Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol14.Issue4.2000:
A CMI-triplization paradigm for reforming education
in the new millennium
Yin Cheong Cheng
Asia-Pacific Centre for Education Leadership and School Quality, Hong Kong
Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Keywords
Education, Improvement, Society,
Paradigm
Introduction
The rapid globalization, long lasting impacts
of information technology, drastic shocks of
This article proposes a new
the 1997 economic downturn, and strong
paradigm including the concepts of
demands for economic and social
contextualized multiple
developments so as to excel in both
intelligences (CMIs) and
triplization for reforming education. international and regional competition have
A pentagon theory is developed as become driving forces of educational changes
the base for learning and teaching,
and developments in the Asia-Pacific region
to help students develop the
and other parts of the world to face up the
necessary CMIs in the new
century. Then the article illustrates challenges particularly in the new century. It
the concepts and processes of
is evident that numerous educational
triplization, including globalization,
reforms and school restructuring movements
localization, and individualization,
and explains why they together can are going on to pursue educational
provide a completely new paradigm effectiveness in nearly the whole of the Asiato reform school education,
Pacific region (Townsend and Cheng, 1999).
curricula and pedagogy and how
Policy-makers and educators in each country
they can substantially contribute
to the development of CMIs, of not have to think how to reform curricula and
pedagogy and to prepare their young people
only students, but also teachers
and schools. Finally, the
to cope more effectively with the challenges
implications of the new paradigm
of the new era (Dalin and Rust, 1996; Gardner,
for changing curricula and
pedagogy are advanced. It is hoped 1999). Unfortunately, the environment is
changing too fast and is full of uncertainties
that the new century education
can support students becoming
and ambiguities. In such a context, most
CMI citizens, who will be engaged
policy-makers and educators get confused
in life-long learning and will
creatively contribute to building up with numerous novel but conflicting ideas
a multiple intelligence society and and lose their direction in the rapid
global village.
globalization; they lack a comprehensive
framework for understanding the rapid
developments and their impacts and for
advancing significant and relevant
implications for innovations in curricula and
This paper is adapted from
a keynote speech presented pedagogy. It is not a surprise that most of
their reform efforts become reactive,
at The 5th UNESCO-ACEID
International Conference on piecemeal, fragmented, or finally ineffective
``Reforming Learning,
even though they have worked very hard and
Curriculum and Pedagogy:
invested huge resources in them with a good
Innovative Visions for the
will.
New Century'' in Thailand,
13-16 December 1999.
My paper aims to provide a new paradigm
for understanding and developing school
education to meet the challenges in both local
and international communities in the new
The International Journal of
Abstract
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 156 ]
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emerald-library.com
millennium. Based on the previous research
on multiple educational functions, I will
delineate the nature of contextualized
multiple intelligences (CMIs) and illustrate
their importance in the development of
citizens and their society in both the local
and global contexts of complicated
technological, economical social, political,
cultural, and learning environments.
Furthermore, I will propose a pentagon
theory of CMIs as the base for reforming
learning, teaching, and schooling through
which students can develop the necessary
CMI in the new century. Then, I will
illustrate the new conceptions and processes
of globalization, localization, and
individualization, and then explain why they
together can provide a completely new
paradigm of school education and how they
can substantially contribute to the
development of CMI of not only students but
also teachers and schools. Afterwards, I will
discuss further the implications of the new
paradigm of education for reforming
curricula and pedagogy so as to cope with the
challenges in the new century. For
convenience, I would like to name this
paradigm as the CMI-triplization paradigm of
education.
CMIs
In the light of the biological origins of each
problem-solving skill, Gardner (1993)
suggested that there are seven human
intelligences, including musical intelligence,
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, logicalmathematical intelligence, linguistic
intelligence, spatial intelligence,
interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal
intelligence. This biological perspective of
multiple intelligences (MIs) may be useful to
understand individual's cognitive
competence in terms of a set of basic abilities
or ``intelligences'' (Gardner, 1993). When we
want to design a curriculum and pedagogic
methods to develop students' related abilities
and intelligences to survive a context of
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
complicated technological, economic, social,
political, and cultural environments,
however, this perspective may be too `` basic''
and limited and does not have a strong and
direct relevance to such a context in the new
century. Comparatively, it is useful to design
curricula and pedagogy for early child
education or lower primary education to
develop their basic abilities, but it is not
sophisticated enough for higher form
education that should be highly
contextualized to the social, economic,
political, cultural, and technological
developments (Berman, 1995; Guild and
Chock-Eng, 1998; Guloff, 1996; Mettetal and
Jordan, 1997; Teele, 1995).
My previous research on school
effectiveness (Cheng, 1996) has shown that
there are five different types of school
functions in the new century, including the
economic/structural functions, social
functions, political functions, cultural
functions, and educational functions. All
these functions represent the different
contributions of education to development of
individuals, the school as an institution, the
community, the society, and the
international community in these areas. To
achieve these functions, education should
develop students' intelligence in the areas of
these five functions. Further, taking into
consideration the traditional assumptions of
human nature in social contexts (Bolman and
Deal, 1997; Schein, 1980), as well as the
importance of technology to development, we
can assume that human nature can be
represented by a typology, including
technological person, economic person,
social person, political person, cultural
person, and learning person, in a complicated
context of the new century. Therefore,
human intelligence should be contextualized:
that is, in a context of the technological,
economical social, political, cultural and
learning environments in the new
millennium. As such, the human intelligence
can be categorized into the following six
CMIs shown in Table I, including
technological intelligence, economic
intelligence, social intelligence, political
intelligence, cultural intelligence and
learning intelligence.
Pentagon theory of CMI development for
curricula and pedagogy
Based on these CMIs, a Pentagon Theory of
CMI development for reforming education,
curricula and pedagogy can be proposed to
meet the developmental needs in the new
millennium. It suggests that school education
should be re-designed based on the premises
of a new paradigm ± as depicted in Figure 1 ±
as follows.
Relevant to the development of CMIs
The development of students' CMIs is the
basic condition for the development of
individuals, institutions, communities,
societies, and international communities in
the complex local and global contexts,
particularly in the technological, economical
social, political, cultural, and learning
aspects. Therefore, the curricula, pedagogy
and school education should be reformed
with clear relevance and concrete linkages
with the development of CMIs.
Encouraging CMI interactions
The relationships among these six CMIs are
interactive and mutually reinforcing with
the learning intelligence at the centre as
shown by the pentagon in Figure 1. The
design of school education should encourage
and facilitate such interactions and
reinforcements among CMIs. This has strong
implications for the needs of balanced
curricula and pedagogy not only in lower
grades of primary and secondary education
but also in tertiary education, if we want to
have citizens with broad mind sets or MIs to
deal with the diverse challenges in the new
era.
Facilitating intelligence transfer
Intelligence transfer from one type to another
(e.g. from economic intelligence to political
intelligence or social intelligence) should be
encouraged and facilitated to achieve a
higher level of intelligence or meta-thinking.
The transfer itself can represent a type of
intelligence creativity and generalization. It
is hoped that inter-intelligence transfer can
be transformed into a dynamic, ongoing and
self-developing process not only at the
individual level but also at the group,
institutional, community, society, even
international levels. This will be very
important in the creation of a high level
knowledge-based and thinking society or an
intelligent global village.
Taking learning intelligence as central
To accelerate the development of all other
CMIs, the development of learning
intelligence can play a central role (Figure 1).
Instead of teaching and learning huge
volumes of information and factual
materials, the content of curricula and the
process of pedagogy should put emphasis on
developing students' ability to persistently
learn how to learn systematically, creatively,
and critically. This may partly reflect why
the current educational reforms in different
parts of the world emphasize the ability and
attitude to life-long learning in curricula and
pedagogy (Education Commission, 1999;
Townsend and Cheng, 1999).
[ 157 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
Table I
CMIs
Human nature in social
contexts
CMI
Learning person
Learning intelligence
Technological person
Economic person
Social person
Political person
Cultural person
It refers to the ability to learn and think creatively and
critically and to optimize the use of biological/
physiological abilities
Technological intelligence It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
technologically and maximize the benefits of various
types of technology
Economic intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
economically and to optimize the use of various
resources
Social intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage socially
and to effectively develop harmonious interpersonal
relationships
Political intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
politically and to enhance win-win outcomes in
situations of competing resources and interests
Cultural intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
culturally, to optimize the use of multi-cultural assets
and create new values
Developing CMI teachers and CMI
schools
Globalization, localization and
individualization of education
The success of implementing CMI education
for students depends heavily on the quality of
teachers and the school. Whether teachers
themselves can develop and own a higher
level of CMI and whether the school can be a
MI organization and can provide a MI
environment for teaching and learning will
affect the design and implementation of CMI
education.
Therefore, in the reform of school
education, how to develop teachers as MI
teachers and schools as MI schools through
staff development and school development
inevitably become an important agenda and
necessary component.
In order to maximize the opportunities for
development of CMIs for students, teachers,
and the school, globalization, localization,
and individualization in schooling, teaching,
and learning are important and necessary to
the reform of school education, curricula,
and pedagogy in the new era. The following
paragraphs will highlight their conceptions
and implications for development of CMIs.
Figure 1
Pentagon theory of CMI development for redesign of curriculum and
pedagogy (with globalization, localization and individualization)
[ 158 ]
Definition of the CMI
Triplization: globalization, localization, and
individualization
Rapid globalization is the one of the most
salient aspects of the new millennium
particularly since the fast development of
information technology (IT) in the last two
decades (Brown, 1999). To different
observers, different types of globalization can
be identified even though most of the
attention is in the areas of economy,
technology, and culture (Brown and Lauder,
1996; Waters, 1995). From a broader
perspective consistent with the concepts of
CMIs, we may classify it into multiple
globalization, including technological
globalization, economic globalization, social
globalization, political globalization, cultural
globalization, and learning globalization in
the new millennium (Figure 2). Particularly,
learning globalization is very important,
reflecting the global concern, networking,
and sharing of how to learn and develop and
face up to the challenges of an era of change
and transformation in different areas.
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
Inevitably, how education should be
responsive to the trends and challenges of
globalization has become a major concern in
policy making in these years (Ayyar, 1996;
Brown and Lauder, 1996; Fowler, 1994; Green,
1999; Henry et al., 1999; Jones, 1999; Little,
1996; McGinn, 1996; Curriculum Development
Council, 1999). In ongoing policy discussion
of educational reforms, people emphasize the
importance and impacts of globalization on
the future of next generations and their
society and try to make every effort to adapt
their education system, as well as curricula
and pedagogy, to cope with the demands and
challenges from globalization. Unfortunately,
they often ignore the necessity and
importance of localization and
individualization or they put these three
processes in a contradictory position.
Without localization in education, they will
be unable to meet the local needs, involve
community support, and enhance site-level
motivation and initiatives (Kim, 1999; Cheng,
1996). Without individualization in
education, all efforts of reforms will be
unable to meet the needs of students and
teachers (as well as schools) and to motivate
them to be effective in teaching and learning.
In other words, these reforms will not be able
to elicit the necessary initiative,
imagination, and creativity from school
members and community members, and to
make contribution to the process of
globalization, not just receiving its impacts.
Figure 2
Globalization, localization and individualization
Therefore, globalization, localization, and
individualization are all necessary
components in current educational reforms.
All of these processes as a whole can be taken
as a triplization process (i.e. triple izations)
that can be used to discuss educational
reforms and formulate the new pedagogic
methods and environments to implement
new curricula for enhancing CMIs of
students. Triplization or all these three
processes are necessary to educational
change and development in the new
millennium.
In order to re-conceptualize and reengineer
school education and change curricula and
pedagogy for the new millennium, the
phenomena of globalization, localization, and
individualization can be perceived and
illustrated as shown in Figure 2 and Table II.
Globalization
It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and
development of values, knowledge,
technology and behavioral norms across
countries and societies in different parts of
the world from and/or to a society, a
community, an institution, or an individual.
The typical phenomena and characteristics
associated with globalization include growth
of global networking (e.g. Internet, world
wide e-communication, and transportation),
global transfer and interflow in
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning aspects, international
alliances and competitions, international
collaboration and exchange, global village,
multi-cultural integration, and use of
international standards and benchmarks.
Depending on the perspectives, the
globalization processes is also described by
some different and popular concepts, such as
standardization, normalization, diffusion,
socialization, politicization, sharing, cultural
transplant, multiculturalism, colonization,
hybridization, and networking (Pieterse,
1995; Brown, 1999; Waters, 1995).
Implications of globalization for education
should include maximizing the global
relevance, support, intellectual resources,
and initiative in schooling, teaching, and
learning (Daun, 1997). Some examples of
globalization in curricula and pedagogy are
Web-based learning; learning from the
Internet; international visit/immersion
programs; international exchange programs;
international partnership in teaching and
learning at the group, class, and individual
levels; interactions and sharing through
video-conferencing across countries,
communities, institutions, and individuals;
and new curricula content on technological,
economic, social, political, cultural, and
learning globalization.
[ 159 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
Table II
Conceptions and implications of triplization
Triplization
Conceptions and characteristics
To maximize the global relevance, support,
Transfer, adaptation, and development of
intellectual resources, and initiative in
values, knowledge, technology and
schooling, teaching, and learning: e.g.
behavioral norms across countries and
Web-based learning
societies in different parts of the world
International visit/immersion program
from/to a society, a community, an
International exchange program
institution, or an individual (teacher or
Learning from Internet
student):
International partnership in teaching and
Global networking
learning at group, class, and individual levels
Technological, economic, social, political,
Interactions and sharing through videocultural, and learning globalization
conferencing across countries, communities,
Global growth of the Internet
institutions, and individuals
International alliances and competitions
Curriculum content on technological,
International collaboration and exchange
economic, social, political, cultural, and
Global village
learning globalization
Multi-cultural integration
International standards and benchmarks
To maximize the local relevance, community
Localization
Transfer, adaptation, and development of
support and initiative in schooling, teaching
related values, knowledge, technology, and
behavioral norms from/to the local contexts: and learning: e.g.
Community involvement
Local networking
Parental involvement and education
Technological, economic, social, political,
Home-school collaboration
cultural, and learning localization
School accountability
Decentralization to the local site level
School-based management
Indigenous culture
School-based curriculum
Community needs and expectations
Community-related curriculum
Local involvement, collaboration and support
Ability grouping/classroom
Local relevance and legitimacy
Curriculum content on technological,
School-based needs and characteristics
economic, social, political, cultural, and
Social norms and ethos
learning localization
To maximize motivation, initiative, and
Individualization Transfer, adaptation, and development of
creativity in schooling, teaching, and
related external values, knowledge,
learning: e.g. Individualized educational
technology, and behavioral norms to meet
programs
the individual needs and characteristics:
Individualized learning targets, methods, and
Individualized services
progress schedules
Development of human potential in
Self life-long learning, self-actualizing, and
technological, economic, social, political,
self-initiative
cultural and learning aspects
Self-managing students, teachers, and
Human initiative and creativity
schools
Self-actualization
Meeting special needs
Self-managing and self-governing
Development of CMIs
Special needs
Globalization
Localization
It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and
development of related values, knowledge,
technology, and behavioral norms from/to
the local contexts. It has two types of
meanings: first, it can mean the adaptation of
all related external values, initiatives, and
norms to meet the local needs at the society,
community, or site levels; second, it can also
mean the enhancement of local values,
norms, concern, relevance, participation,
and involvement in the related initiatives
and actions. Some characteristics and
[ 160 ]
Preliminary implications for curriculum and
pedagogy
examples of localization are as follows: local
networking; adaptation of external
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning initiatives to local
communities; decentralization to the
community or site level; development of
indigenous culture; meeting community
needs and expectations; local involvement,
collaboration, and support; local relevance
and legitimacy; and concern for school-based
needs and characteristics and social norms
and ethos (Tam et al., 1997; Kim, 1999; Cheng,
1998).
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
The implications of localization to change
in education, curricula and pedagogy are to
maximize the local relevance, community
support, and initiative in schooling,
teaching, and learning. Some examples for
practice of localization include community
and parental involvement in school
education; home-school collaboration;
assurance of school accountability;
implementation of school-based
management, school-based curricula and
development of new curricula content on
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning localization (Sabar,
1991, 1994).
Individualization
It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and
development of related external values,
knowledge, technology, and behavioral
norms to meet the individual needs and
characteristics. The importance of
individualization to human development and
performance is based on the concerns and
theories of human motivation and needs ( e.g.
Maslow, 1970; Manz, 1986; Manz and Sims,
1990; Alderfer, 1972). Some examples of
individualization are the provision of
individualized services; emphasis on human
potentials; promotion of human initiative
and creativity; encouragement of selfactualization; self-managment and selfgovernment; and concern for special needs.
The major implication of individualization in
curricula and pedagogy is to maximize
motivation, initiative, and creativity of
students and teachers in schooling, teaching,
and learning through such measures as
implementing individualized educational
programs; designing and using
individualized learning targets, methods, and
progress schedules; encouraging students
and teachers to be self-learning, selfactualizing, and self-initiating; meeting
individual special needs; and developing
students' CMIs.
With the concepts of triplization, students,
teachers, and schools can be considered to be
globalized, localized, and individualized
during the process of triplization. Or, simply,
they are triplized. Of course, they themselves
can contribute to globalization, localization,
and individualization through their own
globalizing, localizing, and individualizing.
A new paradigm of school
education: CMIs and triplization
A new paradigm of school education for the
new millennium can be built on the concepts
of CMIs, globalization, localization, and
individualization in schooling, teaching and
learning. Its assumptions about the future of
the world, human nature, the developments
of individuals and the society, the aims of
education, the students and learning, the
teachers and teaching, and the school and
schooling are contrastingly different from
the traditional paradigm, as shown in Tables
III-VII. The new century paradigm is also
named as ``New CMI-triplization paradigm''
and the traditional one as ``Traditional sitebounded paradigm.''
About the world, human nature, and
development
The new CMI-triplization paradigm assumes
that the world is in multiple globalization
including technological, economic, social,
political, cultural, and learning
globalizations. Also, these globalizations are
increasingly interacting in the whole world.
The world is moving very fast to become a
global village, in which different parts of the
world are rapidly networked and globalized
through the Internet and different types of IT,
communications, and transportation
(Albrow, 1990; Naisbitt and Aburdence, 1991).
All countries and areas have more and more
common concerns and sharing. Also, the
interactions between nations and people
become boundless, multi-dimensional, multilevel, fast, and frequent. They become more
and more mutually dependent with
international collaborations, exchanges, and
interflows.
In the new paradigm, human nature in a
social context of the new millennium is
assumed to be multiple, as a technological
person, economic person, social person,
political person, cultural person, and
learning person in a global village of
information, high technology, and multicultures. Both individuals and the society
need multiple developments in the
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural and learning aspects. Life-long
learning individuals and a learning society
(or knowledge society) are necessary to
sustain the continuous multiple
developments of individuals and the society
in a fast changing era (Drucker, 1993, 1995).
From the view point of the CMI theory, the
society has to tend towards a multiple
intelligence society that can provide the
necessary knowledge and intelligence base
and driving force to support the multiple
developments. And the individuals have to
tend towards being multiple intelligence
citizens who can contribute to the
development of a MI society.
As compared in Table III, the traditional
paradigm perceives that the world has
limited globalization, mainly in the economic
[ 161 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
and social aspects. All the nations in different
parts of the world are loosely related, if not
isolated, in only some limited areas
especially in the economic aspect. They have
serious competitions and conflicts more than
sharing and collaboration. There are very
limited, loose, and weak interactions
between nations and people. As a whole, they
are loosely coupled with some limited
international collaborations and interflows
(Beare and Slaughter, 1993; Naisbitt, 1984).
Human nature in such a context is mainly
assumed as a economic person or a social
person in an industrial or business society.
Both individuals and the society pursue
narrowed developments, mainly on some
aspects such as economic, social, or political
developments. School or vocational
education is assumed necessary to provide
the needed manpower for certain
developments of a society at some stages
(Cheng and Ng, 1992; Cheng, 1995). Therefore,
the need for life-long learning or for a
learning society may not be so important.
The society is an industrial or agricultural
society with emphasis on some types of
intelligence or knowledge related to the
existing stage of development of a society.
Individuals are expected to be citizens with
bounded types of knowledge or skills that
meet the needs of society at a certain stage of
development.
About the education environment and aims
of education
Following the assumptions about the world
and development, the new century paradigm
assumes that the education environment is
inevitably characterized by triplization,
including globalization, localization, and
individualization at the different levels
(macro, messo, and micro) and aspects of the
education system. As the education
environment is very fast changing and
becoming very complicated and full of
uncertainties and ambiguities, the boundaries
of schools, as well as the education system,
become unclear and disappear. Students and
teachers interact frequently and intensively
with the ``real world'' in learning and teaching
(Townsend, 1999). Continuous educational
reforms and developments are inevitable due
to various local and global challenges
emerging from this changing education
environment.
In such a context, the aim of education is to
support students to become CMI citizens who
will be engaged in life-long learning and will
Table III
Two paradigms for school education: the world, human nature, development of individuals and the society
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Assumptions about the world
Multiple globalization: including technological, economic, social,
Limited globalization: mainly in economic and social aspects
political, cultural, and learning aspects
Multi-nations: different parts of the world are loosely related, if not
Global village: different parts of the world are rapidly networked and
isolated, in only some limited areas; they have competitions and
globalized through the use of the Internet and different types of IT,
conflicts more than sharing and collaboration
communications, and transportations; they have more and more
common concerns and sharing
Boundless multi-dimensional and multi-level interactions between
Limited interactions between nations and people: loose and weak
nations and people: fast and frequent
Mutual dependent: more and more international collaborations,
Loosely coupled: limited international collaborations and interflows
exchanges, and interflows
Assumptions about human nature
Mainly as economic person or social person in an industrial or
Multiple person: as technological person, economic person, social
business society
person, political person, cultural person, and learning person in a
global village of information, high technology, and multi-cultures
Assumptions about the development of the individual and society
Multiple developments: technological, economic, social, political,
Narrowed developments: mainly focus on some aspects such as
cultural, and learning
economic, social, or political
School or vocational education is necessary to provide the needed
Life-long learning individuals and a learning society are necessary to
manpower for certain developments of a society at some stages;
sustain the continuous developments of technological, economic,
the need for life-long learning or learning society may not be so
social, political, and cultural aspects of individuals and the society
important
Towards a MI society that can provide the necessary knowledge base
Being an industrial society emphasizes on some types of intelligence
and driving force to support the multiple developments
or knowledge related to the stage of development of a society
Towards a MI individual who can contribute to the development of a
Being a person with bounded knowledge, who has the type of
MI society
knowledge or skill that meets the needs of society at a certain
stage of development
[ 162 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
creatively contribute to the building up of a
MI society and a MI global village.
As compared in Table IV, the traditional
paradigm assumes that the education
environment is mainly characterized by the
needs of the local community, which is
slowly changing with moderate uncertainties
and complexity. Thus, the boundaries of
schools and the education system are
assumed to be relatively stable and certain.
Teachers and students rarely interact with
the ``real world'' in their teaching and
learning. Students enter the ``real world''
only after graduation or leaving schools.
Educational reforms are often limited and
superficial, mainly as a reaction to the raised
public accountability and local concern.
From this paradigm, the aim of education is
to equip students with the necessary skills
and knowledge to survive in a local
community, or to support the development of
a society, particularly in the economic and
social aspects at a certain stage.
About students and learning
New paradigm of learning
In the new paradigm of school education,
students and their learning should be
individualized, localized, and globalized
(Table V).
Individualized students and learning: it
assumes that the student is the centre of
education. ``Individualized student and
learning'' means that students and their
learning should be facilitated in a way such
that all types of transfer, adaptation, and
development of related values, knowledge,
technology, and norms during the learning
process can meet their needs and personal
characteristics, and that their potentials,
particularly CMI, can develop in an optimal
way. Different students can learn in different
styles. Individualized and tailor-made
programs (including targets, content,
methods, and schedules) for different
students are necessary and feasible. Students
can be self-motivated and self-learning with
appropriate guidance and facilitation, and
learning is a self-actualizing, discovering,
experiencing, and reflecting process. Since
the information and knowledge are
accumulated at an undeliverable speed but
are outdated very quickly, it is nearly
impossible to make any sense if education is
mainly to deliver skills and knowledge,
particularly when students can find the
knowledge and information easily with the
help of IT and Internet. Therefore, the new
century paradigm emphasizes that the focus
of learning is on how to learn, think, and
create. In order to sustain learning as life
long, learning should be facilitated as
enjoyable and self-rewarding.
Localized and globalized students and
learning: students and their learning should
be facilitated in such a way such that all
types of transfer, adaptation, and
development of related values, knowledge,
technology, and norms can bring in local and
global resources, support, and networks to
maximize the opportunities for their
development during the learning process.
Through localization and globalization, there
are multiple sources of learning. Students
can learn from multiple sources inside and
outside their schools, locally and globally,
and are not limited to a small number of
teachers in their schools. Participation in
local and international learning programs
can help them achieve the related
community and global outlook and
experiences beyond schools. Also their
Table IV
Two paradigms for school education: the education environment and aims of education
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Assumptions about the education environment
Triplization: education environment is characterized by globalization,
Local needs: education environment is mainly characterized by the
localization, and individualization
needs of local community
Fast changing: complex, full of uncertainties, and changing very fast
Slowly changing: moderately uncertain and changing slowly
Disappearing boundary: unclear and disappearing school boundary;
Stable boundary: still stable and certain within school boundary;
students and teachers often interact with the ``real world'' in
students enter the ``real world'' only after graduation or leaving schools
learning and teaching
Continuous development: continuous educational reform and
Limited reform: limited and superficial educational reforms due to the
development are inevitable due to various local and global
public accountability and local concern
challenges
Assumptions about the aim of education
Equip citizen with knowledge and skills: to equip students with the
Develop multiple intelligence citizen: to support students to become
necessary skills and knowledge to survive in a local community or to
CMI citizens who will be engaged in life long learning and will
support the development of a society particularly in the economic and
creatively contribute to building up a multiple intelligence society
social aspects at a certain stage
and a multiple intelligence global village
[ 163 ]
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
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learning is a type of networked learning.
They will be grouped and networked locally
and internationally. Learning groups and
networks will become a major driving force
to sustain the learning climate and multiply
the learning effects through mutual sharing
and inspiration. We can expect that each
student can have a group of life-long partner
students in different corners of the world to
share their learning experiences.
It is expected that learning happens
everywhere and is life long. School education
is just the start or preparation for life-long
learning. Learning opportunities are
unlimited. Students can maximize the
opportunities for their learning from local
and global exposures through the Internet,
Web-based learning, video-conferencing,
cross-cultural sharing, and different types of
interactive and multi-media materials
(Education and Manpower Bureau, 1998).
Students can learn from the world-class
teachers, experts, peers, and learning
materials from different parts of the world. In
other words, their learning can be a worldclass learning.
Traditional paradigm of learning
In the traditional thinking, students and
their learning are part of the reproduction
and perpetuation process of the existing
knowledge and manpower structure to
sustain development of the society,
particularly in the social and economic
aspects (Cheng and Ng, 1992; Blackledge and
Hunt, 1985; Hinchliffe, 1987; McMahon, 1987).
It is not a surprise that education is
perceived as a process for students and their
learning being ``reproduced'' to meet the
needs of the society. The profiles of the
student and learning are clearly different
from those in the new paradigm (see Table V).
Reproduced students and learning: in
school education, students are the followers
Table V
Two paradigms for school education: student and learning
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Individualized student and learning
As centre: student is the centre of education
Individualized programs: each student has her/his own potential and
characteristics and different students can learn in different style;
individualized and tailor-made programs (including targets, content,
methods, and schedules) for different students are necessary and
feasible
Self-learning: students can be self-motivated and self-learning with
appropriate guidance and facilitation
Self-actualizing process: learning is a self-actualizing, discovering,
experiencing, and reflecting process; systematic facilitation and
support are necessary
How to learn: the focus of learning is on how to learn, think, and
create
Self-rewarding: learning is enjoyable and self-rewarding
Reproduced students and learning
As follower: student is the follower of teacher
Standard programs: students can be taught in the same way and same
pace even though their ability may be different; Individualized programs
seems to be unfeasible
Absorbing knowledge: students are ``students'' of their teachers and
absorb knowledge from their teachers
Receiving process: learning is a disciplinary, receiving and socializing
process; close supervision and control are necessary
How to gain: the focus of learning is on how to gain some knowledge
and skills
External rewarding: learning is hard work in order to achieve external
rewards and avoid punishment
School-bounded learning
Teacher-based learning: teachers are the major source of knowledge and
learning
Separated learning: students are often arranged to learn in a separated
way to keep them responsible for their individual learning; they have
few opportunities to mutually support and learn
Fixed period and within school: learning happens only in school within a
given time frame; graduation tends to be the end of learning
Limited opportunities: students can learn the standard curriculum from
their textbooks and related materials assigned by their teachers
Localized and globalized students and learning
Multiple sources of learning: students can learn from multiple sources
inside and outside their schools, locally, and globally
Networked learning: grouped and networked learning is important to
sustain the learning climate and multiply the learning effects
through mutual sharing and inspiration
Life-long and everywhere: learning happens everywhere and is life long;
school education is just the start
Unlimited opportunities: students can maximize the opportunities for
their learning from local and global exposures through Internet,
Web-based learning, video-conferencing, cross-cultural sharing, and
different types of interactive and multi-media materials
World-class learning: students can learn from the world-class teachers, School bounded learning: students can learn from a limited numbers of
school teachers and their prepared materials
experts, peers, and learning materials from different parts of the
world
Local and international outlook: participation in local and international Mainly school experiences: alienated from the fast changing local and
global communities
learning programs to achieve the related outlook and experiences
beyond schools
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reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
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of their teacher. They go through standard
programs of education, in which students are
taught in the same way and at the same pace,
even though their ability may be different.
Individualized programs seem to be
unfeasible. The learning process is
characterized by absorbing certain types of
knowledge: students are ``students'' of their
teachers and they absorb knowledge from
their teachers. Learning is a disciplinary,
receiving, and socializing process such that
close supervision and control of the learning
process is necessary. The focus of learning is
on how to gain some knowledge and skills.
Learning is often perceived as hard work to
achieve external rewards and avoid
punishment.
School-bounded learning: in the traditional
paradigm, all learning activities are schoolbounded and teacher-based. Students learn
from a limited number of school teachers and
their prepared material. Therefore, teachers
are the major source of knowledge and
learning. Students learn the standard
curricula from their textbooks and related
materials assigned by their teachers.
Students are often arranged to learn in a
separated way and are made responsible for
their individual learning outcomes. They
have few opportunities to mutually support
and learn. Their learning experiences are
mainly school experiences alienated from the
fast changing local and global communities.
Learning happens only in school within a
given school time frame. Graduation tends to
be the end of students' learning.
About teachers and teaching
New paradigm of teaching
In the new triplization paradigm, teachers
and their teaching should be triplized:
individualized, localized, and globalized (see
Table VI).
Individualized teachers and teaching:
teachers and their teaching are facilitated in
a way such that all types of transfer,
adaptation, and development of related
values, knowledge, technology, and norms
during the teaching process can maximize
their potentials to facilitate students'
learning in an optimal way. Teaching is
considered a process to initiate, facilitate,
and sustain students' self-learning and selfactualization; therefore, teachers should play
a role as a facilitator or mentor who support
students' learning. The focus of teaching is to
arouse students' curiosity and motivation to
think, act, and learn. Also, teaching is to
share with students the joy of the learning
process and outcomes. To teachers
themselves, teaching is a life-long learning
process involving continuous discovery,
experimenting, self-actualization, reflection,
and professional development. Teachers
should be MI teachers who can set a model
for students in developing their MIs. Each
teacher has his/her own potential and
characteristics, and different teachers can
teach in different styles to maximize their
own contributions.
Localized and globalized teachers and
teaching: the new paradigm emphasizes that
teachers and their teaching should be
facilitated in such a way such that all types of
transfer, adaptation and development of
related values, knowledge, technology, and
norms can bring in local and global
resources, support and networks to maximize
the opportunities for their development in
teaching and their contributions to students'
learning. Through localization and
globalization, there are multiple sources of
teaching, for example, self-learning programs
and packages, Web-based learning, outside
experts, and community experiental
programs, inside and outside their schools,
locally and globally. Teachers can maximize
the opportunities to enhance effectiveness of
their teaching from local and global
networking and exposure through the
Internet, Web-based teaching, videoconferencing, cross-cultural sharing, and
different types of interactive and multi-media
materials (Education and Manpower Bureau,
1998). With their help, students can learn
from the world-class teaching materials,
experts, peers, and teachers in different parts
of the world such that their teachers'
teaching can become world-class teaching.
Through participation in local and
international development programs,
teachers can achieve global and regional
outlooks and experiences beyond schools.
Furthermore, their teaching is a type of
networked teaching. Teachers are grouped
and networked locally and globally to
develop and sustain a new professional
culture and multiply their teaching effects
through mutual sharing and inspiration.
They become a world class and networked
teacher through localization and
globalization. It is not a surprise that each
teacher can have a group of life-long partner
teachers in other parts of the world to
continuously share and discuss their
experiences and ideas of professional
practice.
Traditional paradigm of teaching
As discussed in the traditional site-bounded
paradigm of learning, teachers and their
teaching are often perceived as part of the
reproduction and perpetuation process of the
existing knowledge and manpower structure
to sustain developments of the society. As
[ 165 ]
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
compared in Table VI, the characteristics of
teacher and teaching are contrastingly
different from those in the new paradigm.
Reproduced teachers and teaching: teachers
are the centre of education. They have some
technical, social, and professional
competencies to deliver knowledge to
students. Teachers teach in some standard
styles and patterns to ensure standard
knowledge to be taught to students even
though teachers' potentials and personal
characteristics may be different. Their major
task is to transfer some knowledge and skills
they previously have to students, and
therefore teaching is often a disciplinary,
delivery, training, and socializing process.
Also, teaching is often perceived as hard
work in order to achieve some external
standards in examinations.
School-bounded teachers and teaching: in the
traditional paradigm, teachers and their
teaching are bounded within the school.
Schools are the major venue for teaching and
teachers are the major source of knowledge.
Teachers are often arranged to teach in a
separated way and are kept responsible for
their teaching outcomes. They have few
opportunities to mutually support and learn.
Their teaching is bounded such that teachers
teach the standard curricula with their
textbooks and related materials assigned by
their schools and the education authority.
The teachers and their teaching are often
alienated from the fast changing local
communities or international contexts. From
these traditional perspectives, teachers are
clearly school-bounded and separated, who
rarely have any global and regional outlook
Table VI
Two paradigms for school education: teacher and teaching
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Individualized teacher and teaching
As facilitator: teacher is the facilitator or mentor to support
students' learning
MI teacher: he/she sets a model of MI person for students in
developing their MIs
Individualized teaching style: each teacher has his/her own potential
and characteristics and different teachers can teach in different
styles to maximize their own contributions
Arousing curiosity: the focus of teaching is to arouse students'
curiosity and motivation to
in the new millennium
Yin Cheong Cheng
Asia-Pacific Centre for Education Leadership and School Quality, Hong Kong
Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Keywords
Education, Improvement, Society,
Paradigm
Introduction
The rapid globalization, long lasting impacts
of information technology, drastic shocks of
This article proposes a new
the 1997 economic downturn, and strong
paradigm including the concepts of
demands for economic and social
contextualized multiple
developments so as to excel in both
intelligences (CMIs) and
triplization for reforming education. international and regional competition have
A pentagon theory is developed as become driving forces of educational changes
the base for learning and teaching,
and developments in the Asia-Pacific region
to help students develop the
and other parts of the world to face up the
necessary CMIs in the new
century. Then the article illustrates challenges particularly in the new century. It
the concepts and processes of
is evident that numerous educational
triplization, including globalization,
reforms and school restructuring movements
localization, and individualization,
and explains why they together can are going on to pursue educational
provide a completely new paradigm effectiveness in nearly the whole of the Asiato reform school education,
Pacific region (Townsend and Cheng, 1999).
curricula and pedagogy and how
Policy-makers and educators in each country
they can substantially contribute
to the development of CMIs, of not have to think how to reform curricula and
pedagogy and to prepare their young people
only students, but also teachers
and schools. Finally, the
to cope more effectively with the challenges
implications of the new paradigm
of the new era (Dalin and Rust, 1996; Gardner,
for changing curricula and
pedagogy are advanced. It is hoped 1999). Unfortunately, the environment is
changing too fast and is full of uncertainties
that the new century education
can support students becoming
and ambiguities. In such a context, most
CMI citizens, who will be engaged
policy-makers and educators get confused
in life-long learning and will
creatively contribute to building up with numerous novel but conflicting ideas
a multiple intelligence society and and lose their direction in the rapid
global village.
globalization; they lack a comprehensive
framework for understanding the rapid
developments and their impacts and for
advancing significant and relevant
implications for innovations in curricula and
This paper is adapted from
a keynote speech presented pedagogy. It is not a surprise that most of
their reform efforts become reactive,
at The 5th UNESCO-ACEID
International Conference on piecemeal, fragmented, or finally ineffective
``Reforming Learning,
even though they have worked very hard and
Curriculum and Pedagogy:
invested huge resources in them with a good
Innovative Visions for the
will.
New Century'' in Thailand,
13-16 December 1999.
My paper aims to provide a new paradigm
for understanding and developing school
education to meet the challenges in both local
and international communities in the new
The International Journal of
Abstract
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0951-354X]
[ 156 ]
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emerald-library.com
millennium. Based on the previous research
on multiple educational functions, I will
delineate the nature of contextualized
multiple intelligences (CMIs) and illustrate
their importance in the development of
citizens and their society in both the local
and global contexts of complicated
technological, economical social, political,
cultural, and learning environments.
Furthermore, I will propose a pentagon
theory of CMIs as the base for reforming
learning, teaching, and schooling through
which students can develop the necessary
CMI in the new century. Then, I will
illustrate the new conceptions and processes
of globalization, localization, and
individualization, and then explain why they
together can provide a completely new
paradigm of school education and how they
can substantially contribute to the
development of CMI of not only students but
also teachers and schools. Afterwards, I will
discuss further the implications of the new
paradigm of education for reforming
curricula and pedagogy so as to cope with the
challenges in the new century. For
convenience, I would like to name this
paradigm as the CMI-triplization paradigm of
education.
CMIs
In the light of the biological origins of each
problem-solving skill, Gardner (1993)
suggested that there are seven human
intelligences, including musical intelligence,
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, logicalmathematical intelligence, linguistic
intelligence, spatial intelligence,
interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal
intelligence. This biological perspective of
multiple intelligences (MIs) may be useful to
understand individual's cognitive
competence in terms of a set of basic abilities
or ``intelligences'' (Gardner, 1993). When we
want to design a curriculum and pedagogic
methods to develop students' related abilities
and intelligences to survive a context of
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
complicated technological, economic, social,
political, and cultural environments,
however, this perspective may be too `` basic''
and limited and does not have a strong and
direct relevance to such a context in the new
century. Comparatively, it is useful to design
curricula and pedagogy for early child
education or lower primary education to
develop their basic abilities, but it is not
sophisticated enough for higher form
education that should be highly
contextualized to the social, economic,
political, cultural, and technological
developments (Berman, 1995; Guild and
Chock-Eng, 1998; Guloff, 1996; Mettetal and
Jordan, 1997; Teele, 1995).
My previous research on school
effectiveness (Cheng, 1996) has shown that
there are five different types of school
functions in the new century, including the
economic/structural functions, social
functions, political functions, cultural
functions, and educational functions. All
these functions represent the different
contributions of education to development of
individuals, the school as an institution, the
community, the society, and the
international community in these areas. To
achieve these functions, education should
develop students' intelligence in the areas of
these five functions. Further, taking into
consideration the traditional assumptions of
human nature in social contexts (Bolman and
Deal, 1997; Schein, 1980), as well as the
importance of technology to development, we
can assume that human nature can be
represented by a typology, including
technological person, economic person,
social person, political person, cultural
person, and learning person, in a complicated
context of the new century. Therefore,
human intelligence should be contextualized:
that is, in a context of the technological,
economical social, political, cultural and
learning environments in the new
millennium. As such, the human intelligence
can be categorized into the following six
CMIs shown in Table I, including
technological intelligence, economic
intelligence, social intelligence, political
intelligence, cultural intelligence and
learning intelligence.
Pentagon theory of CMI development for
curricula and pedagogy
Based on these CMIs, a Pentagon Theory of
CMI development for reforming education,
curricula and pedagogy can be proposed to
meet the developmental needs in the new
millennium. It suggests that school education
should be re-designed based on the premises
of a new paradigm ± as depicted in Figure 1 ±
as follows.
Relevant to the development of CMIs
The development of students' CMIs is the
basic condition for the development of
individuals, institutions, communities,
societies, and international communities in
the complex local and global contexts,
particularly in the technological, economical
social, political, cultural, and learning
aspects. Therefore, the curricula, pedagogy
and school education should be reformed
with clear relevance and concrete linkages
with the development of CMIs.
Encouraging CMI interactions
The relationships among these six CMIs are
interactive and mutually reinforcing with
the learning intelligence at the centre as
shown by the pentagon in Figure 1. The
design of school education should encourage
and facilitate such interactions and
reinforcements among CMIs. This has strong
implications for the needs of balanced
curricula and pedagogy not only in lower
grades of primary and secondary education
but also in tertiary education, if we want to
have citizens with broad mind sets or MIs to
deal with the diverse challenges in the new
era.
Facilitating intelligence transfer
Intelligence transfer from one type to another
(e.g. from economic intelligence to political
intelligence or social intelligence) should be
encouraged and facilitated to achieve a
higher level of intelligence or meta-thinking.
The transfer itself can represent a type of
intelligence creativity and generalization. It
is hoped that inter-intelligence transfer can
be transformed into a dynamic, ongoing and
self-developing process not only at the
individual level but also at the group,
institutional, community, society, even
international levels. This will be very
important in the creation of a high level
knowledge-based and thinking society or an
intelligent global village.
Taking learning intelligence as central
To accelerate the development of all other
CMIs, the development of learning
intelligence can play a central role (Figure 1).
Instead of teaching and learning huge
volumes of information and factual
materials, the content of curricula and the
process of pedagogy should put emphasis on
developing students' ability to persistently
learn how to learn systematically, creatively,
and critically. This may partly reflect why
the current educational reforms in different
parts of the world emphasize the ability and
attitude to life-long learning in curricula and
pedagogy (Education Commission, 1999;
Townsend and Cheng, 1999).
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
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Table I
CMIs
Human nature in social
contexts
CMI
Learning person
Learning intelligence
Technological person
Economic person
Social person
Political person
Cultural person
It refers to the ability to learn and think creatively and
critically and to optimize the use of biological/
physiological abilities
Technological intelligence It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
technologically and maximize the benefits of various
types of technology
Economic intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
economically and to optimize the use of various
resources
Social intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage socially
and to effectively develop harmonious interpersonal
relationships
Political intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
politically and to enhance win-win outcomes in
situations of competing resources and interests
Cultural intelligence
It refers to the ability to think, act and manage
culturally, to optimize the use of multi-cultural assets
and create new values
Developing CMI teachers and CMI
schools
Globalization, localization and
individualization of education
The success of implementing CMI education
for students depends heavily on the quality of
teachers and the school. Whether teachers
themselves can develop and own a higher
level of CMI and whether the school can be a
MI organization and can provide a MI
environment for teaching and learning will
affect the design and implementation of CMI
education.
Therefore, in the reform of school
education, how to develop teachers as MI
teachers and schools as MI schools through
staff development and school development
inevitably become an important agenda and
necessary component.
In order to maximize the opportunities for
development of CMIs for students, teachers,
and the school, globalization, localization,
and individualization in schooling, teaching,
and learning are important and necessary to
the reform of school education, curricula,
and pedagogy in the new era. The following
paragraphs will highlight their conceptions
and implications for development of CMIs.
Figure 1
Pentagon theory of CMI development for redesign of curriculum and
pedagogy (with globalization, localization and individualization)
[ 158 ]
Definition of the CMI
Triplization: globalization, localization, and
individualization
Rapid globalization is the one of the most
salient aspects of the new millennium
particularly since the fast development of
information technology (IT) in the last two
decades (Brown, 1999). To different
observers, different types of globalization can
be identified even though most of the
attention is in the areas of economy,
technology, and culture (Brown and Lauder,
1996; Waters, 1995). From a broader
perspective consistent with the concepts of
CMIs, we may classify it into multiple
globalization, including technological
globalization, economic globalization, social
globalization, political globalization, cultural
globalization, and learning globalization in
the new millennium (Figure 2). Particularly,
learning globalization is very important,
reflecting the global concern, networking,
and sharing of how to learn and develop and
face up to the challenges of an era of change
and transformation in different areas.
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
Inevitably, how education should be
responsive to the trends and challenges of
globalization has become a major concern in
policy making in these years (Ayyar, 1996;
Brown and Lauder, 1996; Fowler, 1994; Green,
1999; Henry et al., 1999; Jones, 1999; Little,
1996; McGinn, 1996; Curriculum Development
Council, 1999). In ongoing policy discussion
of educational reforms, people emphasize the
importance and impacts of globalization on
the future of next generations and their
society and try to make every effort to adapt
their education system, as well as curricula
and pedagogy, to cope with the demands and
challenges from globalization. Unfortunately,
they often ignore the necessity and
importance of localization and
individualization or they put these three
processes in a contradictory position.
Without localization in education, they will
be unable to meet the local needs, involve
community support, and enhance site-level
motivation and initiatives (Kim, 1999; Cheng,
1996). Without individualization in
education, all efforts of reforms will be
unable to meet the needs of students and
teachers (as well as schools) and to motivate
them to be effective in teaching and learning.
In other words, these reforms will not be able
to elicit the necessary initiative,
imagination, and creativity from school
members and community members, and to
make contribution to the process of
globalization, not just receiving its impacts.
Figure 2
Globalization, localization and individualization
Therefore, globalization, localization, and
individualization are all necessary
components in current educational reforms.
All of these processes as a whole can be taken
as a triplization process (i.e. triple izations)
that can be used to discuss educational
reforms and formulate the new pedagogic
methods and environments to implement
new curricula for enhancing CMIs of
students. Triplization or all these three
processes are necessary to educational
change and development in the new
millennium.
In order to re-conceptualize and reengineer
school education and change curricula and
pedagogy for the new millennium, the
phenomena of globalization, localization, and
individualization can be perceived and
illustrated as shown in Figure 2 and Table II.
Globalization
It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and
development of values, knowledge,
technology and behavioral norms across
countries and societies in different parts of
the world from and/or to a society, a
community, an institution, or an individual.
The typical phenomena and characteristics
associated with globalization include growth
of global networking (e.g. Internet, world
wide e-communication, and transportation),
global transfer and interflow in
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning aspects, international
alliances and competitions, international
collaboration and exchange, global village,
multi-cultural integration, and use of
international standards and benchmarks.
Depending on the perspectives, the
globalization processes is also described by
some different and popular concepts, such as
standardization, normalization, diffusion,
socialization, politicization, sharing, cultural
transplant, multiculturalism, colonization,
hybridization, and networking (Pieterse,
1995; Brown, 1999; Waters, 1995).
Implications of globalization for education
should include maximizing the global
relevance, support, intellectual resources,
and initiative in schooling, teaching, and
learning (Daun, 1997). Some examples of
globalization in curricula and pedagogy are
Web-based learning; learning from the
Internet; international visit/immersion
programs; international exchange programs;
international partnership in teaching and
learning at the group, class, and individual
levels; interactions and sharing through
video-conferencing across countries,
communities, institutions, and individuals;
and new curricula content on technological,
economic, social, political, cultural, and
learning globalization.
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reforming education in the
new millennium
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Table II
Conceptions and implications of triplization
Triplization
Conceptions and characteristics
To maximize the global relevance, support,
Transfer, adaptation, and development of
intellectual resources, and initiative in
values, knowledge, technology and
schooling, teaching, and learning: e.g.
behavioral norms across countries and
Web-based learning
societies in different parts of the world
International visit/immersion program
from/to a society, a community, an
International exchange program
institution, or an individual (teacher or
Learning from Internet
student):
International partnership in teaching and
Global networking
learning at group, class, and individual levels
Technological, economic, social, political,
Interactions and sharing through videocultural, and learning globalization
conferencing across countries, communities,
Global growth of the Internet
institutions, and individuals
International alliances and competitions
Curriculum content on technological,
International collaboration and exchange
economic, social, political, cultural, and
Global village
learning globalization
Multi-cultural integration
International standards and benchmarks
To maximize the local relevance, community
Localization
Transfer, adaptation, and development of
support and initiative in schooling, teaching
related values, knowledge, technology, and
behavioral norms from/to the local contexts: and learning: e.g.
Community involvement
Local networking
Parental involvement and education
Technological, economic, social, political,
Home-school collaboration
cultural, and learning localization
School accountability
Decentralization to the local site level
School-based management
Indigenous culture
School-based curriculum
Community needs and expectations
Community-related curriculum
Local involvement, collaboration and support
Ability grouping/classroom
Local relevance and legitimacy
Curriculum content on technological,
School-based needs and characteristics
economic, social, political, cultural, and
Social norms and ethos
learning localization
To maximize motivation, initiative, and
Individualization Transfer, adaptation, and development of
creativity in schooling, teaching, and
related external values, knowledge,
learning: e.g. Individualized educational
technology, and behavioral norms to meet
programs
the individual needs and characteristics:
Individualized learning targets, methods, and
Individualized services
progress schedules
Development of human potential in
Self life-long learning, self-actualizing, and
technological, economic, social, political,
self-initiative
cultural and learning aspects
Self-managing students, teachers, and
Human initiative and creativity
schools
Self-actualization
Meeting special needs
Self-managing and self-governing
Development of CMIs
Special needs
Globalization
Localization
It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and
development of related values, knowledge,
technology, and behavioral norms from/to
the local contexts. It has two types of
meanings: first, it can mean the adaptation of
all related external values, initiatives, and
norms to meet the local needs at the society,
community, or site levels; second, it can also
mean the enhancement of local values,
norms, concern, relevance, participation,
and involvement in the related initiatives
and actions. Some characteristics and
[ 160 ]
Preliminary implications for curriculum and
pedagogy
examples of localization are as follows: local
networking; adaptation of external
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning initiatives to local
communities; decentralization to the
community or site level; development of
indigenous culture; meeting community
needs and expectations; local involvement,
collaboration, and support; local relevance
and legitimacy; and concern for school-based
needs and characteristics and social norms
and ethos (Tam et al., 1997; Kim, 1999; Cheng,
1998).
Yin Cheong Cheng
A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
The implications of localization to change
in education, curricula and pedagogy are to
maximize the local relevance, community
support, and initiative in schooling,
teaching, and learning. Some examples for
practice of localization include community
and parental involvement in school
education; home-school collaboration;
assurance of school accountability;
implementation of school-based
management, school-based curricula and
development of new curricula content on
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural, and learning localization (Sabar,
1991, 1994).
Individualization
It refers to the transfer, adaptation, and
development of related external values,
knowledge, technology, and behavioral
norms to meet the individual needs and
characteristics. The importance of
individualization to human development and
performance is based on the concerns and
theories of human motivation and needs ( e.g.
Maslow, 1970; Manz, 1986; Manz and Sims,
1990; Alderfer, 1972). Some examples of
individualization are the provision of
individualized services; emphasis on human
potentials; promotion of human initiative
and creativity; encouragement of selfactualization; self-managment and selfgovernment; and concern for special needs.
The major implication of individualization in
curricula and pedagogy is to maximize
motivation, initiative, and creativity of
students and teachers in schooling, teaching,
and learning through such measures as
implementing individualized educational
programs; designing and using
individualized learning targets, methods, and
progress schedules; encouraging students
and teachers to be self-learning, selfactualizing, and self-initiating; meeting
individual special needs; and developing
students' CMIs.
With the concepts of triplization, students,
teachers, and schools can be considered to be
globalized, localized, and individualized
during the process of triplization. Or, simply,
they are triplized. Of course, they themselves
can contribute to globalization, localization,
and individualization through their own
globalizing, localizing, and individualizing.
A new paradigm of school
education: CMIs and triplization
A new paradigm of school education for the
new millennium can be built on the concepts
of CMIs, globalization, localization, and
individualization in schooling, teaching and
learning. Its assumptions about the future of
the world, human nature, the developments
of individuals and the society, the aims of
education, the students and learning, the
teachers and teaching, and the school and
schooling are contrastingly different from
the traditional paradigm, as shown in Tables
III-VII. The new century paradigm is also
named as ``New CMI-triplization paradigm''
and the traditional one as ``Traditional sitebounded paradigm.''
About the world, human nature, and
development
The new CMI-triplization paradigm assumes
that the world is in multiple globalization
including technological, economic, social,
political, cultural, and learning
globalizations. Also, these globalizations are
increasingly interacting in the whole world.
The world is moving very fast to become a
global village, in which different parts of the
world are rapidly networked and globalized
through the Internet and different types of IT,
communications, and transportation
(Albrow, 1990; Naisbitt and Aburdence, 1991).
All countries and areas have more and more
common concerns and sharing. Also, the
interactions between nations and people
become boundless, multi-dimensional, multilevel, fast, and frequent. They become more
and more mutually dependent with
international collaborations, exchanges, and
interflows.
In the new paradigm, human nature in a
social context of the new millennium is
assumed to be multiple, as a technological
person, economic person, social person,
political person, cultural person, and
learning person in a global village of
information, high technology, and multicultures. Both individuals and the society
need multiple developments in the
technological, economic, social, political,
cultural and learning aspects. Life-long
learning individuals and a learning society
(or knowledge society) are necessary to
sustain the continuous multiple
developments of individuals and the society
in a fast changing era (Drucker, 1993, 1995).
From the view point of the CMI theory, the
society has to tend towards a multiple
intelligence society that can provide the
necessary knowledge and intelligence base
and driving force to support the multiple
developments. And the individuals have to
tend towards being multiple intelligence
citizens who can contribute to the
development of a MI society.
As compared in Table III, the traditional
paradigm perceives that the world has
limited globalization, mainly in the economic
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
and social aspects. All the nations in different
parts of the world are loosely related, if not
isolated, in only some limited areas
especially in the economic aspect. They have
serious competitions and conflicts more than
sharing and collaboration. There are very
limited, loose, and weak interactions
between nations and people. As a whole, they
are loosely coupled with some limited
international collaborations and interflows
(Beare and Slaughter, 1993; Naisbitt, 1984).
Human nature in such a context is mainly
assumed as a economic person or a social
person in an industrial or business society.
Both individuals and the society pursue
narrowed developments, mainly on some
aspects such as economic, social, or political
developments. School or vocational
education is assumed necessary to provide
the needed manpower for certain
developments of a society at some stages
(Cheng and Ng, 1992; Cheng, 1995). Therefore,
the need for life-long learning or for a
learning society may not be so important.
The society is an industrial or agricultural
society with emphasis on some types of
intelligence or knowledge related to the
existing stage of development of a society.
Individuals are expected to be citizens with
bounded types of knowledge or skills that
meet the needs of society at a certain stage of
development.
About the education environment and aims
of education
Following the assumptions about the world
and development, the new century paradigm
assumes that the education environment is
inevitably characterized by triplization,
including globalization, localization, and
individualization at the different levels
(macro, messo, and micro) and aspects of the
education system. As the education
environment is very fast changing and
becoming very complicated and full of
uncertainties and ambiguities, the boundaries
of schools, as well as the education system,
become unclear and disappear. Students and
teachers interact frequently and intensively
with the ``real world'' in learning and teaching
(Townsend, 1999). Continuous educational
reforms and developments are inevitable due
to various local and global challenges
emerging from this changing education
environment.
In such a context, the aim of education is to
support students to become CMI citizens who
will be engaged in life-long learning and will
Table III
Two paradigms for school education: the world, human nature, development of individuals and the society
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Assumptions about the world
Multiple globalization: including technological, economic, social,
Limited globalization: mainly in economic and social aspects
political, cultural, and learning aspects
Multi-nations: different parts of the world are loosely related, if not
Global village: different parts of the world are rapidly networked and
isolated, in only some limited areas; they have competitions and
globalized through the use of the Internet and different types of IT,
conflicts more than sharing and collaboration
communications, and transportations; they have more and more
common concerns and sharing
Boundless multi-dimensional and multi-level interactions between
Limited interactions between nations and people: loose and weak
nations and people: fast and frequent
Mutual dependent: more and more international collaborations,
Loosely coupled: limited international collaborations and interflows
exchanges, and interflows
Assumptions about human nature
Mainly as economic person or social person in an industrial or
Multiple person: as technological person, economic person, social
business society
person, political person, cultural person, and learning person in a
global village of information, high technology, and multi-cultures
Assumptions about the development of the individual and society
Multiple developments: technological, economic, social, political,
Narrowed developments: mainly focus on some aspects such as
cultural, and learning
economic, social, or political
School or vocational education is necessary to provide the needed
Life-long learning individuals and a learning society are necessary to
manpower for certain developments of a society at some stages;
sustain the continuous developments of technological, economic,
the need for life-long learning or learning society may not be so
social, political, and cultural aspects of individuals and the society
important
Towards a MI society that can provide the necessary knowledge base
Being an industrial society emphasizes on some types of intelligence
and driving force to support the multiple developments
or knowledge related to the stage of development of a society
Towards a MI individual who can contribute to the development of a
Being a person with bounded knowledge, who has the type of
MI society
knowledge or skill that meets the needs of society at a certain
stage of development
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
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creatively contribute to the building up of a
MI society and a MI global village.
As compared in Table IV, the traditional
paradigm assumes that the education
environment is mainly characterized by the
needs of the local community, which is
slowly changing with moderate uncertainties
and complexity. Thus, the boundaries of
schools and the education system are
assumed to be relatively stable and certain.
Teachers and students rarely interact with
the ``real world'' in their teaching and
learning. Students enter the ``real world''
only after graduation or leaving schools.
Educational reforms are often limited and
superficial, mainly as a reaction to the raised
public accountability and local concern.
From this paradigm, the aim of education is
to equip students with the necessary skills
and knowledge to survive in a local
community, or to support the development of
a society, particularly in the economic and
social aspects at a certain stage.
About students and learning
New paradigm of learning
In the new paradigm of school education,
students and their learning should be
individualized, localized, and globalized
(Table V).
Individualized students and learning: it
assumes that the student is the centre of
education. ``Individualized student and
learning'' means that students and their
learning should be facilitated in a way such
that all types of transfer, adaptation, and
development of related values, knowledge,
technology, and norms during the learning
process can meet their needs and personal
characteristics, and that their potentials,
particularly CMI, can develop in an optimal
way. Different students can learn in different
styles. Individualized and tailor-made
programs (including targets, content,
methods, and schedules) for different
students are necessary and feasible. Students
can be self-motivated and self-learning with
appropriate guidance and facilitation, and
learning is a self-actualizing, discovering,
experiencing, and reflecting process. Since
the information and knowledge are
accumulated at an undeliverable speed but
are outdated very quickly, it is nearly
impossible to make any sense if education is
mainly to deliver skills and knowledge,
particularly when students can find the
knowledge and information easily with the
help of IT and Internet. Therefore, the new
century paradigm emphasizes that the focus
of learning is on how to learn, think, and
create. In order to sustain learning as life
long, learning should be facilitated as
enjoyable and self-rewarding.
Localized and globalized students and
learning: students and their learning should
be facilitated in such a way such that all
types of transfer, adaptation, and
development of related values, knowledge,
technology, and norms can bring in local and
global resources, support, and networks to
maximize the opportunities for their
development during the learning process.
Through localization and globalization, there
are multiple sources of learning. Students
can learn from multiple sources inside and
outside their schools, locally and globally,
and are not limited to a small number of
teachers in their schools. Participation in
local and international learning programs
can help them achieve the related
community and global outlook and
experiences beyond schools. Also their
Table IV
Two paradigms for school education: the education environment and aims of education
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Assumptions about the education environment
Triplization: education environment is characterized by globalization,
Local needs: education environment is mainly characterized by the
localization, and individualization
needs of local community
Fast changing: complex, full of uncertainties, and changing very fast
Slowly changing: moderately uncertain and changing slowly
Disappearing boundary: unclear and disappearing school boundary;
Stable boundary: still stable and certain within school boundary;
students and teachers often interact with the ``real world'' in
students enter the ``real world'' only after graduation or leaving schools
learning and teaching
Continuous development: continuous educational reform and
Limited reform: limited and superficial educational reforms due to the
development are inevitable due to various local and global
public accountability and local concern
challenges
Assumptions about the aim of education
Equip citizen with knowledge and skills: to equip students with the
Develop multiple intelligence citizen: to support students to become
necessary skills and knowledge to survive in a local community or to
CMI citizens who will be engaged in life long learning and will
support the development of a society particularly in the economic and
creatively contribute to building up a multiple intelligence society
social aspects at a certain stage
and a multiple intelligence global village
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
learning is a type of networked learning.
They will be grouped and networked locally
and internationally. Learning groups and
networks will become a major driving force
to sustain the learning climate and multiply
the learning effects through mutual sharing
and inspiration. We can expect that each
student can have a group of life-long partner
students in different corners of the world to
share their learning experiences.
It is expected that learning happens
everywhere and is life long. School education
is just the start or preparation for life-long
learning. Learning opportunities are
unlimited. Students can maximize the
opportunities for their learning from local
and global exposures through the Internet,
Web-based learning, video-conferencing,
cross-cultural sharing, and different types of
interactive and multi-media materials
(Education and Manpower Bureau, 1998).
Students can learn from the world-class
teachers, experts, peers, and learning
materials from different parts of the world. In
other words, their learning can be a worldclass learning.
Traditional paradigm of learning
In the traditional thinking, students and
their learning are part of the reproduction
and perpetuation process of the existing
knowledge and manpower structure to
sustain development of the society,
particularly in the social and economic
aspects (Cheng and Ng, 1992; Blackledge and
Hunt, 1985; Hinchliffe, 1987; McMahon, 1987).
It is not a surprise that education is
perceived as a process for students and their
learning being ``reproduced'' to meet the
needs of the society. The profiles of the
student and learning are clearly different
from those in the new paradigm (see Table V).
Reproduced students and learning: in
school education, students are the followers
Table V
Two paradigms for school education: student and learning
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Individualized student and learning
As centre: student is the centre of education
Individualized programs: each student has her/his own potential and
characteristics and different students can learn in different style;
individualized and tailor-made programs (including targets, content,
methods, and schedules) for different students are necessary and
feasible
Self-learning: students can be self-motivated and self-learning with
appropriate guidance and facilitation
Self-actualizing process: learning is a self-actualizing, discovering,
experiencing, and reflecting process; systematic facilitation and
support are necessary
How to learn: the focus of learning is on how to learn, think, and
create
Self-rewarding: learning is enjoyable and self-rewarding
Reproduced students and learning
As follower: student is the follower of teacher
Standard programs: students can be taught in the same way and same
pace even though their ability may be different; Individualized programs
seems to be unfeasible
Absorbing knowledge: students are ``students'' of their teachers and
absorb knowledge from their teachers
Receiving process: learning is a disciplinary, receiving and socializing
process; close supervision and control are necessary
How to gain: the focus of learning is on how to gain some knowledge
and skills
External rewarding: learning is hard work in order to achieve external
rewards and avoid punishment
School-bounded learning
Teacher-based learning: teachers are the major source of knowledge and
learning
Separated learning: students are often arranged to learn in a separated
way to keep them responsible for their individual learning; they have
few opportunities to mutually support and learn
Fixed period and within school: learning happens only in school within a
given time frame; graduation tends to be the end of learning
Limited opportunities: students can learn the standard curriculum from
their textbooks and related materials assigned by their teachers
Localized and globalized students and learning
Multiple sources of learning: students can learn from multiple sources
inside and outside their schools, locally, and globally
Networked learning: grouped and networked learning is important to
sustain the learning climate and multiply the learning effects
through mutual sharing and inspiration
Life-long and everywhere: learning happens everywhere and is life long;
school education is just the start
Unlimited opportunities: students can maximize the opportunities for
their learning from local and global exposures through Internet,
Web-based learning, video-conferencing, cross-cultural sharing, and
different types of interactive and multi-media materials
World-class learning: students can learn from the world-class teachers, School bounded learning: students can learn from a limited numbers of
school teachers and their prepared materials
experts, peers, and learning materials from different parts of the
world
Local and international outlook: participation in local and international Mainly school experiences: alienated from the fast changing local and
global communities
learning programs to achieve the related outlook and experiences
beyond schools
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
of their teacher. They go through standard
programs of education, in which students are
taught in the same way and at the same pace,
even though their ability may be different.
Individualized programs seem to be
unfeasible. The learning process is
characterized by absorbing certain types of
knowledge: students are ``students'' of their
teachers and they absorb knowledge from
their teachers. Learning is a disciplinary,
receiving, and socializing process such that
close supervision and control of the learning
process is necessary. The focus of learning is
on how to gain some knowledge and skills.
Learning is often perceived as hard work to
achieve external rewards and avoid
punishment.
School-bounded learning: in the traditional
paradigm, all learning activities are schoolbounded and teacher-based. Students learn
from a limited number of school teachers and
their prepared material. Therefore, teachers
are the major source of knowledge and
learning. Students learn the standard
curricula from their textbooks and related
materials assigned by their teachers.
Students are often arranged to learn in a
separated way and are made responsible for
their individual learning outcomes. They
have few opportunities to mutually support
and learn. Their learning experiences are
mainly school experiences alienated from the
fast changing local and global communities.
Learning happens only in school within a
given school time frame. Graduation tends to
be the end of students' learning.
About teachers and teaching
New paradigm of teaching
In the new triplization paradigm, teachers
and their teaching should be triplized:
individualized, localized, and globalized (see
Table VI).
Individualized teachers and teaching:
teachers and their teaching are facilitated in
a way such that all types of transfer,
adaptation, and development of related
values, knowledge, technology, and norms
during the teaching process can maximize
their potentials to facilitate students'
learning in an optimal way. Teaching is
considered a process to initiate, facilitate,
and sustain students' self-learning and selfactualization; therefore, teachers should play
a role as a facilitator or mentor who support
students' learning. The focus of teaching is to
arouse students' curiosity and motivation to
think, act, and learn. Also, teaching is to
share with students the joy of the learning
process and outcomes. To teachers
themselves, teaching is a life-long learning
process involving continuous discovery,
experimenting, self-actualization, reflection,
and professional development. Teachers
should be MI teachers who can set a model
for students in developing their MIs. Each
teacher has his/her own potential and
characteristics, and different teachers can
teach in different styles to maximize their
own contributions.
Localized and globalized teachers and
teaching: the new paradigm emphasizes that
teachers and their teaching should be
facilitated in such a way such that all types of
transfer, adaptation and development of
related values, knowledge, technology, and
norms can bring in local and global
resources, support and networks to maximize
the opportunities for their development in
teaching and their contributions to students'
learning. Through localization and
globalization, there are multiple sources of
teaching, for example, self-learning programs
and packages, Web-based learning, outside
experts, and community experiental
programs, inside and outside their schools,
locally and globally. Teachers can maximize
the opportunities to enhance effectiveness of
their teaching from local and global
networking and exposure through the
Internet, Web-based teaching, videoconferencing, cross-cultural sharing, and
different types of interactive and multi-media
materials (Education and Manpower Bureau,
1998). With their help, students can learn
from the world-class teaching materials,
experts, peers, and teachers in different parts
of the world such that their teachers'
teaching can become world-class teaching.
Through participation in local and
international development programs,
teachers can achieve global and regional
outlooks and experiences beyond schools.
Furthermore, their teaching is a type of
networked teaching. Teachers are grouped
and networked locally and globally to
develop and sustain a new professional
culture and multiply their teaching effects
through mutual sharing and inspiration.
They become a world class and networked
teacher through localization and
globalization. It is not a surprise that each
teacher can have a group of life-long partner
teachers in other parts of the world to
continuously share and discuss their
experiences and ideas of professional
practice.
Traditional paradigm of teaching
As discussed in the traditional site-bounded
paradigm of learning, teachers and their
teaching are often perceived as part of the
reproduction and perpetuation process of the
existing knowledge and manpower structure
to sustain developments of the society. As
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A CMI-triplization paradigm for
reforming education in the
new millennium
The International Journal of
Educational Management
14/4 [2000] 156±174
compared in Table VI, the characteristics of
teacher and teaching are contrastingly
different from those in the new paradigm.
Reproduced teachers and teaching: teachers
are the centre of education. They have some
technical, social, and professional
competencies to deliver knowledge to
students. Teachers teach in some standard
styles and patterns to ensure standard
knowledge to be taught to students even
though teachers' potentials and personal
characteristics may be different. Their major
task is to transfer some knowledge and skills
they previously have to students, and
therefore teaching is often a disciplinary,
delivery, training, and socializing process.
Also, teaching is often perceived as hard
work in order to achieve some external
standards in examinations.
School-bounded teachers and teaching: in the
traditional paradigm, teachers and their
teaching are bounded within the school.
Schools are the major venue for teaching and
teachers are the major source of knowledge.
Teachers are often arranged to teach in a
separated way and are kept responsible for
their teaching outcomes. They have few
opportunities to mutually support and learn.
Their teaching is bounded such that teachers
teach the standard curricula with their
textbooks and related materials assigned by
their schools and the education authority.
The teachers and their teaching are often
alienated from the fast changing local
communities or international contexts. From
these traditional perspectives, teachers are
clearly school-bounded and separated, who
rarely have any global and regional outlook
Table VI
Two paradigms for school education: teacher and teaching
New CMI-triplization paradigm
Traditional site-bounded paradigm
Individualized teacher and teaching
As facilitator: teacher is the facilitator or mentor to support
students' learning
MI teacher: he/she sets a model of MI person for students in
developing their MIs
Individualized teaching style: each teacher has his/her own potential
and characteristics and different teachers can teach in different
styles to maximize their own contributions
Arousing curiosity: the focus of teaching is to arouse students'
curiosity and motivation to