wh elm in g in for m a tion
to su ppor t ba sic pr in ciples of pr a ctices com m on w ith h igh per for m in g or ga n iza tion s in
spite of differ en ces in th eir ta ctica l
a ppr oa ch es. Accor din g to th e US Gover n m en t,
“th er e a r e som e over a ll or ga n iza tion a l a ttr ibu tes th a t a r e cr itica l to su ccessfu l in vestm en t
eva lu a tion . Th ese sh a r ed, cr itica l a ttr ibu tes

[ 278 ]

a r e: sen ior m a n a gem en t a tten tion , over a ll
m ission focu s, a n d a com pr eh en sive por tfolio
a ppr oa ch to IT investm en t (1998, p. 3). Ash field
Sch ools (1994, p. 5) in th e UK descr ibe th eir
n a tion a l objectives for IT in sch ools:
(1) lea r n in g a ctivities m a ke effective u se of
th e m ost u p-to-date tech n ology; (2) th e sch ool
cu r r icu lu m r eflects th e u se of IT ou tside
sch ool, ta kes a ccou n t of th e developin g IT
ca pa bility of pu pils, ta kes a dva n ta ge of in for m a tion r esou r ces m a de ava ila ble by IT; (3)
sch ool m a n a ger s a n d gover n or s fu lly u n der sta n d th e im plication s of th e exten sive a n d
ch a n gin g u se of IT in th e cu r r icu lu m ; (4) a ll
tea ch er s k n ow h ow IT m ay be u sed to
im pr ove lea r n in g; (5) a ll tea ch er s a r e ca pa ble
of u sin g IT r esou r ces a n d a pplyin g th em
effectively; (6) a ll pa r en ts r ecogn ize th e edu ca tion a l ben efits of IT; (7) a ll sch ools a r e wellr esou r ced a n d a ble to give th eir pu pils a n d
tea ch er s a ppr opr ia te a n d a dequ a te a ccess to
IT; (8) a ccess to IT is a dequ ate to m a ke possible lea r n in g ou tside sch ool for ever yon e a n d
en a ble su ch lea r n in g for m a lly to be r ecogn ized wh en ever a ppr opr ia te; (9) sch ool m a n a gem en t u ses IT efficien tly a n d effectively

for a dm in istr a tion ; a n d (10) a ll sch ools r egu la r ly eva lu a te th e im pa ct of IT on sta n da r ds,
th e qu a lity of lea r n in g a n d th e qu a lity of
tea ch in g. (p.5)

In deed, th ese in sigh tfu l objectives cou ld on ly
h ave been der ived fr om a good u n der sta n din g
of th e n a tu r e of tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a n d th e
a ppr opr ia te IT pr a ctices in sch ools.

Methodological approach
Th er e a r e, per h a ps, m a n y w ays of a r r ivin g a t
th e pr in ciples of best pr a ctices. As m en tion ed
ea r lier, th e com m on est a ppr oa ch in th e bu sin ess sector is to iden tify th e m ost su ccessfu l
or top per for m in g or ga n iza tion s w ith in a
pa r ticu la r in du str y a n d a ttem pt to iden tify
pr in ciples of oper a tion th a t a r e com m on to
th ese or ga n iza tion s. However, th is a ppr oa ch is
u n su ita ble for IT in sch ools beca u se m ost
sch ools a r e still a t th e exper im en ta l sta ge w ith
th eir IT im plem en ta tion a n d a lso beca u se of
th e r a pid ch a n ges ta k in g pla ce w ith in th e IT
in du str y itself. A m or e a ppr opr ia te a ppr oa ch
(a n in dir ect a ppr oa ch ) u sed for th is pr oject
exa m in ed IT im plem en ta tion str a tegies in
va r iou s sch ool or ga n iza tion s w ith th e sole
pu r pose of der ivin g in sigh ts of best pr a ctices.
As pa r t of th e r equ ir em en ts of a gr a du a te
cla ss in m icr ocom pu ter s for sch ool a dm in istr a tor s, over 100 gr a du a te stu den ts h a d
pa r ticipa ted in tr a in in g (u n der th e a u th or of
th is a r ticle) th a t en a bled th e stu den ts to con du ct IT a u dits in sch ool or ga n iza tion s, a n a lyze da ta collected, a n d pr ovide in dividu a lized
r epor ts on th e fin din gs. Th e da ta collection
involved dir ect obser va tion (in clu din g
a ctu a l inven tor y of h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy (IT) manage me nt:
insights fro m K-1 2 sc ho o ls’
te c hno lo gy audits
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

pa ck a ges); in ter view s of stu den ts, tea ch er s,
a n d a dm in istr a tor s; a n d docu m en t a n a lysis.
Th e pu r pose of th e exer cise for th ese gr a du a te
stu den ts w a s to investiga te th e sta tu s of IT
im plem en ta tion in th e sch ool or ga n iza tion .
After sever a l m on th s of developin g ba sic
sk ills, exa m in in g IT fi n a n cia l issu es,
discu ssin g IT lea der sh ip involvem en t, a n d
a n a lyzin g va r iou s IT pla n s, stu den ts a r e gen er a lly equ ipped to develop a r esea r ch
a ppr oa ch in or der to a n swer qu estion s r ega r din g th e exten t to wh ich a pa r ticu la r or ga n iza tion or u n it h a s efficien tly a n d effectively
im plem en ted IT. In a n swer in g th is qu estion ,
stu den ts a r e r equ ir ed to con du ct a com pr eh en sive a u dit of a sch ool or sch ool distr icts, a n
edu ca tion a l or ga n iza tion , a colle ge, or a u n it
w ith in a u n iver sity a n d pr ovide a r esea r ch
r epor t on th eir fin din gs. F r om th e da ta collected on th is exer cise, on e is a ble to develop
in sigh ts of IT best pr a ctices in sch ool or ga n iza tion s.
As ca n be expected, stu den ts’ fi n din gs often
va r y in soph istica tion a n d u sefu ln ess ba sed
on th eir ow n r esea r ch sk ills a n d m otiva tion ,
cooper a tion fr om th e or ga n iza tion u n der
investiga tion , a n d stu den ts’ k n ow ledge of IT
in sch ools. However, a fter ca r efu lly a n a lyzin g
h u n dr eds of pa ges of r esea r ch r epor ts fr om
over 100 gr a du a te stu den ts, it is possible for
m e, a s th eir pr ofessor, to glea n fr om th ese
m a ter ia ls in for m a tion r ega r din g IT best pr a ctices for sch ool m a n a gem en t. Th is in for m a tion for m s th e ba sis of th is a r ticle.

Model of best practices
Ta ble I pr ovides a su m m a r y of elem en ts
glea n ed fr om stu dyin g IT pr a ctices in sch ool
distr icts w ith in th e n or th -ea st of Oh io, USA.
Th ese elem en ts a r e defin ed a n d cr iter ia for
m ea su r in g th eir a ch ievem en t a r e a lso pr ovided.

Access rate
Access to IT is per h a ps th e m ost fu n da m en ta l
of a ll IT goa ls. Tr a dition a lly, a ccess is viewed
a s sim ply th e r a tio of com pu ter s to u ser s bu t,
a s in dica ted in th is m odel, a ccess is best
defin ed a s th e exten t to wh ich u ser s a r e a ble to
lay h a n ds on fu n ction in g h a r dw a r e wh en
n eeded. Th e m er e pr esen ce of com pu ter
h a r dw a r e does n ot a u tom a tica lly r esu lt in
a ccess; h en ce, th e n eed to iden tify th e pr oblem s a ssocia ted w ith a ccess.
Th e cr iter ia u sed to deter m in e a ccess r a te,
of cou r se, in clu de th e r a tio of com pu ter s to
u ser s. A h igh r a tio of com pu ter h a r dw a r e to
u ser s wou ld su ggest h igh a ccessibility. For
exa m ple, a ccessibility ou gh t to be h igh er a t a

sch ool w ith 10:1 pu pils to com pu ter r a tio th a n
a sch ool w ith 30:1. On e m ay be tem pted to
view a r a tio of 1:1 pu pil to com pu ter a s th e
idea l scen a r io, bu t a s lon g a s th er e a r e
n on -com pu ter -r ela ted edu ca tion a l a ctivities in
sch ools, sch ools’ n eeds for com pu ter s do n ot
w a r r a n t th is level of investm en t. In deed, over com pu ter iza tion (th e level a t wh ich com pu ter s lay idle, wh er eby su pply ou tweigh s
dem a n d) is a n in efficien t investm en t pr a ctice.
Th e secon d cr iter ion in volves th e r a tio of
ou tpu t devices to in pu t devices. Wh er ea s
ever y com pu ter m ay n ot h ave its ow n pr in ter,
a dequ a te ou tpu t devices sh ou ld be ava ila ble to
su ppor t th e volu m e of ou tpu t jobs r equ ir ed by
u ser s. La stly, a ccessibility m u st be defin ed to
in clu de th e loca tion of th e h a r dw a r e for a ll
u ser s. Con sequ en tly, th e exten t to wh ich th e
loca tion is a ccessible to h a n dica pped u ser s,
pa r t-tim e, fu ll-tim e, you n g a n d old stu den ts
m u st be ta k en in to con sider a tion in deter m in in g th e a ccess r a te for a pa r ticu la r sch ool
or ga n iza tion . Access r a te, th er efor e, ca n on ly
be m ea su r ed by th e n u m ber of u ser s, th e ch a r a cter istics of th ese u ser s, a n d th e n u m ber a n d
a ppr opr ia ten ess of th e com pu ter h a r dw a r e
sets ava ila ble. Th er efor e, it is a dvisa ble for
a ccess to be defi n ed fr om th e poin t of view of
u ser s r a th er th a n th a t of th e ser vice
pr ovider s. F igu r e 1 descr ibes h ypoth etica l
a ccess r a tios over a per iod of 10 yea r s for a
sch ool th a t is m a k in g tr u e pr ogr ess in in cr ea sin g a ccess r a te.
Th e idea l pr a ctice wou ld be to gr a ph (a ccessgr a m ) th e r a tio of pu pils to com pu ter a n n u a lly.
With th is pr a ctice, sch ool lea der s wou ld be
a ble to detect th eir sch ool’s IT a ccess tr en d
a n d pr ogr ess. Th e essen ce of th ese sta tistics is
to obser ve im pr ovem en t in a ccess r a te over
tim e. An idea l IT pr a ctice wou ld be to con tin u e to r ecor d a declin in g n u m ber of pr oblem s (a s per ceived by u ser s th em selves) in
u ser s’ effor t to a ccess com pu ter ser vices. E a ch
segm en t of th e u ser s (pa r t-tim e, fu ll-tim e,
a du lts, etc.) sh ou ld h ave its ow n a ccessgr a m .

IT leadership promise
Lea der sh ip pr om ise is per h a ps th e lea st
em ph a sized of a ll th e elem en ts of IT best pr a ctices. Un der sta n da bly, for la ck of tech n ica l
k n ow ledge, sch ool lea der s often sh y aw ay
fr om pr ovidin g th e n ecessa r y IT lea der sh ip
a n d th er eby for ce th e tech n ica l per son n el to
a ssu m e IT lea der sh ip w ith ou t th e n ecessa r y
a dm in istr a tive power s. However, th e m ost
pr om isin g pr a ctice r equ ir es a n effective IT
lea der sh ip th a t is n ot lim ited to th e tech n ica l
people bu t th a t em a n a tes fr om a n d em br a ces
th e sch ool lea der s th em selves.

[ 279 ]

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy (IT) manage me nt:
insights fro m K-1 2 sc ho o ls’
te c hno lo gy audits
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

Table I
A mo de l o f IT be st prac tic e s in K-1 2 sc ho o ls
Factors

Definition

M easurable indicators

Access rate

The extent to whic h users
enc ounter problems in laying
hands on func tioning hardware
The extent to whic h there
is a c lear visible leadership
driving tec hnologic al initiatives

– Ratio of c omputers to users
– Ratio of printers to c omputers
– Ac c essibility of c omputer loc ations to users
– Level of leadership c omputer literac y
– Level of leadership advoc ac y
– Effec tive use of tec hnology c ommittees
– Effec tive administrative struc ture and authority
– Comprehensiveness of the plan
– Collaboration in planning development
– Continuity of the planning c yc le
– Commitment to the plan
– Personalized staff development plan
– Inc entive assoc iated with staff development
– Continuous staff development opportunities
– The waiting time
– The servic e quality
– The maintenanc e plan
– The effec tiveness of proc urement plan
– The c ompatibility of hardware and software
– The effec tiveness of system with instruc tional goals
– The c ompatibility of system with admin system
– The effec tiveness of a replac ement plan
– Availability of disc arding plan
– The ratio of tec hnology budget to the total budget
– The ratio of soft money to hard money
– The budget philosophy in use
– Appropriateness of room c onditions
– Appropriateness of furniture
– Appropriateness of temperature
– Appropriateness of lighting fac ilities
– Availability of c omprehensive polic y
– Appropriateness of furniture
– Effec tive c ommunic ation of polic y
– Constant review of polic y and its effec ts

Leadership potential

Technology planning

Staff development

Technical support

The extent to whic h tec hnologic al
ac tivities and initiatives are
driven by a proac tive, systematic
plan
The extent to whic h staff
development stays ahead of
tec hnologic al innovations utilization
The extent to whic h help
is available

Hardware and
software

The extent to whic h
the most appropriate
tec hnology is in use

Technology budget

The extent to whic h financ ial
resourc es are available to meet
tec hnologic al goals
The extent to whic h nontec hnology related fac ilities
are available to support effec tive
utilization
The extent to whic h the
establishment has formulated
polic ies and proc edures to
promote, regulate and c ontrol
the use of tec hnology

Infrastructural
facilities

Technology policy
and procedure

For th is pu r pose, lea der sh ip pr om ise, a s a n
elem en t of best pr a ctices, is defin ed a s th e
exten t to wh ich th er e is a clea r visible
lea der sh ip dr ivin g tech n ologica l in itia tives
w ith in th e sch ool system . Hith er to, in m a n y
sch ools, IT h a s evolved h a ph a za r dly in th e
a bsen ce of a pr oa ctive a n d in te gr a tive lea der sh ip.
IT lea der sh ip pr om ise ca n be a ssessed
th r ou gh fou r m ea su r a ble cr iter ia . F ir st, th e
exten t to wh ich lea der s a r e com pu ter liter a te
is fu n da m en ta l to th eir IT lea der sh ip. Tech n ology h a s becom e a n in te gr a l pa r t of sch ool
oper a tion a n d m a n a gem en t a n d, fr om a ll
in dica tion s, tech n ology w ill con tin u e to play
a gr ea ter r ole in tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g in th e
21st cen tu r y. Con sequ en tly, com pu ter illiter a cy a m on g cu r r en t a n d fu tu r e sch ool lea der s
is a ser iou s der eliction of r espon sibility.
In for m ed sch ool lea der s u n der sta n d sim ple
com pu ter con cepts a n d ter m in ologies a n d,

[ 280 ]

wh ile th ey n eed n ot be tech n icia n s, th ey ca n
discu ss in telligen tly w ith th eir tech n icia n s
on a ll IT in itia tives. In som e of th e lea din g
sch ools wh er e th e IT a u dit w a s con du cted,
sch ool pr in cipa ls a n d cen tr a l a dm in istr a tion
per son n el in clu din g th e su per in ten den ts
h ave a dopted th e pr a ctice of a tten din g sem in a r s a n d con fer en ces r ela tin g to IT in sch ools
on a r e gu la r ba sis.
Apa r t fr om bein g com pu ter liter a te, lea der sh ip ca n a lso be m ea su r ed in ter m s of th e
level of a dvoca cy for fu ll u tiliza tion of IT.
Mor e often th a n n ot, tea ch er s a n d sta ff la g
beh in d com pu ter developm en t a n d w ith ou t a
clea r a u dible a dvoca cy fr om th e lea der s,
ch a n ge in sch ools ca n be a ver y slow pr ocess.
Advoca cy is r eflected in lea der sh ip com m itm en t to IT im plem en ta tion . In on e of th e
in ter view s a su per in ten den t, wh o w a s h igh ly
pr a ised by h is tea ch er s a s a gr ea t a dvoca te of
tech n ology, com m en ted th a t:

it is difficu lt to h ave a n effective IT im plem en ted w ith ou t th e lea der s ta lk in g th e ta lk s
a n d w a lk in g th eir ta lk s. I spea k of n ew in n ova tion s a ll th e tim e a n d en cou r a ge tea ch er s
to fin d n ew w ays of u tilizin g IT in th eir a ctivities. To be a n a dvoca te is to sell th e idea of IT
to sta ff, tea ch er s, com m u n ity a n d I th in k we
n eed th is to stay a h ea d of th e ga m e.

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
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In a ddition , effective IT sch ools u se tech n ology com m ittees effectively. In on e of th e
sch ools investiga ted, a com m ittee of ten tea ch er s, a dm in istr a tor s, sta ff, stu den ts, a n d pa r en t
r epr esen ta tives pr ovide a n a dvisor y r ole to
th e sch ool lea der s on m a tter s r ela tin g to IT.
Th e a dva n ta ges of a tech n ology com m ittee a r e
m a n y. E a ch m em ber of th e com m ittee pr ovides a n a ddition a l a dvoca cy r ole a n d in for m a tion r ega r din g r esou r ces su ch a s gr a n ts
th a t m ay fu r th er h elp IT m a n a gem en t in th e
sch ool.
Apa r t fr om th e u se of tech n ology com m ittees, effective sch ools h ave per son n el w ith th e
sole r espon sibility of over seein g IT m a n a gem en t. Su ch per son n el a r e gen er a lly sen ior
a dm in istr a tor s for th eir sch ool distr icts. It is
a dvisa ble th a t th e ch ief in for m a tion officer for
Figure 1
Ratio o f stude nts to mic ro c o mpute rs in Ame ric an K-1 2 sc ho o ls
1 2 5 :1

5 0 :1

2 0 :1

1 1 :1
6 :1

1984* *

1986*

IT planning
In m a n y sch ools, IT a ctivities a r e disjoin ted
a n d u n coor din a ted. Activities occu r a s in dividu a ls a r e m otiva ted to in itia te th em a n d to
th e exten t th a t gr a n t r esou r ces becom e ava ila ble to ca r r y ou t th ese a ctivities.
Con sequ en tly, a n effective pla n n in g
a ppr oa ch is often la ck in g a n d wh er e pla n n in g
is don e a t a ll, little a tten tion is pa id to in sigh ts
fr om th e liter a tu r e. P iccia n o (1998, p. 9)
a ck n ow ledged th a t “th e m a jor im pedim en t to
esta blish in g su ccessfu l com pu ter -ba sed a pplica tion s in sch ools n ow is th e la ck of ca r efu l
pla n n in g”. Sim ila r ly, Ma ddu x et al. (1992)
r epor ted th a t th e pr ocess of in te gr a tin g tech n ology in sch ool h a s been poor ly pla n n ed a n d
ch a otic. Com m en tin g a bou t h igh er edu ca tion
in stitu tion s wh ich a r e n ot u n lik e sch ool or ga n iza tion s in th is r ega r d, Ca r tw r igh t (1996,
p. 57) n oted th a t:
Of cou r se, m ost in stitu tion s pr ide th em selves on pla n n in g for th e fu tu r e. After a ll,
we tr y to for eca st wh a t stu den ts w ill n eed to
k n ow five to 25 yea r s in th e fu tu r e. We bega n
pla n n in g for tech n ology wh en com pu ter s
beca m e im por ta n t to a dm in istr a tive a spects
of r u n n in g a college or u n iver sity. In m ost
ca ses, th ou gh , th a t ea r ly tech n ology pla n n in g w a s idiosyn cr a tic, h a d a sh or t tim e
h or izon , a n d w a s ca r r ied ou t in r ela tively
u n ila ter a l ter m s by discr ete u n its. (p. 57)

6 3 :1

1983*

a sch ool distr ict r epor ts dir ectly to th e sch ool
su per in ten den t a n d to th e sch ool boa r d. Th e
CIO, a lon g w ith th e tech n ology com m ittee a n d
th e su per in ten den t, pr ovides th e n ecessa r y
lea der sh ip for IT m a n a gem en t in effective
sch ools. Wh ile th e sch ool su per in ten den t
pr ovides th e execu tive lea der sh ip, th e CIO
pr ovides th e tech n ica l lea der sh ip, a n d th e
tech n ology com m ittee pr ovides th e politica l
lea der sh ip to IT m a n a gem en t w ith in th e
sch ool distr ict.

1990*

1993* *

2 0 0 0 * (pro je c te d)

* Source: Pic c iano (1 9 9 4 )
* * Source: Educ atio nal Statistic s Abstrac t

Note: 1 . While pro gre ssive , pro ac tive sc ho o l le ade rs wo uld c o ntinue to mo nito r
the ratio s o f c o mpute rs to pupils in the ir sc ho o ls and c o mpare the se
statistic s with the natio nal tre nd, the mo st use ful info rmatio n is the
e xte nt to whic h the supply o f te c hno lo gy in a sc ho o l me e ts the de mand
fo r the te c hno lo gy.
2 . De mand fo r te c hno lo gy in a partic ular sc ho o l sho uld be mo nito re d and
de fine d in re latio n to the c urre nt state -o f-the -art use o f te c hno lo gy in
sc ho o ls. The re fo re , ac c e ss rate must be de fine d bo th quantitative ly and
qualitative ly

Th e a u th or wen t fu r th er to iden tify types of
pla n n in g th a t ch a r a cter ize IT m a n a gem en t in
m a n y edu ca tion a l in stitu tion s. For exa m ple,
th e “en d-of-th e-yea r scr a m ble” is h a r dly a
pr oa ctive a ppr oa ch bu t m a n y sch ools fin d
th em selves in a fr en zy to spen d th e bu dget leftover on h a r dw a r e a cqu isition tow a r d th e en d
of th e sch ool yea r. Also, a ccor din g to
Ca r tw r igh t (1996), a “n eo-pa sse ch a os” or “th e
m oder n -day ostr ich ia n a ppr oa ch ” is a lso n ot a
pr oa ctive pla n n in g str a tegy sin ce IT in itia tives a r e left in th e h a n ds of wh oever is in ter ested. Th e a u th or obser ved th a t “wh en depa r tm en ta l tech n ology r esou r ces a n d dir ection s
a r e en tir ely depen den t u pon th e wh im s of
th eir u n fetter ed, idiosyn cr a tic tech n ology
gu r u s, it is n ot u n com m on th a t depa r tm en ts
soon fin d th eir tech n ology ou t of da te a n d

[ 281 ]

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
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te c hno lo gy audits
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

[ 282 ]

a dr ift fr om th e m a in str ea m ” (Ca r tw r igh t,
1996, p. 58). A “fa th er k n ow s best” is a pla n n in g a ppr oa ch left com pletely in th e h a n ds of
th e h ea d com pu ter a dm in istr a tor s or th e CIOs
(Ca r tw r igh t, 1996). Wh ile th is a ppr oa ch h a s
som e a dva n ta ges (for exa m ple, th e tech n ica l
people a r e com peten t in decidin g th e com pa tibility of n ew h a r dw a r e a cqu isition s), in n ova tion s poor ly u n der stood wou ld on ly be lu k ew a r m ly a dopted by th e sch ool com m u n ity.
Ca r tw r igh t (1996, p. 58) a lso n oted a n oth er
pla n n in g a ppr oa ch , th e “Pollya n n a /
P h illipa n n a u topia ”, in wh ich “a ll oth er in stitu tion a l a ctivities a r e pu t on h old for sever a l
week s ea ch yea r wh ile in dividu a l depa r tm en ts, colleges, division s, a n d oth er u n its
en ga ge in colla bor a tive con sen su s developm en t”. As m en tion ed by th is a u th or, “th is
joyfu l com bin a tion of bottom -u p a n d top-dow n
str a tegies a ccom pa n ied w ith tw ice w eek ly
br ea k fa st a n d lu ch m eetin gs yields con sisten t
r esu lts: a lon g ter m pla n w ith a n n u a l bu dgets;
a n oth er pla n n in g office; a n d a n aver a ge 7pou n d weigh t ga in for ea ch of th e pa r ticipa n ts” (Ca r tw r igh t, 1996, p. 58).
However, effective sch ools a r e str ivin g to
lea r n th e lesson s a n d ben efi ts of good IT pla n n in g. IT pla n n in g a s a n elem en t of best pr a ctices in sch ools is defin ed a s th e exten t to
wh ich tech n ica l a ctivities a n d in itia tives a r e
dr iven by a pr oa ctive, system a tic pla n . Ra th er
th a n depen din g on h a ppen sta n ce, effective
sch ools a r e pr oa ctive in in itia tin g IT pla n s
th a t w ill be r eleva n t to th e fu tu r e n eeds of
stu den ts, tea ch er s, a n d th e en tir e sch ool com m u n ity.
P iccia n o (1998) iden tifi ed fou r cr iter ia of
best pr a ctices in IT pla n n in g, wh ich a r e ch a r a cter istics of IT best pr a ctices in sch ools.
F ir st, effective IT pla n n in g is com pr eh en sive,
cover in g a ll th e essen tia l elem en ts of in for m a tion tech n ology. A com pr eh en sive IT pla n
iden tifies IT goa ls, lin k s goa ls to r esou r ces a n d
bu dgets, exa m in es possible im plem en ta tion
pr oblem s, a n d develops str a tegies to en h a n ce
IT m a n a gem en t in th e sch ool. In deed, a com pr eh en sive pla n wou ld en ta il con sider a tion of
a ll th e best pr a ctices discu ssed in th is a r ticle.
Th e secon d ch a r a cter istic of IT in effective
sch ools is colla bor a tion . IT pla n n in g in effective sch ools is bottom -u p w ith pla n n in g in for m a tion flow in g fr om th ose wh o a r e ch a r ged
w ith th e im plem en ta tion of th e pla n ; it is topdow n w ith th e blessin g of th ose wh o h ave th e
power of r esou r ce a lloca tion ; it is str a tegic in
th a t it is a lign ed w ith th e fu tu r e vision of th e
sch ool or ga n iza tion ; a n d it en joys th e su ppor t
of im por ta n t sta k e h older s. Th e IT pla n n in g
pr ocess becom es a n im por ta n t politica l tool a s
pla n n er s colla bor a te w ith differ en t segm en ts
of th e com m u n ity. On e of th e sch ools stu died
h a d a loca l libr a r ia n a n d th e ow n er of a loca l

com pu ter bu sin ess ser vin g in th e pla n n in g
com m ittee.
An oth er ch a r a cter istic of effective IT pla n n in g is con tin u ity. IT pla n n in g is a n on goin g
pr ocess in sch ools w ith best pr a ctices. In th is
w ay, sch ools a r e a ble to k eep in tou ch w ith th e
con sta n tly ch a n gin g wor ld of tech n ology a n d
con tin u e to tr a n sla te th ese ch a n ges in to va lu a ble exper ien ce for th eir sch ools. Th is is con tr a r y to th e en d-of-th e-yea r scr a m ble or th e
sh or t-tim e, on e-sh ot pla n n in g a ppr oa ch es th a t
a r e fou n d in m a n y less effective sch ools. Mon itor in g a ctivities sta r t a t th e poin t of im plem en ta tion a n d pr ovide da ta for th e n ext sta ge
of pla n n in g w ith a n ever -en din g in for m a tion
ga th er in g-deliber a tion s-im plem en ta tion m on itor in g loop.
Th e la st ch a r a cter istics a s su ggested by
P iccia n o (1994) is com m itm en t. Sch ools a r e
n otor iou s for pla n s th a t en joy lim ited su ppor t
a n d h ave little or n o com m itm en t fr om im por ta n t sta k eh older s. Com m itm en t is ea r n ed in
IT effective sch ools th r ou gh pa r ticipa tion a n d
in for m a tion sh a r in g. Pa r ticipa tion br eeds
en th u sia sm a n d en th u sia sm , on th e oth er
h a n d, pr ovides th e en er gy n eeded for effective
im plem en ta tion of IT pla n s. Th ese fou r ch a r a cter istics for m th e cor n er ston e of IT pla n n in g in sch ools wh er e best pr a ctices a r e
em br a ced.

Staf f development
Sch ools in Am er ica r equ ir e sta ff developm en t
for th eir tea ch er s a n d sta ff. However, m ost of
th e sta ff developm en t cu r r en tly ava ila ble
con cen tr a tes on cu r r icu lu m a n d peda gogica l
m a tter s. Sin ce Becker (1991) n oted th a t on ly a
sm a ll fr a ction of tea ch er s a r e m a jor com pu ter
u ser s, sch ools em br a cin g best pr a ctices in IT
m a n a gem en t h ave m a de it m a n da tor y for
th eir tea ch er s to h ave som e com pu ter exper ien ce a n d h ave m a de oppor tu n ities ava ila ble
for th ese tea ch er s to u pda te th eir com pu ter
sk ills a n d k n ow ledge.
IT best pr a ctices defin e sta ff developm en t a s
th e exten t to wh ich sta ff developm en t stays
a h ea d of tech n ologica l in n ova tion s u tiliza tion . On e of th e in ter viewees com m en ted
a bou t h er sch ool: “th e idea is to stay a h ea d if
you ca n . Wh ile “CU-See Me” (See You See Me)
in n ova tion is yet to be w idely a dopted, we
h ave a lr ea dy h a d two sem in a r s w ith a n
a ttem pt to explor e its poten tia ls for ou r
sch ools.”
Sta ff developm en t in th e sch ools w ith effective IT m a n a gem en t h ave th r ee m ea su r a ble
ch a r a cter istics. F ir st, sta ff developm en t is
per son a lized. Tea ch er s a r e en cou r a ged to
su bm it per son a l sta ff developm en t pla n w ith a
focu s on com pu ter tr a in in g th a t th e tea ch er

Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy (IT) manage me nt:
insights fro m K-1 2 sc ho o ls’
te c hno lo gy audits
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

h a d h a d a n d th e cu r r en t tr a in in g n eeded. In
on e sch ool, ea ch sta ff developm en t pla n is
r eviewed by th e tech n ology com m ittee, w ith
th e in ten tion of pr ovidin g a ddition a l tr a in in g
r ecom m en da tion s wh er e n ecessa r y.
Secon d, sch ools w ith effective IT m a n a gem en t a ssocia te in cen tives w ith sta ff developm en t. Sta ff developm en t su cceeds to th e
exten t th a t th er e a r e r esou r ces a lloca ted to
fu lfill tea ch er s’ pla n s. Mor a le wou ld da m pen
a n d en er gy wou ld ea sily dissipa te wh er e tim e
a n d effor t a r e pu t in to developin g a sta ff developm en t th a t goes la r gely u n fu n ded. Som e
sch ools fin d cr ea tive w ays to m otiva te th eir
tea ch er s. In on e loca l sch ool, a la p-top com pu ter w a s pr ovided to ea ch tea ch er ’s cla ss
a fter a tten din g tr a in in g session s.
La stly, sch ools w ith effective IT m a n a gem en t m a k e oppor tu n ities ava ila ble for sta ff
developm en t on a con tin u ou s ba sis. Sta ff
developm en t is n ot a on e-tim e even t a s com m on ly fou n d in less effective sch ools. E ffective
tea ch er s r eceive con tin u ou s tr a in in g; h en ce,
sta ff developm en t becom es a con tin u ou s a ctivity. Also, a lth ou gh tea ch er s a r e en cou r a ged to
su bm it pla n s for th eir ow n sta ff developm en t,
th ese pla n s a r e flexible en ou gh to a ccom m oda te u n expected tr a in in g sh ou ld it becom e
n ecessa r y. Un a n ticipa ted oppor tu n ities su ch
a s com pu ter fa ir s in th e loca l r egion wh er e
edu ca tion a l softw a r e pa ck a ges wou ld be displayed a n d dem on str a ted becom e a ttr a ctive
sta ff developm en t oppor tu n ities for tea ch er s.
In on e sch ool, som e tea ch er s wer e given a h a lfday off to a tten d su ch u n a n ticipa ted fa ir s.
Sta ff developm en t pr ogr a m s a r e a n essen tia l
com pon en t of best pr a ctices in IT m a n a gem en t a n d oppor tu n ities for r etr a in in g a r e a n
im por ta n t in dica tion of a dm in istr a tive su ppor t.

Technical support
Tech n ica l su ppor t is in evita ble in a n y cr edible
IT m a n a gem en t, especia lly in sch ool or ga n iza tion s wh er e th er e a r e h u n dr eds of com pu ter
ter m in a ls a n d sever a l h u n dr eds of u ser s, m ost
of wh om a r e ch ildr en w ith a n in cr edible pen ch a n t to tr a de softw a r e pa ck a ges fr om u su a lly
u n k n ow n sou r ces. Sch ools, a s sh ou ld be
expected, exper ien ce a la r ge n u m ber of tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s da ily, r a n gin g fr om a
n eoph yte str u gglin g to oper a te a com pu ter
th a t is n ot sw itch ed on to a n exper ien ced u ser
a ttem ptin g to sa lva ge a file r ava ged by a m yster iou s vir u s. Wh ile m a n y of th e tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s a t sch ools cou ld be pr even ted
w ith pr oper tr a in in g, it wou ld be m yopic n ot
to h ave a dequ a te r esou r ces in pla ce on a con tin u ou s ba sis to r espon d to th ese pr oblem s.

For effective IT sch ools, tech n ica l su ppor t is
defin ed a s th e exten t to wh ich h elp is ava ila ble
to u ser s. Th e wor d “h elp” sh ou ld be defi n ed in
its br oa dest sen se to in clu de th e th r ee m ea su r a ble cr iter ia iden tifi ed in th e m odel (See Ta ble
I). Per h a ps th e m ost im por ta n t cr iter ion to
eva lu a te tech n ica l su ppor t is th e a m ou n t of
tim e it ta k es for u ser s to get th eir pr oblem s
solved. Tech n ica l su ppor t is cr itica l in sch ools
beca u se com pu ter -ba sed in str u ction s depen d
ver y m u ch on th e sm ooth r u n n in g of equ ipm en t for th e objectives to be a ch ieved. Cla sses
wh er e th er e is a n exa ct n u m ber of com pu ter s
to ch ildr en h ave a m a jor pr oblem if on e ch ild
h a s a tech n ica l pr oblem w ith h is or h er
m a ch in e du r in g in str u ction . Wh er e th is
occu r s, th e cla ssr oom tea ch er is for ced to
a tten d to th e ch ild, k eepin g on h old th e r est of
th e ch ildr en . Cla ssr oom objectives w ill be
th w a r ted if a tech n ica l pr oblem s ta k es m or e
th a n five m in u tes of th e cla ssr oom tea ch er ’s
tim e. Alter n a tively, th e tea ch er m ay sen d for
h elp, keepin g th e ch ild on h old for h elp to
a r r ive wh ile pr oceedin g w ith th e cla ssr oom
in str u ction . A ch ild wou ld be fr u str a ted
sh ou ld th e h elp ta k e m or e th a n 10 m in u tes to
a r r ive. Con sequ en tly, th e w a itin g tim e for
tech n ica l h elp is a cr itica l con cer n in effective
IT sch ools.
Th e secon d com pon en t of th e tech n ica l
su ppor t a ddr esses th e issu e of qu a lity of ser vice. E ffective tech n ica l h elp is th a t wh ich
a ctu a lly r ectifies th e pr oblem s bein g exper ien ced by a u ser. Best pr a ctices, th er efor e, ca ll
for a pr om pt dia gn osis of a u ser ’s pr oblem a n d
a qu ick decision a s to h ow best to solve th e
pr oblem . E ven wh en a br ea k dow n is ver y
m u ch th e fa u lt of a stu den t, a positive a ttitu de
is n ecessa r y on th e pa r t of th e tech n ica l su ppor t per son n el. Ra th er th a n a ppor tion in g
bla m e, best pr a ctices r equ ir e th a t th e pr ocess
of solvin g th e pr oblem be conver ted in to a n
edu ca tion a l exper ien ce for th e ch ildr en .
A n ew “exper t gr ou p” is em er gin g in ou r
edu ca tion a l la n dsca pe. To th e exen t th a t
in str u ction s a r e com pu ter -ba sed, th is gr ou p,
th e com pu ter tech n ica l cr ew, sta n ds between
tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, between th e tea ch er
a n d th e pu pils, between in str u ction a l goa ls
a n d goa l a tta in m en t. Un for tu n a tely, few of th e
pr esen t coh or t of tech n icia n s h ave been
tr a in ed to u n der sta n d sch ool cu ltu r e a n d to
h ave edu ca tion a l goa ls a s th eir pr im a r y con cer n . Few h ave th e m en ta lity of a ssistin g th e
tea ch er ’s wor k a n d fa cilita tin g th e tea ch er ’s
effor ts. For exa m ple, in on e in stitu tion , a
pr ofessor wh o w a s fr a n tica lly “beggin g” or
“bu ggin g” th e tech n ica l m em ber s for h elp
stu m bled on th is e-m a il m essa ge fr om on e
tech n icia n to a n oth er :
[Dea r ] [Tech n icia n A], Th is is a ggr ava tin g.
P r ofessor X h a s been to m e, th en to [Tech n icia n B], th en to [Tech n icia n C] (n a m es

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Ste ve O. Mic hae l
Be st prac tic e s in info rmatio n
te c hno lo gy (IT) manage me nt:
insights fro m K-1 2 sc ho o ls’
te c hno lo gy audits
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt
1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 7 7 –2 8 8

om itted), th en to you a n d n ow you to m e. J u st
like I told h im , a n d [Tech n icia n B] told, a n d
[Tech n icia n C] told h im , th e file is cor r u pt.
He m oved h is Ma cDr aw files w ith a P C a n d
th a t str ipped th e r esou r ce [files] (ir on ic h ow
we wer e h avin g th is discu ssion ea r lier
today?) wh ich con ta in s in for m a tion vita l to
r ecr ea tin g th e im a ge. Th e bottom lin e is th is,
wh eth er h e likes it or n ot: THE F ILE IS CORRUP T! Th er e’s n oth in g a n yon e ca n do except
h im a n d h e w ill n eed to r ecr ea te th a t file.
F r a n k ly, it’s h is ow n fa u lt for cr ea tin g th e
files w ith som eth in g a s obscu r e a s Ma cDr aw
a n d th en w a n tin g th em conver ted to w in dow s AND NOT HAVING A F RE AKING
BACKUP !!! Wow th a t ir k s m e. Sor r y to ven t
on you , it’s n ot you r fa u lt, of cou r se.

Of cou r se, th is in fu r ia tin g e-m a il essen tia lly
sever ed fu r th er com m u n ica tion between th e
tech n ica l people a n d th e pr ofessor. Yet, th e
or ga n iza tion is payin g for tech n ica l su ppor t,
bu t su ch su ppor t wou ld be u n der u tilized
wh er e th e tech n ica l cr ew la ck pr ofession a lism , a n d a n u n der sta n din g of th eir r ole in th e
edu ca tion a l sector, a n d essen tia l in ter per son a l r ela tion s.
An in for m a tion tech n ology pla n is a com pr eh en sive pla n th a t en com pa sses oth er
pla n s. On e of th ese pla n s is th e m a in ten a n ce
pla n wh ich focu ses pr im a r ily on a n ticipa ted
a n d n on -a n ticipa ted tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s. E n su r in g th a t loose ca bles a r e tigh ten ed
u p, keyboa r ds a r e per iodica lly clea n ed,
u n w a n ted m a ter ia ls in th e h a r d dr ives a r e
deleted, a n d ch a n gin g pr in ter s’ ca r tr idges a n d
in k bottles on a r egu la r ba sis a r e pa r t of
im por ta n t m a in ten a n ce effor ts – effor ts th a t
m u st be pla n n ed in a dva n ce. Sin ce sch ool
a ctivities a r e pr ogr a m m ed a ccor din g to th e
sch ool ca len da r, m a in ten a n ce pla n s m u st
r eflect sch ool pr ogr a m m in g.
Sch ools investiga ted h ave differ en t tech n ica l su ppor t a r r a n gem en ts. In on e of th e
sch ools, tea ch er s a n d stu den ts a r e tr a in ed to
r espon d to m in or tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s.
Per h a ps th is is th e m ost effective w ay beca u se
stu den ts a r e a ble to h elp on e a n oth er to solve
th eir ow n pr oblem s. An oth er sch ool h a s a
voca tion a l depa r tm en t wh er e stu den ts a r e
specifica lly tr a in ed to h a n dle m ost
tr ou blesh ootin g pr oblem s. Th is gr ou p of voca tion a l stu den ts r espon d to tech n ica l su ppor t
r equ ests a s a m ea n s of fu r th er in g th eir ow n
tr a in in g. Th ese sch ools h ave th e sh or test
w a itin g tim e a n d, a bove a ll, ben efit fr om stu den ts’ fr ee la bor. Oth er sch ools wh er e fa u lty
com pu ter s h ave to be sh ipped to th e cen tr a l
office h ave a con sider a bly lon ger w a itin g tim e
a n d tea ch er s a n d stu den ts r epor t m u ch fr u str a tion w ith th is system .
It is im por ta n t th a t ever y tr ou blesh ootin g
pr oblem be r ecor ded to k eep tr a ck of th eir
n a tu r e a n d fr equ en cy of occu r r en ce. E ffective

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IT sch ools wou ld r equ est th a t u ser s r a te th e
qu a lity of th e h elp a n d specify h ow lon g it
ta kes for th em to get th eir pr oblem s solved.
With th is a r r a n gem en t, sch ool lea der s a r e
a ble to k eep tr a ck of pr ogr ess w ith th eir tech n ica l su ppor t system .

Hardware and software decisions
Decision s r ega r din g h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e
a r e cr itica l in IT m a n a gem en t. Th is is so
beca u se h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e bu dgets m ay
r u n in to sever a l h u n dr eds of th ou sa n ds of
dolla r s for on e sch ool distr ict. A system a tic
a ppr oa ch for r esolvin g som e of th ese decision s
is n oticea ble in sch ools w ith effective IT pr a ctices.
Ha r dw a r e a n d softw a r e com pon en ts of best
pr a ctices is defi n ed a s th e exten t to wh ich th e
m ost a ppr opr ia te tech n ologica l system is in
u se. F ive ch a r a cter istics a r e obviou s in effective IT sch ools. F ir st, th ese sch ools h ave a n
efficien t pr ocu r em en t pla n . A pr ocu r em en t
pla n en ta ils pr oa ctive th ou gh t a bou t sa le ser vices, deliver y ser vices, a n d a fter -sa le ser vices. Wh ile differ en t ven dor s a r e often
solicited, th e decision a s to th e best ven dor is
on ly a r r ived a t a fter a ser iou s a n a lysis of ea ch
ven dor ’s tota l pa ck a ge. Less effective sch ools
seldom pla n a h ea d r ega r din g pr ocu r em en t
a n d on ly scr a m ble for ven dor s wh en fa ced
w ith a n u r gen t n eed to a cqu ir e h a r dw a r e.
Som e sch ools a r e cu r r en tly exper im en tin g
w ith lea sin g com pu ter s dir ectly fr om th e
m a n u fa ctu r er s. Most of th ese m a n u fa ctu r er s
pr ovide dir ect tech n ica l su ppor t a n d w ill
r epla ce obsolete equ ipm en t a t th e en d of ea ch
con tr a ct. Wh ile th is h a s a n a dva n ta ge in th a t
sch ool lea der s wou ld n ot h ave to be con cer n ed
w ith h ow to disca r d th eir com pu ter s, lea sin g
ca n be m or e expen sive th a n dir ect a cqu isition .
Th er efor e, it is a dvisa ble th a t a ca r efu l ca lcu la tion be don e to com pa r e th ese option s.
Secon d, effective sch ools a ch ieve h igh com pa tibility between th eir h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e pr ocu r em en ts. Th er e a r e sch ools wh er e
h u n dr eds of dolla r s h ave been spen t on soft w a r e pa ck a ges th a t th e cu r r en t h a r dw a r e
ca n n ot su ppor t a n d th er e a r e oth er sch ools
wh er e n ew h a r dw a r e a cqu ir ed is in com pa tible
w ith th e existin g h a r dw a r e. Th e pr oblem of
com pa tibility is a ser iou s on e for sch ools th a t
often h ave n o in te gr a ted a ppr oa ch to pr ocu r in g th eir h a r dw a r e a n d softw a r e. Th is pr oblem becom es a cu te wh er e pr ocu r em en t is
dr iven by gr a n ts fr om differ en t sou r ces by
differ en t gr a n t w r iter s. Un less th er e is a cen tr a l clea r in g-h o