Designing english academic writing instructional materials for the dentistry students at Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta.

DESIGNING ENGLISH ACADEMIC WRITING

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE DENTISTRY

STUDENTS AT GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

BY

RUTH HASTUTININGSIH Student Number: 021214027

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

2008

This thesis is dedicated to: .

Everyone all over the world who has

helped me believe in my dreams

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the Lord Jesus Christ, who keeps pouring all His blessings to me with love. His never-ending love and guidance keep me on my destined path. He has been so kind to give me a chance to know number of people who took participation directly or indirectly in completing this thesis. First of all, I owe a great debt to Paulus Kuswandono. S.Pd., M.Ed., my sponsor who willingly reads and gives corrections, comments, and suggestions to my thesis.

I owe a great debt to Prof. Dr. drg. Munakhir Mudjosemedi, S.U. as the dean of Dentistry Faculty Gadjah Mada University. drg. Muh. Masykur Rahmat, Sp.BM., as the Vice Dean 1, drg. Sri Suparwitri S.U., Sp.Ort., as the Vice Dean 2, drg. Bambang Priyono, S.U., as the Vice Dean 3 of Dentistry Faculty Gadjah Mada University who allow me to conduct research in Dentistry Faculty and the lecturer of English class Drs. Arief Rachman, M.Hum., who allows me to conduct his class. My thanks especially go to drg. Suryono, Ph.D., (Dentistry-UGM), dr. Michele Dawn Shen, M.Kes., (Medical-UGM), Miss Enny (PPBI-USD), Miss Siska (PPBI-UKDW), Pak Arief (English-UGM), whom I really appreciate for their big help in filling the questionnaires.

My gratitude also goes to all of the lectures in English Language Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University who have given me enough knowledge and who have provided me with examples of caring and perseverance that really enrich my life experiences. I would also like to thank to

Mbak Tari and Mbak Danik for helping me with the administrative matters. I am indebted to all students of first semester of Dentistry Faculty Gadjah Mada University and administration staff for helping me.

To my parents, Soedarsono and Hanna to whom I owe the greatest debt of love and understanding, I want to dedicate this thesis to them. To my brothers Hastangka, S.Fil., Lindra, and Daniel. I thank them for all the fight and sharing. My thank goes to my friends for her sharing and unforgettable experiences, all friends of PBI 2002 that I cannot mention one by one, and my special thank goes to Heather for reading this thesis.

Ruth Hastutiningsih

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ……….…….……….………….…..………… i

APPROVAL PAGE ………...…….………..……….…. ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY …..…………..…..…….…. iv

DEDICATION PAGE ………...…... v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………...………..…… vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………..…...….…..……..… viii

LIST OF FIGURES .…..….……….…………... x

LIST OF TABLES ……..………... xi

TABLE OF APPENDICES ..……….…..………...……...………… xii

ABSTRACT ……….……....……...…..………..…… xiii

ABSTRAK ………..…....………..…... xiv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ……….….……….…..…... 1

A. The Background of the Study ………..….….……….……….. 1

B. Problem Identification ………..….…..……….. 2

C. Problem Limitation ………..….…..………... 4

D. Problem Formulation ………...………...…………... 4

E. Objectives of the Study …………..……….…..…..………..… 5

F. Benefits of the Study ………....…..………..……….… 5

G. Definition of Terms ………..……..…………... 6

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ……….…………. 7

A Theoretical Description ………….…………...….……….…... 7

1. English for Academic Purposes ……...…….….……….. 7

a.) The Product Approach …………...……….……….. 8

b.) The Process Approach ……….….….…... 9

c.) Summarizing and Paraphrasing ……….……….. 9

2. Course Design ………...……….... 10

a. Course Design Models ………...…...…….…………...….. 10

1) Kemp’s Model ………...……... 10

2) Hutchinson and Waters’ Model ………...…..…..…………. 12

b. Need Analysis ……….…...…..………….………. 13

1) Target Situation Analysis …………...…….…………..……... 14

2) Present Situation Analysis ……….……... 15

c Learning Objectives ………...………….………..……..… 16

d The EAP Syllabus ……….……….………. 16

3. Material Design ………....…….….…... 16

a. Material Evaluation ………..…….……… 18

b. Material Development ……….…... 19

c. The Expanded Model ……….…..…..………..…….. 20

4. Writing and Teaching Academic Writing ……....………. 22

a. Process writing………...…..…...…….……… 23

b. Error Analysis ………..………….………. 27

B Theoretical Framework ………...…………..…………... 28

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ………...….…..…... 31

A Method .………...…...…..……….. 31

1. Educational Research and Development (R&D) …..……… 31

2. Need Survey ….………...….……… 36

B Respondents ….. ……….….…..……….. 37

1. The Respondents of Need Analysis Survey ….……...………….…. 37

2. The Respondents of Material Evaluation Survey …..……...………… 37

C Setting .………...…... 38

D Instruments .……….……….………... 38

1. Questionnaires ….………...……….. 39

2. Interviews …..………...…..…..……….. 40

3. Classroom Observation checklist .………....….……..…….…………. 41

E. Writing Procedure Document (Error Analysis) ….…….…..…..……….… 42

F. Data Gathering .……….…..….…..……….… 43

G. Data Analysis ….………...….….….……... 43

H. Research Procedure ………...…….…………... 45

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ………….… 47

A Conducting Needs Survey Research ……….…… 46

B. Analyzing the Data ……….... 49

C. Writing a Syllabus of Instructional Materials Development ……… 62

D. Developing Instructional Materials ….….……….………. 63

1. Selection of the Writing Tasks …..……… 64

2. The Technical Presentation …..………...….. 65

E. Evaluating the Instructional Materials …..……….. 66

F. Revision the Instructional Materials …..………. 67

1. The Second Research Respondents’ General Evaluation and Suggestions ….………...……… 67

2. Discussion on the Design Materials Evaluation …..…………..……… 69

G. Writing the Final Draft of the Materials ….……… 70

H. Presenting the Final Version of the Designed Materials …..……….….… 70

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ….……….…... 71

A. Conclusions …..………..…...…... 71

B. Suggestions …..……….….…..…... 72

BIBLIOGRAPHY …..……….……… 74 APPENDIX

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1 Kemp’s Instructional Model: then relationship of each step in the plan to the other step.

Figure 2. 2 A Learning Centered Approach to Course Design. (Hutchison and Waters 1987:72)

Figure 2. 3 The Materials Evaluation Process Model Figure 2. 4 A Materials Design Model.

Figure 2. 5 An Expanded Materials Model

Figure 2. 6 The Research Steps (Combined Models)

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 The First Questionnaire (Need Analysis)

Table 3.2 Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom Interaction (Checklist) Table 4.1 First Survey Data Setting Research

Table 4.2 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the First Survey Research.

Table 4.3 The Descriptive Statistics of Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom Interaction (Checklist)

Table 4.4 Sub-Categorized Errors

Table 4.5 The Second survey Research Data

Table 4.6 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the Second Survey Research.

Table 4.7 The Second Questionnaire Data Tabulation

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Permission Letters

Appendix 2 Need Survey First Questionnaire (Need Analysis) Appendix 3 Need Survey Second Questionnaire

Appendix 4 Worksheet Writing

Appendix 5 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the First Survey Research.

Appendix 6 Sub-Categorized Errors

Appendix 7 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the second Survey Research.

Appendix 8 The Designed Materials Syllabus and Lesson Plan Appendix 9 The Designed Materials Presentation.

ABSTRACT

Hastutiningsih, Ruth. 2008. Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students At Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta.

Nowadays the students must produce academic writing as an assignment and academic papers in order to finish their study. This study was meant to discuss how a set of academic writing instructional materials is designed and what the set of academic writing for the Dentistry instructional materials look like.

In order to answer the first question on how to develop the instructional materials, two combined models of instructional design were employed, i.e. Hutchinson and Waters’ and Kemp’s model. The steps recommended in the two models were identifying learner, analyzing learning and target situation, determining learning objectives, listing the subject content, making a choice of learning activities determining support services and evaluating and opinion on ten instructional materials from English instructor and experienced in teaching writing English for dentistry students or graduate students of other studies. From the second survey research respondent opinion of the designed materials, it can be seen that between the ranges of scales 1-5 the mean scores of the answer were 4.0. It means that most of the respondents agree that the designed set of academic writing skill proposed in this study had fulfilled the requirements of suitable material. The results of the second survey research were used as the basis for the revision and improvement of the instructional materials.

To answer the second question, text analysis of the Dentistry faculty textbooks, error analysis of the students writing drafts and the evaluation of the existing writing materials were carried out. The relevant tasks for the actual Dentistry students were drafting, identifying sentences, topic sentence, summarizing, outlining, paraphrasing, paragraph and essay writing.

The designed materials consist of eight units. Each unit is presented in three sections and sequenced from easier to more difficult, simpler to more complex and from controlled to free activities. The “Pre-writing stage” section acts as the input stimulus to motivate students’ interest on the topic. Then, the “language focus” provides opportunity for the students to break the language into pieces, study how it works and put it back together again. The “Whilst-writing” section provides explanation on various tasks to practice writing ranging from simple to more complicated tasks. Besides that students are provided exercises on writing tasks based on each type of tasks. The “Post-writing” section provides revising and editing where the lecturer gives comment and students analyze their mistake

Based on the conclusions, two suggestions are proposed. First, teachers need to carefully select materials in order to match the learners’ need. Second, it is suggested that the English Language Education Program of Sanata Dharma University train its students to be able to teach English for academic purpose and specific purpose to meet the demands of the education areas.

ABSTRAK

Hastutiningsih, Ruth. 2008. Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students At Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta.

Sekarang ini mahasiswa harus menghasilkan penulisan akademik sebagai tugas kuliah dan makalah akademik dalam menyelesaikan studi mereka. Studi ini dimaksudkan untuk bagaimana satu rangkaian tugas-tugas menulis untuk mengembangkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menulis tugas akademik untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi didesain dan seperti apa bentuk kelompok tugas tugas menulis itu.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, yakni bagaimana mengembangkan materi pengajaran, dua model kombinasi rancangan instruksi pengajaraan digunakan yakni model Hutchinson dan Waters dan model Kemp langkah-langkah yang dianjurkan dalam dua model ini adalah mengidentifikasi pembelajar, menganalisa situasi dan target belajar, menentukan tujuan pembelajaran, mendaftar isi materi pembelajaran, memilih kegiatan belajar, menentukan jasa jasa pendukung dan mengevaluasi meteri yang telah didesain. Penelitian survey yang kedua dilakukan untuk memperoleh evaluasi dan pendapat tentang survey materi pengajaran dari instruktur bahasa Inggris yang berpengalaman mengajar bahasa Inggris untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran gigi atau mahasiswa S2 disiplin ilmu lain. Dari pendapat respondent penelitian survey kedua, dapat dilihat bahwa antara skala 1 sampai 5 skor rata-rata jawaban adalah 4.0 ini berarti bahwa sebagian besar responden setuju bahwa kumpulan tugas-tugas menulis yang disusun untuk mengembangkan kemampuan menulis tugas-tugas akademik mahasiswa yang diusulkan selama studi ini telah memenuhi tuntutan materi yang sesuai. Dari hasil penelitian ini digunakan sebagai dasar bagi revisi dan penyempurnaan materi pengajaran.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, analisa wacana buku-buku pegangan kuliah bahasa Inggris, analisa kesalahan dari naskah konsep mahasiswa dan evaluasi materi materi writing yang ada dilaksanakann. Tugas-tugas menulis yang relevan untuk kuliah kuliah kedokteran gigi yang sebenarnya adalah tugas mencatat, menulis, mengidentifikasi kalimat, menulis kalimat utama, meringkas, membuat garis besar, membuat konsep, membuat paraphrase, menulis paragraf dan menulis esei.

Materi yang disusun terdiri dari delapan satuan pelajaran. Masing-masing satuan pelajaran disajikan dalam tiga bagian dan dirangkai dari yang lebih mudah ke yang lebih sulit, dari yang lebih sederhana ke yang lebih rumit, dari yang terkendali ke yang lebih bebas. Bagian tahapan “Pre-writing” berperan sebagai stimulus awal untuk memotivasi minat mahasiswa pada topik. Kemudian “Language focus” memberi kesempatan pada mahasiswa untuk mengupas bahasa menjadi bagian yang terkecil, mempelajari fungsinya dan menyusunnya kembali. Bagian “Whilst-writing” memberi penjelasan tentang tugas-tugas menulis yang beragam untuk berlatih menulis yang mulai dari tugas-tugas sederhana sampai

pada tugas-tugas yang rumit. Disamping itu siswa juga diberikan latihan soal menulis berdasarkan masing-masing tipe latihan. Bagian “Post-writing” memberikan pengoreksian dan pengeditan dimana dosen akan memberikan koreksinya dan komentarnya dan siswa menganalisa kesalahan tersebut.

Berdasarkan kesimpulan yang diambil, ada dua saran yang diberikan. Pertama, pengajar perlu untuk menyeleksi materi secara berhati-hati supaya sesuai dengan kebutuhan pembelajar. Kedua, disarankan bagi Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk melatih mahasiswanya untuk mampu mengajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan khusus untuk memenuhi tuntutan pendidikan.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This study addresses Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials for the Dentistry Students at Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta

.

This study intends to develop instructional materials for academic writing. To establish the purpose of this study, chapter one consists of several main parts. This chapter discusses the Background of the Study, Problem Limitations, Problem Formulations, Objectives of the Study, Benefits of the Research, Definitions of Terms.

A. The Background of the Study

The ability to write in English is very important in current times. English is considered the most acceptable language among other international languages. This has created a need for mastering English. Many people study an English course to become competent with the language or learn it by themselves through books.

Nowadays, in Indonesia, university students must produce academic papers written in English as a prerequisite to completing their study. Therefore, the immediate need to write in the English language motivates the students to take an English academic writing course. Undergraduate students face many kinds of writing tasks as they study their chosen degree program.

Naturally, these tasks are different from one-degree program to another. They are, however, similar in two respects. First, the tasks become more complex. Second, they need to be written in appropriate academic language.

Writing skills are considered the most difficult aspect of language skills because it takes a long time to process and may be considered as a boring activity. Writing skills require students to express their ideas, opinions and thought in written form. Sometimes ideas just come out spontaneously; therefore, writing is a good tool to record our ideas without having lost any of the ideas.

Another reason why writing in English is considered as one of the most difficult requirements is because they know what to write but they do not know how to phrase their ideas appropriately into their paper. Moreover, many students think in their first language and translate their thoughts a sentence per sentence as they write in English, rather than translating the broader ideas from the first to the second language.

B. Problem Identification

The students of Dentistry Faculty in Gadjah Mada University are required to pass an English course that is offered by Dentistry Curriculum for Undergraduate students. Most students of the Dentistry Faculty have already mastered Basic English grammar but these students still have many problems in their writing.

English. The reason for this is that in Indonesia, not many research studies exist on writing courses designed to help such students complete a thesis writing to an acceptable standard.

The Dentistry Department of Gadjah Mada University needs to reconstruct its old instructional materials and create a new English design subject. The reason is that the old design does not cover all the students’ needs in order to understand English textbooks and write academic writing well. It means that the design consists of one subject materials that are translating materials. There are many assignment papers and English books available as references that may be used in the Dentistry faculty. The students need guidance in writing skills in order to be able to write good paragraphs and summarize the books. Furthermore, there are not many alternative materials that are especially designed for Dentistry study. The materials used were authentic texts that did not represent the Dentistry field. There were no English materials or textbooks available for this department based on the Dentistry curriculum. Moreover, the Dentistry Department of Gadjah Mada University needs to design a new English syllabus because it is important in order to promote positive student behavior by addressing students learning needs.

The problem with the Dentistry students’ lack of English writing ability is attributed to a number of factors. Firstly, students do not have sufficient knowledge and guidelines of how to write well. Secondly, writing activities are mostly applied to assignments when the lecturer cannot come to

the class. As a result, the lack of English writing skills and achievement of Dentistry students becomes an obstacle in producing good English writing, although several techniques have been applied to teach writing. Students still have trouble when they are asked to write. Thirdly, the students face difficulties in formatting a paragraph, summarizing, and organizing ideas to form well-developed English academic piece of writing.

C. Problem Limitation

The first semester students need to have a strong writing foundation because they will use more complex texts in the following semesters, it means that they need to prepare themselves from the very first of semester. The writing deals mostly with writing essays, research papers, report papers and summaries. Therefore, in this study the researcher limits the problem in writing a good paragraph and summarizing, organizing the idea to form well-developed English academic piece of writing. The researcher focuses on Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials for the Dentistry Students at Gadjah Mada University.

D. Problem Formulation

Based on the above discussion, two problems can be identified as follows:

1. How is a set of instructional academic writing materials designed?

2. What do the set of instructional materials for the Dentistry Students look like?

E. Objectives of the Study

The goal of this research is to design a set of English instructional materials for students of Dentistry. The aim of the research is to:

1. Design a set of instructional academic writing materials. 2. Present a set of English instructional materials

F. Benefits of the Study

The results of this study should make a beneficial contribution to the following:

1. The students of the Dentistry department, who will be provided with scientifically well-developed English Academic Writing instructional materials that are developed based on general scientific research such as lab reports, argumentative pieces of writing and essays.

2. The English lecturers of the Dentistry department, who will gain a set of English Academic Writing instructional materials matching the need of the Dentistry students.

3. The researcher, who is a student of the English Education Program, will gain benefits from this research because she will learn how to design an instructional program in English for Academic Purposes and how to develop teaching materials.

This may be the starting point to carry out further study in English skills in Dentistry students. Further research is needed because the materials need to be evaluated, reprogrammed and reconstructed as soon as the direct outcome is able to be observed.

G. Definitions of Terms

This section aims to describe the terms concerning the research that are considered important for Dentistry students to know. Without the description of the terms there may be confusion, misunderstanding or misinterpretation about those terms, which is why the description of terms is very important and becomes an essential part to understanding the research.

Defining the following terms:

1. Academic writing (Robinson 1991: 103) is the kind of writing that is required in college or university. In order to write effectively, it takes practice to develop the skill. It is important, therefore, to bear in mind that writing is an ongoing process, not a finished “product”. This means that a piece of writing is never complete; it can be continuously reviewed and revised.

2. Instructional materials as defined by Kemp (1977:134-136) stated that instructional materials mean those that would help teachers in transmitting information to their students so that the previously stated objectives can be optimally achieved.

3. Course design

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:65), course design is a process by which the raw data related to the learning needs is interpreted to make an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The first part discusses the theoretical foundation underlying the study that will be presented in the theoretical description. The second part is the discussion of the theoretical framework of the study.

A. Theoretical Description

This section contains six major discussions of theories underlying this study. Firstly, it discusses the definition of English for academic purposes, since the instructional materials designed are intended for the Dentistry students. Secondly, theories of instructional design models and processes are elaborated. The discussions are two instructional models; a need analysis, learning objectives, syllabus and instructional materials. Finally, an appropriate teaching method for academic writing is presented.

1. English for Academic Writing

The instructional materials designed in this study are intended for the Dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University. As previously mentioned they are undergraduate students of Dentistry. This section will discuss the definitions of the English for Academic Purposes that underlie the design of the language course for the Dentistry students. The types of students taught in an ESP course are those who are about to enter study at or already study

through the university. They may be undergraduates or graduates. Robinson (1991:103) states that the design of an EAP course is based on a range of topics and texts from several disciplines. Of general current concern however, is the focus on discipline-specific topics and texts, such as, economics, medicine, and engineering. The format and development are similar in each, suggesting that the authors believe that students require practice in the same strategies and tasks, whatever the discipline. The researcher used two approaches; the product approach and the process approach Robinson (1991: 103). Two approaches used in teaching writing are namely process and product approaches.

The feature of the product method is:

Model → comprehension/analysis/manipulation → new input → parallel

→ text

The features of the process approach are:

Writing task → draft 1 → feedback → revision → input → draft 2 → feedback → revision draft 3

(Robinson 1991: 103)

a.) The Product Approach

A model is provided in the product approach and various exercises undertaken to draw attention to its important features. Students are required to produce a similar text. In addition, attention is given to the organization of

writing, its structure, cohesion, various grammatical aspects and academic style; also some incorporate elements of the process approach.

b.) The Process Approach

This approach relates to the principles of learner-centered learning, encouraging individuals to take more responsibility for their own learning. Drafting, feedback, revisions and informed choices, students can make clearer decisions about the direction of their writing.

Feedback is an important element in the process approach to writing. Keh (1990) discusses three types of feedback: peer-evaluation, conferences (i.e teacher-students interaction and written comments by a teacher. She concludes that each type of feedback has its uses and advantages. From the point of view of academic writing, this approach has the advantage of drawing attention to the constant need to draft and revise; in other words, encouraging students to be responsible for making improvements for themselves.

c.) Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Summary writing is an important aspect of academic writing and is linked to academic reading, by means of note making. An integral part of reading and summarizing is paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is expressing someone else’s ideas in your own words, structure and style. This difficult but essential skill is practiced step by step. The integration of others’ writing has also been commented on by Leki and Carson (1994) who recommended that:

‘EAP writing classes need to move away from writing tasks that require students only to tap their own opinions and experiences and toward

work that encourages students to integrate those opinions and experiences with external sources of information and argument.’

2. Course Design

a. Course Design Models

Two course design models are used based on their applicability and practicality to a language course design. The instructional design is a complex process that is composed of many interrelated parts and functions that must operate in a coherent manner in order to achieve success. Dick and Reiser (1989:62-67) point out that instructional materials simply mean that the materials are planned or designed by the instructor. Instructional material design is done in order to set the context of instruction.

The models of instructional design that will be presented in this study are designed by Kemp and by Hutchinson and Waters.

The models of instructional design that are presented include: 1) Kemp’s Model

Jerold E. Kemp (1977:8) states that the instructional design plan is designed to supply an answer to three questions:

• What must be learnt? (Objectives)

• What procedures and resources will work best to teach the designed learning levels? (Activities and resources).

• How will we know when the required learning takes place? (Evaluation)

Kemp (1977: 8) proposes an instructional design model, which consists of eight parts, namely:

• Consider the goals, list the topics, and state the general purposes for teaching each topic.

• Enumerate the characteristics of the leaner for whom the

instruction is to be designed.

• Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of

measurable students’ behavioral outcomes.

• List the subject content that supports each objective.

• Develop pre-assessments to determine the students’ background

and present their level of knowledge about the topic.

• Select teaching and learning activity and instructional resources

that will address the subject content in order that students will accomplish the objectives.

• Coordinate such support services such as budget, personnel,

facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan.

• Evaluate students’ leaning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement.

The eight steps suggested by Kemp are flexible and clear. There is interdependence among eight elements. A designer can start whichever step they choose. It is because all steps are interrelated. The strength of Kemp’s model lies on the existence of the concept of design and development process

that may start from any of the steps, whenever the designer is ready. Therefore the steps are interdependent on each other however they can also stand by themselves. The relationship of each step in the plan to the other step can be seen below:

Figure 2. 1 Kemp’s Instructional Model: then relationship of each step in the plan to the other step (Kemp 1977:9).

Goals, topics, & General Purposes

REVISION

Pre-assessment

Subject Evaluation

Support services

Teaching/learning Activities,

Resources

Learning Objectives Learner

Characteristic

2) Hutchinson and Waters’ Model

Hutchinson and waters (1987:72) offer a learning centered approach to course design. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:21) state that course design is “the process by which raw data about a learning need is interpreted in order to produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge.” This approach holds on to the principle that the learner is the one who determines the learning.

There are two reasons why this approach should be used. First, learning, as an internal process, is seen as a process where the learners use their existing knowledge and skills to process the information being presented to them. Therefore, learning depends on the knowledge that the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. Secondly, a learning centered approach to course designs considers the learners at every step of the design process.

Figure 2. 2 A Learning Centered Approach to Course Design. (Hutchinson and Waters 1987:74)

Identify learners Theoretical view of language Analyze learning situation Theoretical view of learning Analysis of target situation

Identify skills and knowledge needed to function in the target situation

Write

syllabus/materials to exploit the potential of the learning situation in the acquisition of the skills and knowledge required by the target situation

Identify students’ attitudes/wants/potential Identify needs/potential/constraints of learning/teaching situation Course Evaluation Course Evaluation Teach course Teach course

b. Needs Analysis

A needs analysis is considered to be the first important procedure. Some researchers consider the needs analysis as a criteria of ESP, because without it

the course designers will find difficulties. Widdowson (1981:2) defines that needs mean what they students have to be able to do at the end of their language course. Mountford (1981:27) has another definition of needs analysis. He says that needs mean what the users-institution or society at large regards as necessary or desirable to be learnt from a program of language instruction. To determine what English the students need, a needs analysis must be carried out. It simply identifies the learners’ personal, socio-cultural, and educational traits, their expectations and interest and what the students need to do in English tasks, the context in which they will do it texts and what their current level of English is. Because of the various definitions of needs, course designers define needs as what a particular group of students need English for.

1) Target Situation Analysis

Target situation analysis concerns the learner’s future roles and the linguistics skills and knowledge required to perform competently in writing in a target context. This involves mainly objective and product-oriented data: identifying the contexts of language use, observing the language events in these contexts, listing the genres employed, collecting and analyzing target genres.

Hutchinson and Waters define target needs as an umbrella term for necessity, lacks and wants. Necessity is what the learners need to know in order to function effectively in a target situation. Lacks mean the gap between

the target proficiency and the existing knowledge that the students already have. Wants are the perceived needs by the students. What the students want to learn may not necessarily match what they need to learn. Hutchinson provides a simple framework and Waters (1987:59) outlines the kind of information that course designers need to gather from an analysis of target needs.

• Why is the language needed?

• How will the language be used?

• What will the content areas be?

• Who will the learner use the language with?

• Where will the language be used?

• When will the language be used?

This question outline is used as source of information for the course designer to gather from an analysis of target needs. The materials course designer is made to reflect on this outline.

2) Present Situation Analysis

Present situation analysis refers to information about learners’ current abilities, familiarity with writing processes and writing genres, their skills and perceptions; what they are able to do and what they want to do at the beginning of the course. Data can therefore be objective (age, proficiency, prior learning experiences) and subjective (self perceived needs, strengths, and weaknesses).

Hutchinson and Waters have defined the gap between the target situation and the present situation as the learning needs. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:62-63) have developed a checklist to analyze learning needs. They are stated as follows:

• Why are the learners taking the writing course?

• How do the learners learn?

• What resources are available?

• Who are the learners?

• What do learners know about writing?

The course designer used this checklist to analyze learning needs. This checklist helped a course designer to follow the step in designed materials.

c. Learning Objectives

The important step in instructional planning is specifying learning objectives in which the teacher’s concern is with learning as the outcome of instruction. Writing objectives is a developmental activity that requires refinements, changes, and modification as the writer develops subsequent planning steps. Once collected and analyzed needs analysis data are used to formulate course goals or aims and objectives. Goals are the global target outcomes around which the syllabus is organized, given the students’ purposes abilities, their target needs, and institutional requirements.

d. The EAP Syllabus

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80), a syllabus is a document that details what will be learnt. A syllabus is plan of work essential for the teacher as a guidelines and context for class content. In other words, a syllabus is a coherent plan for a course of study, providing a map for both teachers and learners, which specify the work to be accomplished by students based on explicit objective. There are three types of approaches to EAP syllabus (Yalden 1987, Hutchinson and Waters 1987, Robinson 1991). They are content or product-based approaches, skills based, and method- process based syllabuses.

• Content-Based syllabus: Situation, Topic, language form,

English for Academic Purposes employ a situational syllabus. A topic-based syllabus employs the content of students’ work or specialist study, which will be used as an organizing device for the syllabus to motivate the students.

• Skill-based syllabus

The development of skill-based syllabuses indicates that the constituents of four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) have also been considered.

• Method-Based syllabus: Tasks, processes, and learning centered

A Tasks syllabus consists of asset of tasks or activities. These tasks have been graded carefully in accordance with the cognitive difficulty. To attain the terminal behavior the students must engage themselves in a set

of activities called tasks. In a language-centered approach the syllabus is the determiner of the entire course. In a skill-centered approach, there is a degree of negotiation between texts and skills.

The researcher used two types of syllabuses in this design. They will be discussed in relation with the topic of this study. First, the Content-Based syllabus: Situation, Topic, and language form, and second, the Method-Based syllabus: Tasks.

Learning is not only a matter of presenting items or skills and strategies, but also the process through which they are mastered. Therefore, the syllabus must be used in a more dynamic way in order to enable methodological considerations such as interest, enjoyment, and learner involvement, to influence the content of the entire course design. In terms of practical implementation, learners need to be presented with tasks, which are concerned with language skills as real communication in real time, not in isolation. The writing skills have been expanded to focus on their communicative goals (Dubin and Olshtain, 1986:101). In an academic course (EAP), learners write assignments that are suitable to their specific field of study; lab, reports, library research reports, etc. Writing is tied to learners’ real world needs as well writing academic papers and research articles. To sum up, the writing activity becomes an interactive process with focus on time, the reason for writing, and the reader. The objective of the activity is communicating to the audience.

3. Material Design

When needs analysis, course design and a syllabus have been completed the next step is to decide how to turn the course design into actual teaching materials. Hutchinson and waters (1987:96) recommend two ways to do that: First, materials evaluation by selecting from existing materials, second, materials development by writing original materials.

An important consideration when selecting or designing materials is that of authenticity. According to Hutchinson and waters (1987:158), authenticity carries a sense of being ‘taken from the target situation and therefore not originally constructed for language teaching purposes’. Nunan (1989:54) states that it is necessary to use authentic materials since the most effective way to develop a particular skill is to rehearse that skill in class. Materials created to specifically stimulate writing, practice language items, introduce content and highlight features of target texts may actually be more effective than complete texts.

a. Materials Evaluation

Hutchinson and Waters (1987:97) divide the evaluation into four major steps:

• Defining criteria

• Subjective analysis

• Objective analysis

To compare different sets of materials, Hutchinson and Waters (1990:99) develop a criteria checklist for objective and subjective analysis of existing materials in developing instructional materials.

Figure 2. 3 the Materials Evaluation Process Model (Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 98)

Define criteria

On what basis will materials be judged? Which criteria will be more important?

Subjective analysis

What realization of criteria does the designer want in his/her course?

Objective analysis

How does material being evaluated realize the criteria?

Matching

How far does the material match the needs?

b. Materials Development

Hutchison and Waters (1987:107) outline three major steps in developing creative ESP materials;

1) Defining objectives.

To define the purpose of writing materials, Hutchinson and Waters (1987:107-108) identify some principles to guide us in the actual writing of materials. They point out that:

• Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials, therefore,

for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills.

• Good materials should provide a clear and coherent unit structure,

which is flexible enough to allow creativity and variety.

• Materials should embody a view of the nature of language and

learning.

• Materials reflect the nature of the learning tasks.

• Materials give useful function to broaden the basis of teacher training.

Materials are a statement of language use rather than a vehicle for language learning.

• Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.

2) A material design model.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987:108) present a model of materials. This model is designed to provide a coherent framework for the integration of the various aspects of learning and to allow enough space for creativity and variety. This material design should cover four elements, which will help learners achieve the aim stated before. The four elements are:

• Input (pre-writing, whilst-writing, post-writing)

It contains stimulus materials for activities, provide new language items, show correct models of language use and present a topic for writing, provide opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills as well as their existing knowledge both of the language and of the subject matter. The examples of media, which can be used as an input, are texts and diagrams or charts.

• Language focus

Good materials should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis. The learners should be able to use language, have a chance to take the language to pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together again. In other words, language focus provides a language pattern for students in composing their paragraphs.

• Content focus

Content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom. The text models are related to the general prior knowledge of the students. Based on the background of the students in Senior High School, the researcher tries to give the general and basic knowledge required because they have not yet learnt about Dental medicine.

Task

•

Materials are designed to lead towards a writing task where learners use the content and language knowledge that they have built up so far.

Figure 2. 4 A Materials Design Model. LANGUAGE CONTENT

c. The Expanded Model

However, Hutchinson and Waters (1987:118) have developed and expanded the model as shown in figure 2.5

Figure 2. 5 An Expanded Materials Model (Hutchinson and Waters 1987:118)

INPUT

TASK CONTENT

Students’ own knowledge and ability

Additional input Project

LANGUAGE

4. Writing and Teaching Academic Writing

To communicate our thought, ideas, and feelings, we can use written as well as spoken language. In fact, due to a limitation of time, writing seems to be a neglected skill. In addition, the students believe that writing is a difficult subject to learn because they are expected to produce accurate and correct written work while they are offered the same kind of writing activity repetitively. It leads to the students’ low motivation in learning writing skills. In order to teach writing successfully, the teachers need to understand the nature of written text.

language structure. Raimes (1983) as cited in Musthafa (1994:5) defines writing as a set of decision-making process involving an intricate choice of grammar, syntax, mechanics, organization, word choice, purpose, audience, content and the writing procedure.

In the English foreign language classes, reading and writing tasks often depend on each other. Sometimes reading is used as a preparation for a writing task. In writing classes, reading is indeed the most frequently used method of providing input. This is either because teachers use models that suggest this method, because they select texts on the subject of the composition.

a. Process writing

The teacher’s role is to guide students through the writing process, avoiding an emphasis on form to help them develop strategies for generating, drafting, and refining ideas. This is achieved through setting prewriting activities to generate ideas about the content and structure, encouraging brainstorming and outlining, requiring multiple drafts, giving feedback, seeking text level revisions, facilitating peer responses, and delaying surface corrections until the final editing (Raimes, 1992). Gardner and Johnson (1997) describe the stages of the writing process:

‘Writing is a fluid process created by writers as they work. Accomplished writers move back and forth between the stages of the process, both consciously and unconsciously. Young writers, however, benefit from the structure and security of following the writing process in their writing.’

Prewriting.

•

Students generate ideas for writing: brainstorming; reading literature; creating life maps, webs, and story charts; developing word banks; deciding on form, audience, voice, and purpose as well as through teacher motivation. For example, instead of telling the students "Write a composition about your holiday", the instructions could be "Write a postcard to a friend about how you are spending your holiday".Some examples:

Audience Purpose Form

The general public To report an accident / medical histories A newspaper article Peers or the lecturer. To provide information on your medical lab. Report

A patient and doctor To complain about tooth ache and faulty medicine

A letter

Samples of pre-writing tools:

First draft Second draft Third draft

Beginning Ending

Topic/title

Why I got toothache

My teeth

The way to avoid toothache Looking after my

teeth

The outline can help prepare students in writing a description (e.g., My tooth), where the different branches represent the different paragraphs (e.g., my healthy teeth, how I look after my teeth, why I got toothache).

•

•

•

•

•

•

Rough Draft.

Students get their ideas on paper. They write without concern for conventions. Written work does not have to be neat; it is a 'sloppy copy.'.

Reread.

Students proof their own work by reading aloud and reading for comprehension.

Share with a Peer Revisor.

Students share and make suggestions for improvement: asking who, what, when, where, why, and how questions about parts of the story the peer does not yet understand; looking for better words; and talking about how to make the work better.

Revise.

Improve what the narrative says and how it says it: write additions, imagery, and details. Take out unnecessary work. Use peer suggestions to improve. Clarify.

Editing.

Work together on editing for mechanics and spelling. Make sure the work is 'goof proof.'

Final Draft.

write a final draft.

• Publishing.

Students publish their written pieces: sending their work to publishers; reading their finished story aloud, making books. This is a time to celebrate!

This process of writing will introduce students to some principles and techniques of the writing process. Process writing is an approach to teaching writing, which tries to simulate the process that many writers go through in their native language. In this way it does not only focus on the final product but also on the stages along the way, such as gathering ideas, noting them down, reorganizing and rephrasing the ideas and preparing a final, accurate version. In other words, process writing marks a shift from exclusive emphasis on the products of writing to an emphasis on the process of writing and on interactive learning between lecturer and students, and among students themselves.(Hyland, 2002).

b. Error Analysis

There are several ways to think about error in writing that relate to what we know about second language acquisition and what we know about how texts, context and the writing process interact with one another. As mentioned, students writing in a second language generally produce texts that contain varying degrees of grammatical and rhetorical errors. These kinds of errors are especially common among L2 writers who have many ideas, but not enough

language to express what they want to say in a comprehensible way.

This study was done to identify and classify errors of Dentistry students' writing, the purpose of the study was to find the most common errors and the frequency of errors the respondents made, Error analysis (EA) would allow teachers to figure out what areas should be focused on and what kind of attention is needed in an L2 classroom. If this is done, the language teachers will be better able to develop curriculum and select materials that successfully facilitate L2 learning processes Brown (1994) and Littlewood (1995) have found that L2 learners at a beginning level produce a large number of interlingual errors.

B. Theoretical Framework

There are seven steps necessary to conduct in the theoretical framework. They are conducting the research by carrying out a needs analysis, writing a syllabus, developing evaluating tools, revising instructional materials and finally writing the final draft of the instructional materials. The procedure will be shown in figure 2.5

Step 1: Conducting Research

Research needs to be undertaken to answer the problem identified in the problem formulation. In the previous chapter, the theoretical foundation for such has been discussed as evaluation on the syllabuses, study skills and published materials on writing skills limiting the writing tasks.

Step 2: Carrying Out a Needs Analysis

This step is important in order to identify the learner’s needs and characteristics. The analysis will be divided into two parts. First, the TSA

(Target Situation Analysis) attempts to identify the learner’s needs at the end of the language course having been designed. Second, a PSA (Present Situation Analysis) aims to identify their characteristics; the results of the analysis will be used as an important foundation in formulating course objectives and writing the syllabus. Distributing questionnaires to Dentistry students will be the methods for collecting the data required.

Step 3: Writing a Syllabus

There are two parts to this step. The first part is formulating learning objectives based on the results of the materials evaluation and the needs analysis step 1 and step 2 respectively. The second part is writing a particular type of syllabus, which covers learning objectives, course content and the methodology.

Step 4: Developing Instructional Materials.

Materials will be developed based on the selected materials drafts of the Dentistry students. Error analysis will be carried out to determine the structural points needed to be covered in the tasks. The materials will be developed as the instructional materials according to the expanded material design model proposed by Hutchinson and waters (1987:118).

Step 5: Evaluating the Instructional Materials

To evaluate the materials developed in step 4, materials and questionnaires will be distributed to English instructors who have experience in teaching Dentistry students. The questionnaire will be followed up by a series of interviews and discussions.

Step 6: Revision the Instructional Materials.

input for revising the instructional materials. This will then lead to the final step of this study.

Step 7: Writing the Final Draft of the Materials

After the revision and improvement have been completed in the previous step, the final draft of the writing tasks to develop, academic skills for Dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University will be written.

Figure 2.6 The Research Steps (Combined Models) Step 1

Step 2

Step3

Step4

Carrying out needs analysis

Conducting research

Writing a syllabus

Developing instructional materials Evaluating instructional materials PSA TSA Distributing the materials Processing questionnaires Research and ation colle inform cting Develop the

preliminary form of the product Main product revision Preliminary field testing Planning Revising the instructional materials Step 5 Step 6

Writing the final draft of the materials

Step 7

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents information about the method used in this study. The discussion involves the method of the research, the research participants, the setting of the research, the research instruments, the process of collecting the data and the research procedure. Each of these instruments is described to give a clear verification on how this study is conducted.

A. Method

According to Sprinthall (1991:99), research or a study is typically called descriptive. Descriptive study is done on particular types of populations to measure one or more variables that can be used to describe the group of interest. Since it is a descriptive study, it is not aimed at proving a hypothesis about a particular phenomenon. However, it is conducted to attain as much information as possible from the learners’ textbooks as the basis for designing instructional materials.

1. Educational Research and Development (R&D)

The researcher used Educational Research and Development (R&D) in conducting her designing materials. Educational Research and Development (R&D) is a process used to develop and validate educational product (Walter R. Borg, 1983). Product here included not only material objects such as

textbook instructional materials but also referred to establish procedures and processes such as a method of teaching or a method for organizing instruction. The steps of this process are usually referred to as the R&D cycle which consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be developed, developing the product based on these finding, field testing it in the setting where it will be used eventually and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the field testing stage.

The course designer selects five cycles out of ten because there are some reasons why the course designer cannot apply the whole cycle. The design of an R & D product does not need to be based on trial and error; there are many validated methods of instructional technology. These methods cover various aspects of R & D design; front-end analysis (needs assessment, systems analysis, task analysis, analysis of skill hierarchies), typologies of learning outcomes, the matching of instructional techniques to learning outcomes, the match of learners characteristics to instructional methods, meta-cognitive processes in learning, individualized instruction and domain referenced assessment. The major steps in the R & D cycle used to develop design materials are as follows:

a) Research and information collecting – includes review of literature, classroom observations, and preparation of report.

b) Planning – includes defining skills, stating objectives determining course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.

instructional materials, handbooks and evaluation devices.

d) Preliminary field testing – conducted in one to three schools, using six to twelve subjects. Interview, observational and questionnaire data are colleted and analyzed.

e) Main product revision - revision of the product as suggested by the preliminary field test results.

f) Main field testing – conducted in up to 15 schools with thirty to a hundred subjects. Qualitative data on subjects’ pre-course and post-course performance are collected and the results are evaluated with respect to course objectives. Results are then compared against the data from the control group, as appropriate.

g) Operational product revision –revision of the product as suggested by main field test results.

h) Operational field testing - conducted in ten to thirty schools involving forty to two hundred subjects. Interviews, observational and questionnaire data is collected and analyzed.

i) Final product revision – revision of the product as suggested by operational field test results.

j) Dissemination and implantation – report on the product at professional meetings and in journals. Work with the publisher who assumes commercial distribution. Monitor distribution to provide quality control. The researcher chose five steps in conducting the research, which are as follows:

a) Research and information collecting – including a review of literature, classroom observations and preparations of a report.

The researcher used library research to conduct the review of literature. A literature review is undertaken to collect research findings and other information pertinent to the planned development. Some purposes of the literature review is to determine the state of knowledge in the area of concern, to locate research that could be used to develop a basic instructional model, questioning and discussing skills to identify specific techniques that teachers could use to accomplish these goals. b) Planning – includes defining skills, stating objectives, determining the

course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.

The researcher used an Instructional design model from Kemp for the design materials to determine the goal, topics and general purpose, learning objective, subject content, and teaching and learning activities. Hutchinson and Water’s model designed materials used to identify learner characteristic.

A Needs analysis was conducted for two respondents, firstly, Dentistry students at Gadjah Mada University and secondly, the respondents were chosen who were able to evaluate the materials. The most important aspect of planning a research based educational product is the statement of the specific objectives to be achieved by the product. The objectives should state the specific performance levels to be achieved by teacher completing the course, that is, the number of times they will demonstrate each skill within a given time period.

c) Develop the preliminary form of the product – including the preparation of instructional materials, handbooks and evaluation devices.

The researcher designed the materials of Academic writing using some theories of instructional design and various other sources. This involved a wide range of tasks and materials designed to supplement the instructional lessons, which were drafted, revised and printed.

d) Preliminary field testing – included interviews, observational and questionnaire data, which was collected and analyzed.

The researcher conducted interviews, and questionnaires to obtain the data, which was then analyzed. The researcher made two questionnaires; the first was distributed to the students of Dentistry.

The second was distributed to the respondents able to evaluate the materials. The purpose of the preliminary field test is to obtain an initial qualitative evaluation of the new educational product.

Questionnaires and interviews that served as guides to be used in the preliminary field test were developed. In developing the preliminary form of an educational product, the product must be structured so as to permit obtaining as much feedback as possible from the field test. Therefore, questionnaire and interview data should be obtained from all participants.

e) Main product revision – revision of the product as suggested by the preliminary field test result.

The researcher revised the materials designed to improve the designed materials. The purpose of the main field test was to determine whether the educational products under development meet the performance objectives, to determine the success of the new product in meeting its objectives, and to collect information that can be used to improve the course in its next revision. This cycle of field-testing and revision would continue until the product meets the minimum performance objectives set for it.

2. Need Surveys

The first survey is used in conducting a need survey in order to obtain data about students’ interest, necessities, wants and lacks in learning English. The survey is conducted by observing, distributing and gathering questionnaires and through interviews. The information is focused on the personal information of the respondents, the use of English textbooks, the topics of the materials related to their work, respondents’ needs in the way of study, and respondent’s opinions on English language learning.

The second survey is conducted to gather data from the appropriate and qualified respondents to get opinions and feedback on the designed instructional materials. The survey is conducted by distributing and gathering the questionnaires and by interviewing the English lecturers, English native speaker lecturers and English instructors who have experiences in teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP).

B. Respondents

Since there were two types of surveys used in this study, there were also two groups of respondents. The first group was the respondents of the needs analysis survey and the second groups were the respondents of materials evaluation survey.

1. The Respondents of the Needs Analysis Survey

The respondents of the survey study were first year Dentistry students who took an English class in the first semester as part first year dentistry curriculum. There were two hundred first year students of 2006 students within the Dentistry Department who registered for the class. However, the students who repeated the subject from the previous semester were not included in this study. Also students who studied abroad were excluded from the study because their extended study improved their skills well beyond those of students whose highest level of English study was through Gadjah Mada University.

2. The Respondents of Materials Evaluation Survey

The subject of materials evaluation survey were five evaluators, including: one English lecturer from Sanata Dharma University and one English lecturer from Gadjah Mada University who has ever been teaching academic writing and has the knowledge of academic writing. One lecturer from the Dentistry Department at Gadjah Mada University who has a masters

in both spoken and written English and has knowledge about academic writing in the Dentistry Field, and two English Instructors from the language center who have experience in academic writing for ESP, EAP, EOP, and so on.

C. Setting

This study was conducted in the Dentistry Department of Gadjah Mada University. The time needed to do the observation and interview were around seven weeks from September to November 2006 for students’ needs analysis and the specific time to do the questionnaires for lecturers’ evaluations were around three weeks during July 2007. The first week of September was used to ask for a letter of permission from the Dean of the Dentistry Faculty, which was followed by sending a letter of permission to an English lecturer to enter his class and ask permission to use students’ writing assignments. There was a short observation period from which to conduct the research because of the National Holiday. The researcher used one particular class as a source of her data. It was a large class because it considered of 200 students of which 150 students were first year students and the rest had repeated the subject from the previous semester. The class seemed crowded when all students attended the class together and it was difficult for the lecturer to conduct teaching and learning activities intentionally with such a large class. During the first meeting all students attended the class. At the next meeting just few students attended the class. The researcher used class

population under permission from the English lecturer.

D. Instruments

In conducting the study, the researcher used three types of instruments to gather data and answer the problem formulation: questionnaires, interviews and observations checklist. They were explained as follows:

1. Questionnaires

The instrument used for this study is a set of questionnaires designed to gather information about the needs and to find out the gap of the students’ needs to match with the academic setting. The questionnaire consists of three sections: personal details and English writing needs at the Dentistry Department of Gadjah Mada University.

Table 3.1 The First Questionnaire (Need Analysis)

Academic writing Question outlines Points

1 2 3 4 5

General writing Is writing important? Group work

Peer-editing Peer-assessment Worksheets Structure of writing Model of writing

Free writing

Types of academic writing Skills in writing Grammar or language focus.

Vocabulary in texts Tasks of writing

The researcher chose three main topics and for each topic a main idea was developed that would be used as a questionnaire outline before the questionnaires was written. From the question outlines 16 questions were designed for the questionnaire. The researcher made five categories for the questionnaire’s assessment. The researcher used a scale to rate each category as a percentage, as follows:

1 = absolutely disagree with statement, ranges between 0% and 20% 2 = disagree with statement, ranges between 21% and 40%

3 = neither agree or disagree with statement, range between 41% and 60% 4 = agree with statement, ranges between 61% and 80 %

5 = absolutely agree with statement ranges between 81% and 100%

The researcher discussed this questionnaire in chapter four. In conducting data analysis of this questionnaire, the researcher explained in paragraphing sentence using percentage assessment and a scale rate category.

2. Interviews

The researcher undertook an interview of some of the respondents to collect some of the data needed. The interview was recorded on a tape recorder and transcribed into written form. The interviews were divided into two groups. The interview was directed to the students in as the first group and the materials’ evaluators as the second group. The questions were unstructured, it meant that the researcher did not use questions list. The interview was conducted in one week during November 2006. The researcher chose 35 students from the Dentistry faculty because 35 respondents were

considered a sufficient sample size to collect the information needed. The researcher discussed the data analysis in chapter four.

3. Observation Checklist

If the researchers wanted to enrich their understanding of language learning and teaching time was required to be spent in classroom. The researcher attended the regular class of first year Dentistry at Gadjah Mada University. It was necessary to determine what current English comprehension and skills the students have, in order to design and create a suitable curriculum. The teaching and learning activities were observed within the class. The researcher observed what the roles of the teacher in the classroom were. It was necessary to determine how the lecturer created a writing environment in the class and how the lecturer managed the class.

Table 3.2 Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom Interaction

No. Observation tally sheet

1. Lecturer asks a display questions (i.e. a question to which he knows the answer) 2. Lecturer asks a referential question (i.e. a question to which he does not know the

answer)

3. Lecturer explains a grammatical point

4. Lecturer explains meaning of a vocabulary item 5. Lecturer explains functional point

6. Lecturer explains point relating to the content (theme/topic) of the lesson 7. Lecturer gives instructions/directions

8. Lecturer gives praise 9. Lecturer provides criticism 10. Learner asks a question 11. Learner answers question 12. Learner talks to another learner 13. Period of silence or confusion

The researcher made the tally sheet for analyzing classroom activities during class visits and observed the teaching-learning activities in the class. This sheet would be used as a guideline in teaching and learning activities.

E. Writing Procedure (Content Error Analysis)

The researcher used students’ writing as the error analysis. Students were given free writing as the first writing draft to ascertain the students’ weaknesses and strengths. However, those compositions were later analyzed to observe the types of errors made. The researcher used one class meeting to conduct the writing task with permission from the English lecturer. She took 75 respondents as her writing sample from 87 respondents because 12 respondents were repeating the subject.

The researcher used the minimum requirements to assess the writing error:

No. Minimum requirements

1. Incorrect use of word caused by transfer or awkward expression and words. 2. Subject verb agreement

3. Incorrect selection of word 4. Incorrect use of tense

5. Incorrect use or deletion of preposition 6. Incorrect use of verb be

7. Incorrect use of auxiliary 8. Incorrect use of gerund 9. Incorrect use of noun 10. Redundant use of words

11 Incorrect use of voice

12. Incorrect or omission use of article 13. Incorrect or omission of pronoun 14. Incorrect plural

work. The students’ written work errors in each criterion would be presented in percentage.

F. Data Gathering

There were two major categories of data obtained from this survey. The first was from the learners and the second was from the English lecturers. This data was obtained from observations, closed questions, open questions and interviews. The first step in collecting the data was observing the class and distributing the questionnaires to students. This was done in order to find out the learners’ needs for learning English. The researcher distributed the designed materials, questionnaire and conducted some informal interviews with the English lecturers to obtain their recommendation, criticism, and suggestions.

G. Data Analysis

The researcher analyzed the data attained through observation, interviews and questionnaires. There were two ways of analyzing the data. The data for the needs analysis were grouped and analyzed in order to the design of the materials that fitted the learners’ needs. The data collected for evaluating the design materials were analyzed to find out the modus, median, and mean. Brown (1988:66-67) defines the mean as the sum of all the values in a distribution divided by the number of the values. The median is the point of distribution below which 50 % of the values lie and above which 50% lie.

The mode is that value in a set of numbers that occurs most frequently. In this study, the researcher used five points of agreement to assess the respondents’ opinions on the designed materials.

The data analysis of the description statistics used the central tendency (mean, median, and mode) of the respondents’ opinion and the designed instructional materials.

The data from the first part of questionnaire used the frequency distribution and is presented in the table below:

No. Statements N Frequencies

1 2 3 4 5

The assessment of the respondents’ opinion on the designed used five points of agreement:

1 = absolutely disagree with statement 2 = disagree with statement

3 = neither agree or disagree with statement 4 = agree with statement

5 = absolutely agree with statement

The data from the second part of the questionnaire would be using the frequency distribution presented in the table below:

Groups of respondents Sex Education background Year of teaching

X = mean

Σ = sum x = scores N = number

Σx X =

University / Graduate experiences

F M 1 2 3 4 5

English lecturers

English instructors

The data were presented in the following table below:

Respondents’ opinion N Mean Median Mode Statement 1

Statement 2

H. Research Procedure

The research was conducted through a series of steps: 1. Conducting needs survey.

It was conducted through observations, questionnaires, and interviews. The interview was conducted twice for the 5 English lecturers, including instructors and native English speaking lecturers and the 75 students of Dentistry Department.

2. Analyzing the data.

After getting the information from the need survey, the researcher analyzed the data by grouping the results based on the information provided and the identified needs. The researcher could then determine the goals, objectives, the topics and the type of syllabus and materials needed. 3. Formulating goals, topics, and objectives.

The researcher formulated the goal, topics and objectives for each lesson unit.

A syllabus was used as a guideline for teaching and learning activities both for teachers and students.

5. Developing materials.

The design materials were developed based on the needs analysis. 6. Survey study for evaluation.

The researcher distributed the design materials to English lecturers and instructors to gather evaluations, criticism, and suggestions.

7. Revising and improving the design materials.

The design materials needed to be revised, improved and reconstructed.

This research procedure was used as a guideline in designing materials. These steps could be used as a checklist for designing relevant study processes for the available materials.

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

In order to answer the first question (how is a set of instructional academic writing materials designed) and second question (what the set of instructional materials look like), the results of the first and second survey research will be presented. The first research consisted of conducting needs survey, analyzing the data, and writing syllabus of instructional materials development are answering first question. The second research consisted of developing materials, survey study for evaluation; revising and improving the design materials are answering second questions.

A. Conducting Needs Survey Research

It was conducted through observations, questionnaires, and interviews. The interview was conducted twice for the 5 English lecturers, including instructors and native English speaking lecturers and the 75 students of Dentistry Department.

The researcher has done some informal observation in the class before she conducted formal survey. The researcher found that an English curriculum resource titled “Bahasa Inggris 1” was only provided during the first semester and there was no “Bahasa Inggris 2” or similar learning material to allow further study. The researcher also found that there was no syllabus used for the class. Moreover, the methods used in the class were not helping students to improve their writing.

The researcher also conducted informal interviews, which identified difficulties in learning English with some students. Other students said that learning English was very difficult especially in the written form. The students also said that the most difficult skill in writing English was in expressing their ideas in writing.

The researcher found that the students’ background study requirements were science programs at Senior High School. In their opinion studying English subject was not important during Senior High School. Now at university, the students realize that English is very important for their career. The researcher conducted class observations. There were two hundred students in one class. It was a large class for the English subject in which 150 students were new students and the rest were repeating the subject from the previous semester. The majority of the students who entered Dentistry was female, just few were male. Students currently studying Dentistry consisted of heterorganic students who traveled from all over Indonesia to study their chosen degree. To conclude, the students have different backgrounds in their English study and because they were first semester students they were also adjusting to the transition from Senior High School to University in which they would need to first adapt to their new surrounding.

Most of students knew English passively, meaning that they learnt the English grammar at Senior High School but they did not know how to use the forms in a sentence when writing. They understood English as a receptive skill in which they can understand other people speaking and they can comprehend what is read but they could not utter a word in English both written and spoken. The researcher found, after doing informal observation

ABSTRACT

Hastutiningsih, Ruth. 2008. Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students At Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta.

Nowadays the students must produce academic writing as an assignment and academic papers in order to finish their study. This study was meant to discuss how a set of academic writing instructional materials is designed and what the set of academic writing for the Dentistry instructional materials look like.

In order to answer the first question on how to develop the instructional materials, two combined models of instructional design were employed, i.e. Hutchinson and Waters’ and Kemp’s model. The steps recommended in the two models were identifying learner, analyzing learning and target situation, determining learning objectives, listing the subject content, making a choice of learning activities determining support services and evaluating and opinion on ten instructional materials from English instructor and experienced in teaching writing English for dentistry students or graduate students of other studies. From the second survey research respondent opinion of the designed materials, it can be seen that between the ranges of scales 1-5 the mean scores of the answer were 4.0. It means that most of the respondents agree that the designed set of academic writing skill proposed in this study had fulfilled the requirements of suitable material. The results of the second survey research were used as the basis for the revision and improvement of the instructional materials.

To answer the second question, text analysis of the Dentistry faculty textbooks, error analysis of the students writing drafts and the evaluation of the existing writing materials were carried out. The relevant tasks for the actual Dentistry students were drafting, identifying sentences, topic sentence, summarizing, outlining, paraphrasing, paragraph and essay writing.

The designed materials consist of eight units. Each unit is presented in three sections and sequenced from easier to more difficult, simpler to more complex and from controlled to free activities. The “Pre-writing stage” section acts as the input stimulus to motivate students’ interest on the topic. Then, the “language focus” provides opportunity for the students to break the language into pieces, study how it works and put it back together again. The “Whilst-writing” section provides explanation on various tasks to practice writing ranging from simple to more complicated tasks. Besides that students are provided exercises on writing tasks based on each type of tasks. The “Post-writing” section provides revising and editing where the lecturer gives comment and students analyze their mistake

Based on the conclusions, two suggestions are proposed. First, teachers need to carefully select materials in order to match the learners’ need. Second, it is suggested that the English Language Education Program of Sanata Dharma University train its students to be able to teach English for academic purpose and specific purpose to meet the demands of the education areas.

ABSTRAK

Hastutiningsih, Ruth. 2008. Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students At Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta.

Sekarang ini mahasiswa harus menghasilkan penulisan akademik sebagai tugas kuliah dan makalah akademik dalam menyelesaikan studi mereka. Studi ini dimaksudkan untuk bagaimana satu rangkaian tugas-tugas menulis untuk mengembangkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menulis tugas akademik untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi didesain dan seperti apa bentuk kelompok tugas tugas menulis itu.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, yakni bagaimana mengembangkan materi pengajaran, dua model kombinasi rancangan instruksi pengajaraan digunakan yakni model Hutchinson dan Waters dan model Kemp langkah-langkah yang dianjurkan dalam dua model ini adalah mengidentifikasi pembelajar, menganalisa situasi dan target belajar, menentukan tujuan pembelajaran, mendaftar isi materi pembelajaran, memilih kegiatan belajar, menentukan jasa jasa pendukung dan mengevaluasi meteri yang telah didesain. Penelitian survey yang kedua dilakukan untuk memperoleh evaluasi dan pendapat tentang survey materi pengajaran dari instruktur bahasa Inggris yang berpengalaman mengajar bahasa Inggris untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran gigi atau mahasiswa S2 disiplin ilmu lain. Dari pendapat respondent penelitian survey kedua, dapat dilihat bahwa antara skala 1 sampai 5 skor rata-rata jawaban adalah 4.0 ini berarti bahwa sebagian besar responden setuju bahwa kumpulan tugas-tugas menulis yang disusun untuk mengembangkan kemampuan menulis tugas-tugas akademik mahasiswa yang diusulkan selama studi ini telah memenuhi tuntutan materi yang sesuai. Dari hasil penelitian ini digunakan sebagai dasar bagi revisi dan penyempurnaan materi pengajaran.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, analisa wacana buku-buku pegangan kuliah bahasa Inggris, analisa kesalahan dari naskah konsep mahasiswa dan evaluasi materi materi writing yang ada dilaksanakann. Tugas-tugas menulis yang relevan untuk kuliah kuliah kedokteran gigi yang sebenarnya adalah tugas mencatat, menulis, mengidentifikasi kalimat, menulis kalimat utama, meringkas, membuat garis besar, membuat konsep, membuat paraphrase, menulis paragraf dan menulis esei.

Materi yang disusun terdiri dari delapan satuan pelajaran. Masing-masing satuan pelajaran disajikan dalam tiga bagian dan dirangkai dari yang lebih mudah ke yang lebih sulit, dari yang lebih sederhana ke yang lebih rumit, dari yang terkendali ke yang lebih bebas. Bagian tahapan “Pre-writing” berperan sebagai stimulus awal untuk memotivasi minat mahasiswa pada topik. Kemudian “Language focus” memberi kesempatan pada mahasiswa untuk mengupas bahasa menjadi bagian yang terkecil, mempelajari fungsinya dan menyusunnya kembali.

Bagian “Whilst-writing” memberi penjelasan tentang tugas-tugas menulis yang

beragam untuk berlatih menulis yang mulai dari tugas-tugas sederhana sampai

pada tugas-tugas yang rumit. Disamping itu siswa juga diberikan latihan soal menulis berdasarkan masing-masing tipe latihan. Bagian “Post-writing” memberikan pengoreksian dan pengeditan dimana dosen akan memberikan koreksinya dan komentarnya dan siswa menganalisa kesalahan tersebut.

Berdasarkan kesimpulan yang diambil, ada dua saran yang diberikan. Pertama, pengajar perlu untuk menyeleksi materi secara berhati-hati supaya sesuai dengan kebutuhan pembelajar. Kedua, disarankan bagi Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk melatih mahasiswanya untuk mampu mengajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan khusus untuk memenuhi tuntutan pendidikan.