ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
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AN ERROR AN REPOR Presente to NALYSIS ON THE NINTH YEAR ST RT TEXTS OF SMP N 2 YOGYAKAR
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
nted as Partial Fulfillment of the Requiremento Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
STUDENTS’ ARTA ents
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AN ERROR ANALYSIS ON THE NINTH YEAR STUDENTS’
REPORT TEXTS OF SMP N 2 YOGYAKARTA
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
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ABSTRACT
Wijaya, Yunita. 2012. An Error Analysis on the Ninth Year Students’ Report Texts
of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta. English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Writing is considered among four skills that learners need to develop. In order to enhance the writing skill, Junior high school students should be able to produce several kinds of text that accomplish social purposes as mentioned in the basic competence of writing skill. From several kinds of text, the ninth grade students are expected to produce a text, namely Report text. Obviously, when students write, they will come up with errors. In fact, the errors tells a great deal about evidence of the students’ learning processes.
Considering the phenomenon, the researcher attempts to carry out a study. The research problem of this study is as follows: What are the common errors that ninth year students of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta produce in writing Report texts in terms of content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics? The teachers will find it beneficial since they can know the students’ difficulties of learning and improve the methods of teaching. Learning from the research, the researcher as a future English teacher can employ strategies of dealing with errors when assisting students in writing so that they do not become the single focus in students’ pieces of writing.
To answer the research problem, the researcher adapted document analysis. The instrument of the research was a checklist proposed by Tribble (1996), of course, with modification so as to be relevant for this study. The checklist consisted of categories of errors, grouped into the following: content,
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ABSTRAK
Wijaya, Yunita. 2012. An Error Analysis on the Ninth Year Students’ Report Texts
of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Menulis merupakan salah satu diantara empat keterampilan berbahasa yang perlu dikembangkan oleh siswa. Dalam rangka meningkatkan kemampuan menulis, siswa SMP harus dapat menghasilkan beberapa jenis teks yang memiliki fungsi sosial sebagaimana yang disebutkan dalam kompetensi dasar keterampilan menulis. Dari beberapa jenis teks, siswa kelas sembilan diharapkan mampu menghasilkan sebuah jenis teks yaitu Report text. Tidak dapat dipungkiri, ketika siswa menulis, mereka akan membuat kesalahan. Sesungguhnya, kesalahan tersebut memberitahukan sejauh mana proses belajar siswa.
Mengingat fenomena tersebut, penyusun bermaksud melaksanakan sebuah penelitian yang bertujuan menjawab masalah penelitian sebagai berikut: Apa saja kesalahan yang sering muncul dalam karangan Report text yang ditulis oleh siswa kelas sembilan SMP N 2 Yogyakarta dari segi isi, organisasi, tata bahasa, kosakata, dan mekanika menulis? Dengan adanya penelitian ini, guru dapat mengetahui kesulitan belajar siswa dan meningkatkan metode pengajaran. Peneliti dapat mengambil manfaat dari penelitian ini dimana kelak sebagai calon guru bahasa Inggris dapat mencari strategi dalam membimbing siswa menulis agar kesalahan tersebut tidak menjadi satu-satunya fokus dalam karangan siswa.
Untuk menjawab permasalahan dalam penelitian, penulis mengadaptasi
document analysis. Instrumen yang digunakan adalah checklist yang dirumuskan
oleh Tribble (1996), tentu saja, dengan sedikit modifikasi agar relevan dengan
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I would like to greatly thank the Almighty Jesus, for His wonderful blessings in my life. His power strenghthen me in troubled times when dealing with my thesis. I am deeply indebted to Him, who has given me all that I need through the help given by the people surround me.
I would like to acknowledge the enormous help given to me in writing this thesis. My greatest gratitude goes to my sponsor, Caecilia Tutyandari, S.Pd., M.Pd. for her invaluable assistance, attention, and patience in the preparation of the various drafts of the thesis. The thesis could not have been completed without her encouragement. I specially thank Drs. Barli Bram, M. Ed., Ph.D. for his willingness to check and proofread my thesis. I thank all lecturers of the English Language Study Program for their valuable lecturing along my study. I would also express my thanks for the secretariat staff at the English department of Sanata
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The special thanks I address to all friends in PBI 2008. I thank them for supporting me with sincere friendship. Several names I would like to single out.
They are Agung, Siska, Enda, Enjel, Vincent, Mas Yoko, Seto, Lia, Rio, Jeni, and others who I cannot mention one by one. I also express my deepest thanks to Dita, Grace, Ika, Prisca, Jastia, Dinda, Monik, Diah, Mia, B, and Xenia. I am so grateful for sharing times and queuing for consultations.
I would like to express gratitude to the big family of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta. My great appreciation goes to the headmaster and the teachers of of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta who has provided time and place to conduct study there. I would like to thank the students of the ninth grade of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta, who have been very helpful in the process of gaining the data for the study.
Lastly, I would like to give my appreciation to those whose names I cannot mention all. I specially thank for their contribution in helping me write the thesis.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ............................................................................................. i
APPROVAL PAGES ................................................................................. ii
DEDICATION PAGE ............................................................................... iv
STATEMENTS OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY...................................... v
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ............................................ vi
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ vii
ABSTRAK ..................................................................................................... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................... xi
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................... xiv
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................... xv
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A. Theoretical Description ............................................................... 9
1. Theories of Error................................................................ 9
a. Definitions of Error.................................................. 9
b. Levels and Types of Error ....................................... 10
2. Theories of Error Analysis ................................................ 11
3. Theories of of Writing ....................................................... 12
a. Definitions of Writing ............................................. 12
b. The Nature of Writing ............................................. 13
c. The Principles of Teaching Writing ........................ 14
d. Elements of Writing ................................................ 18
4. Report Texts ...................................................................... 28
B. Theoretical Framework ............................................................... 31
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY......................................................... 33
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a. Omission of General Classification ......................... 42
2. Errors in Organization ....................................................... 43
a. Errors in Topic Sentences of Paragraphs ................. 45
b. Errors in Supporting Sentences of Paragraphs ........ 46
c. Errors in Coherence ................................................. 48
3. Errors in Grammar ............................................................. 52
a. Errors in Singular-plural .......................................... 55
b. Errors in Tense ......................................................... 59
c. Errors in Word Order ............................................... 60
d. Errors in Article ....................................................... 61
e. Errors in Pronoun ..................................................... 62
f. Errors in Preposition ................................................ 64
4. Errors in Vocabulary ......................................................... 65
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Errors in Content Found in the Students’ Report Texts .................. 42
2. Errors in Organization Found in the Students’ Report Texts .......... 43
3. Errors in Grammar Found in the Students’ Report Texts ................ 53
4. Errors in Vocabulary Found in the Students’ Report Texts ............ 66
5. Errors in Mechanics Found in the Students’ Report Texts .............. 67
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. The Chart of the Total Number of Errors on the Ninth Year Students’ Report Texts .................................................. 42
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
Appendix A ................................................................................................. 78 Letter of Permission ........................................................................... 79
Appendix B .................................................................................................. 80 List of Names of the Ninth Grade Students of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta ......................................................................... 81
Appendix C ................................................................................................. 84 Examples of the Ninth Grade Students’ Report Texts ....................... 85
Appendix D ................................................................................................. 87 A Checklist of Data Gathering .......................................................... 88
Appendix E .................................................................................................. 91 Common Errors on the Ninth Year Students’ Report Texts of
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is going to provide the readers with the basic information and
rationale of the research related to the subject matter. It consists of six major concerns, namely, research background, research problem, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.
A. Research Background Being a global language, English is compulsory for Indonesian students.
English plays an essential role in educational field that Indonesian government puts English in the school curriculum as the first foreign language to be taught.
Thus, students are expected to acquire knowledge and participate in the process of
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spoken language to communicate, the purpose of writing is also to make readers understand.
Considering that writing is an important skill, Junior high school students have to produce pieces of writing. In enhancing writing skill, the students are expected to be able to produce texts that accomplish social purposes. To do so, the students should follow certain social conventions to organize messages in order that the readers can recognize the purpose of writing.
According to the Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik
Indonesia, number 22, 2006, the basic competence of writing skill of the ninth
grade students in the second semester is that the students are able to express meaning and rhetoric steps on a simple short essay to interact with the environment nearby. One of the genres that ninth graders must learn is Report texts. That is why Report texts are chosen to be the object of this study since this
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3 Due to the students’ difficulty in producing a good writing, students will
come up with errors. Ellis (1997) stated, errors are actually a “conspicuous” feature of learning (p.17). They exist in almost all language skills including writing. When breaking the rules, the students will produce unwell-formed compositions.
Concerning the phenomenon, the researcher proposes a research that deals with errors. The researcher adapts the categories of writing elements which are elaborated in checklist, developed by Tribble (1996) as a guidance for specifying the categorizations of error. This study, therefore, aims to analyze the common errors of written Report text composed by the ninth grade students of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta in terms of content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics.
SMP N 2 Yogyakarta was selected since it was the school where the
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language which cause the students’ learning difficulties in writing, especially writing Report texts and improve the methods of teaching and learning in order to assist students to achieve successful writing. Furthermore, the researcher can learn from this research. As a future English teacher, the researcher can devise ways of dealing with errors so that they do not become the sole focus of the students’ pieces of writing. Errors as signs of learning rather than unforgivable errors.
Being a teacher, the researcher should not search for errors but see the students’ areas of writing to which they need to give special attention.
B. Research Problems
The researcher formulates one research problem in this study. The research problem is as follows: What are common errors that ninth year students of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta produce in writing Report texts in terms of content, organization, grammar, vocabulary,
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5 D. Research objectives
In relation to the research problems, the objectives of the research are to answer the questions formulated in the research problem. Since there is one research problem, there will be one research objective in this study. It is an attempt to discover the common errors made by the ninth grade students in writing Report text by analyzing and classifying the common errors of students’ writing in terms of five categories. They are content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics. Thus, the students’ weaknesses in writing Report can be seen clearly.
E. Research Benefits
This study is expected to give positive contributions to the ninth year students, the English teacher of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta, and the researcher. First, the researcher expects that the errors work for the students in which they can use
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6 F. Definition of Terms
In this section, the researcher discuss several definition of terms related to the study. They are errors, writing, report texts, ninth grade students, and SMP N
2 Yogyakarta.
1. Errors
Ellis (1997) differentiated between mistakes and errors. It can be called mistakes when the students are able to recognize of producing items and self- correct the items they make if they are pointed to the students. Whereas, errors are deviant items that are not recognized by the students as errors and may occur repeatedly in the students’ outcome.
Ellis (1997) stated that errors are actually a “conspicuous” feature of learning (p.17). The learners commit errors in almost all language skills including writing. As learners do not know how to correct the errors unaided, they will
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7 Whether producing a good pieces writing, those skills are more or less experienced by th ninth year students of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta.
3. Report Text
Provided by Board of Studies (1998), the Information Report or what is so- called Report text is socially purposed to present factual information about an entire class of thing or animal (mammals, transport, computers, etc). It starts with classifying the subject matter and then describing its characteristics. The organization of a Report starts with general classification. In this part, stating the classification of general aspects of the things or phenomena will be discussed in general. The next part is description which elaborates the description of things or phenomena in detail. The language features of Report are focusing on generic participants, using simple present tense, and logical connection.
4. The Ninth Grade Students
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learning process going efficiently. They are language laboratory, computer media, hotspot area, LCD projector, and so on.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Chapter II aims at discussing the theoretical review related to the research study. The chapter covers both theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents theories that are fundamental and relevant tothe study. On the other hand, the implementation of the theories in this study is clarified in the theoretical framework in which the researcher summarizes and synthesizes all major relevant theories that enable the researcher to answer the research problems.
A. Theoretical Descriptions
The theoretical description comprises of definitions of errors, theories of error, theories of error analysis, theories of writing, and report texts.
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output that might not be intended by the learners and which can usually be corrected if they are pointed out to the learners. Errors, in contrast, are deviant items which were intended by the learners. It is usually difficult for the learners to correct the errors unaided and may recur in their output. Furthermore, mistakes are not as significant as errors because mistakes are not persistent in learners language, while it often takes a long time for the learners to eliminate errors from their writing.
Ellis (1997) additionally stated, a mistake is just a slip that the learner forgets the right form and later they can self-correct. Errors, on the other hand, are what the learners cannot self-correct. They are systematic deviations made by learners since they do not understand the rule. The presence of errors is the learners’ lacks of knowledge that occur regularly at certain stages in their learning development.
Gass and Selinker (1994) noted that errors as “red flags” provide evidence
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11 Errors in learners’ output can of course occur at all levels of the language
system. Some of the common types of error at each level are substance (mispronounciations, misspellings, punctuation), text (lack of cohesion), grammatical (morphology, word order), and discoursal (topical coherence, structural coherence, pragmatic aspects)
The researcher generalizes on the basic types of problem that can be found at all of those levels above. They are missing item, over-inclusion, and wrong choice. The missing item is the type in which an obligatory item is omitted, for example, a punctuation mark, a phoneme, a letter in a word, an auxiliary verb, or an element of text structure. Over-inclusion is an item redundant in the context, or is the result of overgeneralization of rules, for example, repeat again, putted.
Wrong choice is the incorret item selected by the learner, for example, the wrong word is used, or the wrong auxiliary is used with a main verb.
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identify strategies which learners use in language learning and obtain information on difficulties in language learning as an aid to teaching.
Gass and Selinker (1994) explained that there are several steps in conducting an error analysis. First, data need to be collected and serve as a base.
Second, identifying what the errors are, for example, incorrect organization of texts/ideas and sentence structure. The third step is classifying errors or categorizing errors into their types. The fourth one is quantifying errors or counting the number of existing errors made by learners. The fifth step is analysis of error sources. The last step is remediation. Based on the kind and frequency of an error type, pedagogical intervention is carried out. In this study, however, the researcher takes the first four steps only, whereas the fifth and six steps are unnecessary to do.
3. Theories of Writing
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a mental work of searching for ideas, thinking about how to expresss them, and even organizing them into statements and paragraphs in order that the readers can grasp the ideas easily.
In the idea that writing’s purpose is both express and impress, the writers serve two roles: being writers and readers. As writers, they express ideas or feeling. On the other hand, being readers, they need to have ideas expressed effectively in certain ways so that the readers can enjoy reading the compositions.
Concerning that writing is both process and product, the writer do such a step by step procedure as imagining, organizing, drafting, editing to serve a product (an essay, letter, or story). It reveals that writing is not only an end result but also a process that helps the writer to develop ideas. This process of writing is often cyclical.
b. The Nature of Writing
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correctness of writing rather than on how the writers create well-formed writing, the composing processes are ignored.
In contrast to the product-oriented approach, the process approach is seen as a more effective teaching writing approach. Hyland (2003) stated that this type emphasizes the writer as an independent producer of texts. This approach focuses on the steps involved in planning, drafting, and revising; it gives the learners better control on the content and form of what they write (Hyland, 2003). Nunan (1999) suggested that this approach focuses less on a perfect final draft. The writers are encouraged to get their ideas onto composition without being frightened of formal convention in the beginning stages. They then share their work with classssmates, getting feedback on the ideas before revising. It could be inferred that there will never be the perfect text, but that one can get closer to perfection through the process writing stages.
This research hopefully can be beneficial for the English teacher. It is
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writing. In this section, the researcher needs to review some basic ideas in teaching writing.
As stated by Brown (2007) and Nunan (2003), there are a few principles that every teacher should consider while planning a writing course. These principles can be adapted to the many different learning situations. First, the teacher makes the students understand the reasons for writing. Second, the teacher connects reading and writing. The third one is providing many opportunities for students to write. The fourth one is making feedback helpful and meaningful.
Lastly, the teacher frames the techniques in terms of prewriting, drafting, and revising stages.
First, the beginning stage gets the teacher to make the students understand the reasons for writing. They identify why they are writing. Here, the teacher directs the students to focus on the goal or main ifdea of writing.
Second, good writing skills usually develop from extensive reading. The
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to give feedback on the ideas before revising. After evaluating the students’ pieces of writing, the teacher should take time to discuss in class about the weaknesses of the students’ writing.
Lastly, the teacher presents techniques which is a part of what is so-called process writing. All writers decide on how to begin and organize the compositions. Students as writers need to know what they first put down on paper is not necessarily their finished product. They should not expect that the words they put onto papers are perfect. They get time for process to work.It becomes the process of discovery new ideas and new language forms to express those ideas.
Process of writing is a valuable learning tool for students. Process writing tends to be framed in three stages of writing: prewriting, drafting, and revising stages.
As described by Brown (2007), the prewriting stage encourages the generation of ideas. Generatig ideas is about finding ways to unlock ideas we have in our minds which can happen in numerous ways, such as reading (extensively)
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17 Brown (2007) suggested that the drafting proces goes to the step of writing
the first draft adapting the freewriting technique. After exploring ideas, students put the ideas into paragraph form, keep in mind how showing and using facts makes writing powerful and convincing. Their task here is to discover how they can best express their ideas in the clearest manner possible so that the readers will receive the intended message with the same topic.
According to Brown (2007), peer editing is a process of sharing what the students has written with others as the readers.The peers can respond to ideas, organization and style, even see if the students writers have been successful in conveying the intended meaning. This information feedbak is useful to improve writing.
In the process revising the students go through several steps of revision to make their compositions the best they can be (Brown, 2007). At this point, they reconsider what they have composed, learn the classmates feedback they agreed
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d. Elements of Writing
This study performs error categorization. The researcher needs the theories related to elements of writing as sources to categorize and analyze the errors on Report texts produced by the ninth year students of SMP N 2 Yogyakarta.
There are elements that should be considered in writing. Tribble (1996) divides the elements into five in terms of content, organization, grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics.
Some experts provide definitions of the five elements of writing. According to Zimmerman (1992), content displays all the necessary information incorporated in the writing, whereas, organization refers to the movement of arguments and the connectedness or ,logical links between the ideas. Stanley (1991) defined that grammar as a set of rules. It is the structure of our language, a field which merits study and invites analysis. Bram (1995) stated that vocabulary become the basic tool for writing. The words carry meaning; wrong words certainly do not get the
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the researcher to categorize the students’ writing errors into these types. Since, each element fulfill some criteria. Below is the discussion of the five: 1) Content the features of chosen genre mostly adhered to. There are variety of ideas.
Content relevant to the topic. 2) Organization
The ideas should be clearly stated and supported. The writers organize texts or sections appropriately. Logically sequenced. The appropriate connectives used. 3) Grammar
The writers should poduce hardly any errors of agreement, tense, number, word order, articles, pronouns, prepositions.
4) Vocabulary The appropriate word choice should be selected to convey the intended
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1) Organization This part mainly discusses some key aspects mentioned in the criteria of organization element above. They include topic sentence, coherence, and transitions.
a) Topic sentence Langan (2010) and Eliis (2003) explained that there are two basic parts of a paragraph. The point is usually expressed in one sentence called a main idea or topic sentence. The other sentences in the paragraph contain specific details that support or develop the main idea sentence.
Since a paragraph should have only one main idea, the topic sentence keeps the writer on track and helps the readers to focus on what the writers are saying.
We can have a paragraph without a topic sentence but it will be harder to organize so it is suggested to make a clear topic sentence for a paragraph as the summary of all information in the paragraph
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b) Coherence Bram (1995) considered that a paragraph is coherent when the sentences are linked together in such a way that the reader can move easily from one sentence to another and read the paragraph as an integrated whole, rather than as a series of separate sentences. A paragraph that lacks orderly movement will not be coherent, because your reader will not see how two sentences are connected one another.
Using transitions leads to coherence (Bram, 1995). As the word implies, a transition connects ideas. A coherent paragraph consists of interelated sentences which move in such a way that they smooth the way, one for another. Without transitions, it is difficult to create a coherent paragraph. However, too many transitions can make the writing sounds unnatural.
In addition, Langan (2011) argues that coherence plays a crucial role in making a paragraph read well. Every coherent paragraph contains smoothly-
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a. Add an idea in addition (to), similarly, also, furthermore, another, moreover
:
b. Add description (to give details) that, what, whatever, which, who, whom, whose
:
c. Give an example for example, for instance, such as
:
d. Show contrast however, in contrast, but, yet, on the other hand, though, eventhough, although, on the contrary, otherwise, not only, unless, while, whether, instead, at the same time
:
likewise, as if, in the same way, than
e. Compare ideas (to examine or
look for the difference between two or more things) :
f. Show cause and effect (to show because, since, hence, if, so, so that,
relathionships between ideas) consequently, therefore, thus, as a
result
:
g. Summarize or conclude in short, to summarize, to sum up, in conclusion, to conclude.
(to express important ideas in a short and clear form)
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23 Adding more complete, Langan (2011) classifies transitions into pieces.
According to him, the common transitional signals show addition, comparison or contrast, illustration, and cause and effect. Below are the examples of transitional words provided by Langan (2011):
a. Addition : and, also, another, finally, first, second, first of all, lastly, furthermore, in addition, last of all, moreover, next like, likewise, just like, alike, as, similarly b. Comparisons :
c. Contrast : but, however, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, yet
d. Illustration : for example, for instance, such as e. Causes and effect : so, as a result, consequently, so that, since, therefore
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to make an idea clear. Cause and effect connectives signal that the writer is going to describe results and effects.
2) Grammar Based on the criteria of elements of writing by Tribble (1996), the grammatical aspects are simplified into concord, tense, adjective, article, pronoun, preposition, sentence fragment, and run on sentence. The following is the further discussion about the suggestion of the grammmatical use in those aspects.
a) Subject-Verb-Agreement Bram (1995) stated that the verbs should agree in person and number with its subject. The writers should make sure that they use the correct singular and plural forms for verbs , number, and nouns or pronouns. The words ‘one, a, an, each, another, and every’ are followed by countable singular nouns. On the other hand, the words ‘two, three, both, many, some, a few, these, and those’ are followed by countable plural nouns. A plural noun has a plural verb following it.
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25 According to Stanley (1991), the word modifiers are placed before the elements
they modify. Adjective modifiers add to the meaning of nouns and pronouns, which are usually found as subjects, objects, or complements. It is used before a noun, for example, ‘heavy bag’; it is modified by an adverb, for example, ‘ a very heavy bag’.
Stanley (1991) suggested if the writers intend to use more than one adjective to modify a noun or pronoun, they have to set the adjectives in the correct order.
The following is the common rule to put adjective in order: determiner –
opinion – size/ appearance – weight – age – temperature – humidity – shape –
colour – nationality/origin – material – purposed) Article As noted by Stanley (1991), the articles are a, an, and the. They modify nouns. A and an are indefinite. The is definite; indicate something specific. The article a precedes nouns that start with a consonant sound. The article an precedes
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other hand, modify noun or adjective clauses, such as who, whom, whose, which, and that.
f) Preposition According to Stanley (1991), a preposition links a noun, a pronoun, or a group of words functioning as a noun to some other word in a sentence. It indicates the relationship of location and logic between the linked words. Prepositions include the following: about beneath except off toward above beside at the back of on under across between in case of onto underneath along beyond in front of on top of until among by in place of out up apart from down inside out of upon around for instead of outside up to at from into over with behind in near through within below during of throughout without 3) Mechanics
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i. Period To make a sentence readable and understandable, a sentence should be ended. One way to end a sentence is by added a period. ii. Comma
There are some special effects with comma. First, commas make sense of lists or series. Any time the writers list three or more items in a sentence, they have a series of items that needs commas to make sense. The last word in a series is connected by coordinating conjunctions (but, for, or, nor, so, or yet). Second, commas connect clauses. The writers can use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, or, nor, so, or yet) to join complete sentences together without confusing the reader. If the complete sentences the writers want to connect are very brief and closely related, they can flow together without a comma. iii. Apostrophe
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b) Spelling Bram (1995) suggested some guides to follow in order to avoid common spelling problems. The words there and their, and then and than shoud be used correctly. When a word ends in p, t, d, m, n, and l and has a short vowel in its final syllable, the consonant should be doubled when the suffixes -able, -ed, and
-ing are added. Furthermore, when the final syllable contains a long vowel, the
consonant should not be doubled.
c) Capitalization According to Stanley (1991), there are some convention related to capitalization. First, to capitalize a word, the writer must make the first letter of the word a capital letter. Second, capitalizing the first word of a sentence, for example, “ She hates to type.” Third, capitalizing proper nouns, such as the names of specific persons, places, and events.
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29 Lesser Slow Loris Generic structure
The Lesser Slow Loris is a mammal which can clamp Definition onto branches for long periods of time. To help it do this, the Loris has a network of blood vessels, called rate mirabile in its forearms and shanks.
It is a small mammal which is 7-10 in. long (175-250 Description of physical mm) and can weigh as much as 12 ounces or features
340grams. Being nocturnal the Loris has large round eyes. The Loris has no tail but has broad grasping feet. On its second toe it has a sharp claw. It also has an enlarged thumb and a reduced index finger.
The Lesser Slow Loris is a plump animal with soft, thick fur ranging in colour from light brownish-grey to Description of habitat, deep reddish brown with a dark stripe down the back food, and behavior and neck. It has a long snout with comb like front teeth which are used in grooming. It is found in Southern Asia, Vietnam, Borneo, and Sumatra. As it is tree-living , it is restricted to tropical rain forests. The diet of the Loris is made up of fruit and leaves, tender shoots, insects, birds, small mammals, and reptiles. It is nocturnal and sleeps by day rolled up in a ball.
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relationship between aspects of the topic. Third, some use of material processes to describe behavior. Fourth, timeless present tense is used to indicate usuality.
Fifth, reference chains referring to the topic (e.g.Sharks ... they) are precisely used. The sixth one is the use of technical terms. Lastly, the paragraphs with topic sentences are applied to organize information about various aspects.
In addition, Doyle (2004) stated that an information report is a type of description designed to document, organize, and store factual information. its social purpose is to to describe flora, fauna, objects and phenomena as objectively and systematically through facts. The information is presented as clearly as possible.The text structure of information report are classification and description of attributes or behaviors or functions,etc